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Genetics of viruses
Structure of viruses such as HIV, influenza and how they replicate.
£1.50 Preview RemoveWhite Blood Cell Morphology with Pictures
real time pictures taken during lab time on different Mature and immature White blood cells normal and with abnormalities
£6.25 Preview RemoveASSET MANAGEMENT AND ITS IMPORTANCE
Asset management remains to be one of the primary concerns of organizations all over the world because assets drive businesses.
£2.50 Preview RemoveMarketing: Services, Non-profit and CRM
Topics : Services, Non-profit and CRM this notes will include important topics to learn for the exam. It is very simple and listed in bullet points straight to the points notes. I got an A when I referred to these notes and hopefully you will get it too when you buy it.
£2.50 Preview RemoveA Level Biology Notes
A complete year’s worth of extensive biology notes regarding the topic of Human Physiology & Anatomy, Reproduction, Genetics and Evolution. These notes cover, in thorough detail, the following learning intentions: ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY: (1) Stages of Digestion: process of digestion distinguishing from ingestion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion. (2) Tissue layers: digestive system has four basic tissue layers adapted to function of the organ that is outlined in these notes including the serous coat, muscle layer, submucosa, mucosa, lumen and the connective tissue. (3) Peristalsis (4) Digestion in the Mouth: definitions and explanations of the processes of digestion in the mouth, including mastication, the importance of saliva (contains ptyalin, lysozyme, bicarbonate ions, etc.), bolus, reflex actions involved in swallowing and the anatomy of the epiglottis and oesophagus. (5) Stomach: purpose of the stomach, production of chyme, use of gastric juice and its properties and the function of the cardiac sphincter and pyloric sphincter. (6) Small Intestine & Pancreas: anatomy and physiology of the small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum), the importance of pancreatic juices from the pancreas, particularly as they contain proteases, amylases, lipases (which act on the emulsification caused by bile), bile, organic bile salts, chyle, the purpose of villi lining the small intestine as well as the lacteal and microvilli. (7) Large Intestine: anatomy and physiology of the caecum, appendix, colon, rectum and the production and storage of faeces in the human body. (8) Enzymes: overview of enzymes, including information regarding its role as a catalyst, the structure of enzymes including the active site and factors that influence enzymes to become denatured such as pH, temperature, substrate concentration and enzyme concentration. Specific enzymes learned in this unit are the importance of amylase, protease, lipases and nucleases in the body. (9) Liver: the structure and function of the liver, particularly its regulation of food, blood sugar level, amino acids and proteins (deamination), storage of vitamins, purification of blood, production of fibrinogen, production of heat and production of bile. Other anatomy includes the hepatic portal vein and the hepatic artery. The process of the liver regulating blood sugar level is emphasised as liver stores glucose as glycogen, the role of insulin (made in Islets of Langerhans) and glucagon, and how diabetes may arise, which is a suitable EBI question. (10) Circulatory System: structure and function, including key terms such as the interstitial, arteries, veins, systemic vessels, pulmonary vessels, the function of the heart, coronary arteries, valves, systole and diastole, and distinguishing between closed and open circulatory systems. The structure of veins, arteries and capillaries are also distinguished. (11) Lymphatic System: structure and function of the lymphatic system is covered, including terms such as lymph capillaries, lymph nodes, lymph vessels and lymph and its importance in the human body. (12) Blood: involves a thorough study of blood in humans, including its composition (plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes, platelets), fibrinogen, globulin, albumin, the significance of haemoglobin and the formation of oxyhaemologlobin, the process of blood clotting is studied that includes the purpose of the proteins thromboplastin, prothrombin, thrombin and fibrin in forming a clot. (13) Respiratory System: contains information regarding respiratory surfaces, using examples from a variety of different animals (fish, mammals, insects and amphibians). The anatomy of the respiratory is learned including the purpose of the nasal passages, goblet cells, ciliated cells, pharynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, bronchial tree, alveolar ducts and alveoli. Different types of ‘respiration’ are studied and compared and contrasted, including ventilation, gas exchange, cellular respiration and the function of the alveoli. (14) Mechanisms of Breathing: processes such as inspiration and expiration, the anatomy of the pleural cavity and pleural membrane to ensure breathing. (15) Control of Breathing: study includes how the body regulates breathing, including the respiratory centre of the brain and the importance of the medulla, as well as stretch receptors in the intercostal muscles. (16) Excretory System: anatomy and physiology of the excretory system, including terms such as excretion, kidney (divided into outer cortex and medulla), renal artery, renal vein, ureter, bladder, urethra, Bowman’s capsule, nephron, glomerulus, glomerular filtrate, the proximal convoluted tube, Loop of Henle and the distal convoluted tube, collecting ducts and urine. (17) Homeostasis: the purpose of homeostasis is studied, including terms such as a stable environment, internal environment, external environment, homeostatic control, the role of the nervous system and endocrine system as well as the stimulus-response model, the sensory nerve and central nervous system, interneurones, the motor nerve, self-regulating mechanisms, negative feedback, positive feedback (e.g. oxytocin) thermoregulation, vasodilation, vasoconstriction, osmoregulation, osmoreceptors, antidiuretic hormone, endothelial cells and aquaporins. ( (18) Diabetes: brief overview of diabetes that may arise in IB or EBI questions, distinguishing from Type 1 from Type 2. REPRODUCTION: (1) Asexual and sexual reproduction (reproductive process, examples, advantages and disadvantages) (2) Plant asexual reproduction (vegetative propagation, fragmentations, spore formations, etc.) (3) Plant sexual reproduction (anatomy and physiology) (4) Pollination (self-pollination and cross-pollination) (5) Types of flowers (entomophilous and anemophilous) (6) Plant fertilisation (single and double fertilisation involving endosperm nucleus) (7) Seeds and germination (including seed dispersal) (8) Fruit (structure and function) (9) Alternation of generations (process of haploid multicellular generation and diploid generation, i.e. distinguishing gametophytes and sporophytes) (10) Diversity in reproductive strategies (internal and external fertilisation using examples such as planulae and hermaphroditism) (11) Mitosis and meiosis (only a brief overview, this is typically a ‘refresher’ and is usually learned extensively in the Genetics unit) (12) Gametogenesis, oogenesis (polar bodies, secondary oocytes and corpus luteum), spermatogenesis (process) (13) Structure of the sperm cell (acrosome, flagellum) (14) Differences between oogenesis and spermatogenesis (15) Male reproductive system (anatomy and physiology) (16) Female reproductive system (anatomy and physiology) (17) Menstrual cycle (thorough explanation of entire process involving follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinising hormone and the role of oestrogen and progesterone) – good IB questions arise from this (18) Pheromones, ectohormones and testosterone (19) Fertilisation (from ovulation to implantation, including the zygote, morula, blastocyst, trophoblast and blastocoele). (20) Placenta (structure and function, including umbilical cord, amniotic fluid and amnion, chorionic villi, lacunae, myometrium) (21) Foetus (vernix, foetal viability – suitable EBI questions arise from this) (22) Foetal circulation (foramen ovale, ductus arteriosus, ductus venosus, umbilical vein, umbilical artery) (23) Effects of drugs on the foetus (EBI) using examples such as neonatal abstinence syndrome and illegal opiates (24) Birth and gestation (gestation period and importance of oxytocin) (25) Twins (monozygotic and dizygotic twins) (26) Reproductive technologies (in-vitro fertilisation, artificial insemination, GIFT, ZIFT, ICSI, surrogacy) – EBI question arises from these typically (27) Ethics of reproductive technologies – EBI (28) Methods of contraception (IUD, condom). GENETICS: (1) Meiosis: process, definitions including homologous chromosomes, synapsis, meiosis I and II, interkinesis, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, sister chromatids. (2) Genetic recombination: re-assortment of genes/traits as a source of genetic variation, including crossing over, independent assortment of alleles and random fertilisation. (3) Comparison of mitosis and meiosis (4) Genes and variation: definitions and thorough explanations, using examples, of genes, acquired characteristics, continuous and discontinuous variation, allele, genome, chromosome, homologous pairs, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, phenotype, dominant/recessive allele, co-dominant allele, locus, carrier and test cross. (5) DNA structure: function and structure of DNA, nucleotides, importance of purine and pyrimidine bases (adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine), histones, chromatins, difference between 3′ and 5′ terminals, hydrogen bonding in the DNA molecule and complementary pairs. (6) DNA replication: process of DNA replication, importance of the enzyme DNA polymerase in forming the resulting double-helix molecules. (7) Genetic code and protein synthesis: definitions and processes including the genetic code, cistrons, triple code, degenerate, the importance of messenger RNA (mRNA) in transcription and transfer RNA (tRNA) in translation, codons, anticodon, and the difference between RNA and DNA. (8) Mutations: types (substitution, deletion, translocation, insertion) and the consequences of mutations (silent mutation, mis-sense mutation, frameshift mutation or nonsense mutation) using specific examples, mutagens – EBI questions. (9) Inheritance: thorough explanations and examples of incomplete dominance, co-dominance, multiple alleles such as the ABO blood group gene immunoglobulin in humans, inheritance, Mendel’s three laws (segregation, dominance, independent assortment), monohybrid cross and pedigree diagrams. (10) Sex linkage: sex chromosomes, homogametic sex, heterogametic sex, sex-linked diseases (e.g. haemophilia and muscular dystrophy), dihybrid cross. (11) Genetic interactions: genes interact with each other and with environment, polygenic inheritance and linkage groups. EVOLUTION: (1) Introduction to Evolution. (2) Fossil Record: definitions and explanations of palaeontology, the fossil record, fossils, the conditions required for the formation of fossils (possession of hard parts and quick burial), the process in which fossils form including death, burial and preservation, compaction and replacement (petrification), uplift and erosion and exposure. (3) Modes of Fossilisation: specific explanations of the modes of fossils, ranging from original preservation, petrification by permineralisation, replacement (pseudomorphs), carbonation and distillation, mould, imprints, casts and coprolite. Fossils and trace fossils are also distinguished and environments of preservation are listed. (4) Age of Rocks: two main methods of age determination are thoroughly explained, including relative age determination that relies on Steno’s Law of Superposition and the principle of cross-cutting relations, as well as absolute age determination in which Carbon-14 dating and Uranium-238 dating are specifically emphasised. (5) Relatedness: explanations and examples of relatedness and evidence of evolution including embryology, ontogeny, phylogeny, homologous structures, vestigial structures, biochemical similarities, DNA hybridisation, analogous structures, biogeography, genetic drift, macroevolution and the basis of natural selection. (6) Speciation: information regarding speciation as well as the processes that occur during speciation (genetic drift and phenotypic differentiation), explanation of selective pressures, the definition of a species, comparing and contrasting allopatric speciation from sympatric speciation using specific examples (e.g. polyploidy) as well as reproductive isolating mechanisms, including pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolating mechanisms. (7) Patterns of Evolution: extensive definitions and examples of adaptive radiation, convergent evolution, parallel evolution, gradualism and punctuated equilibrium. (8) Human Intervention: how selective pressures act on other species, particularly by humans (e.g. domestication, breeding of agricultural crops, hunting and over exploitation of species). Specific case studies include the evolution of resistance, particularly in bacteria and pests. Selective breeding is also covered, particularly focussing on dog breeds. (9) Human Evolution: a very thorough analysis of human evolution over time, including the Miocene Ape and the species Australopithecus, Homo Habilis, Homo Erectus, Homo Neanderthalensis and Homo Sapiens (including the Cro-Magnon Man). The rapid replacement model is compared to the regional-continuity model. The evolution of bipedalism is also explained. (10) Theories of Evolution: brief overviews of natural selection, random genetic drift, mutation, divergent evolution, gene flow, creationism, catastrophism, artificial selection, types of rocks (including sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rocks) and intelligent design.
£11.25 Preview RemoveImmunology at university level
Topics include allergies, MHC, innate and adaptive mechanisms including bacterial and viral infection, transplant, T-regulatory mechanism, cancer and vaccines.
£3.13 Preview RemoveFunctional divisions of the renal tubule
Divisions of renal tubule as taught at UCL
£2.50 Preview RemoveBiological Reactions & Enzymes (BY1) AS Level / A Level
Notes covering Topic BY1 WJEC (AS LEVEL / A LEVEL) UNIT 1 on ENZYMES. This summary sheets contains details on; the effect of pH on the rate of enzyme action, substrate concentration, enzyme concentration, enzyme inhibition (competitive inhibition, non-competitive inhibition). Buffers, controls, turnover rate etc defined.
£3.75 Preview Remove