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---

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Abstract:
Cleaning agents known as surfactants possess hydrophilic polar head groups
and hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains
...

Addition of salts to surfactants increases oil-removal ability of surfactants,
which other than its effect in cleansing may have implications such as in
targeted drug delivery and enhanced oil recovery
...
100moldm -3
nitrate solutions containing fixed amount of surfactants with oil for 10minutes
...

Amount of excess sodium hydroxide is determined by titration with nitric acid
...
Subsequently,
amount of oil emulsified was determined by comparison with the control
experiment conducted with only oil
...

Cations reduce repulsive interactions of surfactant head groups
...
Cations with increased valence or
decreased hydrated ionic size due to decreased charge density bind stronger
to micelles
...

The amount of oil emulsified by sodium palmate and SLES improved in the
presence of cations, in the order Ba2+ > K+ > Na+
...
Thus, ions with high
valence but low charge density may be added to these cleaning agents in the
future to improve their oil-removal ability
...
INTRODUCTION
1
...
2 Objective and Scope of Study
This investigation aims to institute a correlation between cleansing capacities
of cleaning agents with cation valence and charge density
...
The cations being investigated include potassium,
sodium and barium ions and the general trend set by these different cations
can be used to deduce the relationship between surfactant cleansing
capability and cation valence and charge density
...
“Hand” brand vegetable
oil was used because vegetable oil is the most common type of cooking oil
that is also readily available in the supermarket
...
Therefore, other forms and
permutations of oils and surfactants are beyond the scope of my study and
are not included in this investigation
...
3 Motivation and Significance
The motivation for pursuing this research question stems from being taught to
sprinkle salt on greasy dishes before washing them with soap
...
This
led me to research the effect of ions on soap oil-removal ability
...
Hence, an
investigation was set-up with cations being chosen as the independent
variable since it will have the greatest effect on the most common types of
surfactants which are anionic surfactants
...

Furthermore, results from this investigation may have implications in areas
such as targeted drug delivery and enhanced oil recovery
...

Princeton University WordNet
...

http://wordnetweb
...
edu/perl/webwn?s=hard%20water (Accessed December 21, 2012)
2
Joyce J
...
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
...

http://www
...
edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb2/part1/lipoprot
...
Dual-functional liposomes based on pH-responsive cell-penetrating peptide and hyaluronic
acid for tumor-targeted anticancer drug delivery
...
doi
...
1016/j
...
2012
...
027 (Accessed May 23, 2013)

Page 3 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

For example, in the area of targeted drug delivery, incorporation of salts to
drug delivery vehicles may contribute to the effective use of pharmaceutical
drugs that can be targeted directly to the diseased tissue
...


1
...

2) The lower the charge density of cation added, the greater the
emulsifying action of sodium palmate & SLES on triglyceride
...
Targeted delivery systems: carrier-based systems and drug
conjugates
...
cambridge
...
htm
(Accessed May 23, 2013)

Page 4 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

2
...
1 Surfactants & Micelles
Surfactants are cleansing constituents which emulsify 5 oil by adsorption 6 at
the water-oil interface as shown in Figure 37 and comprise of a hydrophilic
head group and a hydrophobic tail group
...
10 Soaps and detergents generally contain anionic
surfactants, usually with sodium salts of fatty acids (eg
...

Hence, one portion of surfactant molecules contains different electrical
properties than another
...

Babylon English Dictionary
...
http://dictionary
...
com/emulsion/ (Accessed December
15, 2012)
6
The adhesion of gases, liquids, or solutes on the surface of a solid or liquid
...
Adsorption
...
yourdictionary
...
; Stebe; Kathleen J
...
Advances in Colloid and Interface Science [Online] 2000,
85(1)
http://dx
...
org/10
...
Surfactant design and structure-properties relationships of surfactant-water systems
...
Eds
...
; CRC: New York, 2006;
Vol
...
Interfacial rheology
...
attension
...
Substances & Technologies
...

http://www
...
com/dokuwiki/doku
...
Naturally Curly
...

http://www
...
com/curlreading/curl-products/curlchemist-surfactants-sulfates-and-you
(Accessed December 15, 2012)

Page 5 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

polar water molecules due to formation of ion-dipole force

12

allowing

surfactant molecules to dissolve
...
To minimize this, R groups are
attracted to each other by dispersion forces and water molecules are largely
excluded from these regions
...
14 This creates a micelle 15 due to the hydrophobic
effect16 as shown in Figure 4
...
Filtration Solutions, Inc
...
S
...

http://www
...
com/Read/1056/mineral-hydraulic-oil (Accessed May 23, 2013)
13
ItchyFree Solutions
...
itchyfree
...
php?mod=WIS (Accessed December 21, 2012)
14
Detergents & Soaps
...
Surfactants or Surface Area Agents
...
detergentsandsoaps
...
html (Accessed December 21, 2012)
15
An electrically charged colloidal particle formed by an aggregate of molecules
...
Micelle
...
thefreedictionary
...

Wordiq
...
Hydrophobic effect
...
wordiq
...
Soaps, Detergents and Cleaning
...
csustan
...
htm (Accessed December 23, 2012)

Page 6 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Micelles are formed when concentration of surfactant monomers reaches
critical micelle concentration (CMC18)
...
19

Figure 5: Aggregation of surfactant monomers 20

2
...
21
An example of soap is sodium palmate, structural formula shown below
...
22 Soap salts,
RCOO-Na+ ionize in aqueous solution shown below
...
Ionization of Sodium Carboxylate in Water
The concentration at which an amphipathic molecule will form a micelle
...
Critical Micelle Concentration
...
thefreedictionary
...
Micelles
...

20
PharmaTutor
...

http://www
...
org/articles/surfactants-and-its-applications-in-pharmaceuticalsoverview?page=0,1 (Accessed December 23, 2012)
21
Ward, Gary
...
Soap Making: Practical and Artistic Chemistry for the Waldorf School Curriculum
...
shaw
...
pdf (Accessed February 14, 2013)
22
Elmhurst College
...
http://www
...
edu/~chm/vchembook/554soap
...
Calcium or magnesium in hard water replace
sodium and react with fatty acid component of soap, forming insoluble scum
...
3 Detergent
Detergent is another water-soluble surfactant that combines with impurities
and dirt to make them more soluble
...
25 Detergents contain alkylbenzenesulfonates, a family
of compound that is similar to soap
...


23

Helmenstine
...
com Chemistry, How Soaps Cleans
...
about
...
htm (Accessed February 14,
2013)
24
New Mexico State University
...

http://web
...
edu/~snsm/classes/chem116/notes/solutions
...
Detergent
...
com/definition/english/detergent
(Accessed February 14, 2013)
26
Salager, Jean-Louis
...
http://www
...
org/pdf/SalagerE300A
...
27
Detergent salts ionize in aqueous solution shown below
...
Ionization of Sodium Sulfonate in Water

Figure 7: Orientation of oil triglyceride, anionic surfactant molecules and water molecules
forming a micelle28

2
...
Triglyceride is composed of a glycerol backbone with a fatty acid
chain bonded to each carbon atom in the glycerol backbone through ester
linkages
...
30

27

New HSC online, Industrial Chemistry: 5
...

http://hsc
...
edu
...
htm (Accessed January 5, 2013)
28
Whitley, Kelley
...
The Kinetic Molecular Theory Description of Mixtures
...
chemprofessor
...
htm (Accessed February 14, 2013)
29
4College
...
uk
...
http://www
...
co
...
php (Accessed February 15,
2013)
30
Soderberg, Tim
...
Solubility, melting points and boiling
points
...
ucdavis
...
4%3A_Solubility,_melt
ing_points_and_boiling_points (Accessed 15 February, 2013)

Page 9 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 8: Structure of triglyceride31

2
...
32 Saponification of oil is represented in the equation below
...
33 The mechanism for saponification of oil is represented
below
...
http://www
...
com/CHM151W/12Final/triglyceride
...
http://www
...
com
...
html (Accessed
February 22, 2013)
33
McGraw Hill Education, Chapter 20: Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
...
mhhe
...
html (Accessed
January 21, 2013)

Page 10 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 9: Mechanism for Saponification34

34

Hass, A
...
Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Synthesis and Analysis of Soap
(Saponification)
...
org/oc2web/lab/exp/soap/soapbg
...
6 Effect of cation valence
Ions have a large effect on energetics of micellization
...
It is expected that reduction of repulsive forces between head groups
would increase size of micelles
...

An Electric Double Layer (EDL) is formed around a micelle that plays a
fundamental role in the mechanism of the electrostatic stabilization of
micelles
...
38

Figure 10: Electrical double layer of a micelle39

35

Nighat Razvi; Anwar Ejaz Beg
...
Pakistan Journal of Pharmaceutical Science [Online] 2000, 13, 13-20
http://www
...
pk/CD-PJPS-13-1-00/Paper-2
...
Micelle Size and Shape
...
chem
...
edu/vohtar/spring05/classes/156/pdf/156w61
...
Chalmers
...

http://publications
...
chalmers
...
pdf (Accessed February 28, 2013)
38
Schramm, Laurier L
...
Stasiukb
...
Annu
...
Prog
...
,
Sect
...
whut
...
cn/new/chem/chem/File/HXQY/%E7%89%A9%E7%90%86%E5%8C%96%E5%AD
%A6%E5%89%8D%E6%B2%BF/Surfactants%20and%20their%20applications
...
The methods of determination of
critical micellar concentrations of the amphiphilic systems in aqueous medium
...
doi
...
1016/j
...
2010
...
045 (Accessed March 15,2013)

Page 12 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

An EDL consists of three parts: 1) Surface charge - charged ions adsorbed on
the micelle surface
...
3) Gouy-Chapman Layer or diffuse layer: a film of the
dispersion medium (solvent) adjacent to the micelle
...
40 The
ions of Gouy-Chapman layer are affected by the electrostatic force of the
charged micelle
...
The extent of compression is
dependent on the valence of the cation
...
Thus, barium ions would be expected to
compress the Gouy-Chapman layer of the micelle more than sodium ions
...
Surfactant
...
substech
...
php?id=surfactants (Accessed January 5, 2013)
41
Ceramic Industry
...
http://www
...
com/articles/measuringzeta-potential (Accessed May 23, 2013)
42
Paton-Morales, P
...
I
...
Langmuir [Online] 2002, 18, 8295-9301
http://homepage
...
com/federico
...
pdf (Accessed March 23,
2013)

Page 13 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

The repulsive potential decays more rapidly
...
43
2
...
These
interactions become stronger in the presence of structure-making electrolytes
which have high surface charge densities
...
45 The Hofmeister series shown below will be obtained
when ions are arranged in order of extent of effect on hydrophobic
interactions
...
An investigation into the behaviour of the electrolytes in presence of
ionic surfactants
...
pjps
...
pdf (Accessed February 5, 2013)
44
Water Structure and Science
...

http://www
...
ac
...
html (Accessed May 1, 2013)
45
Zangi, Ronen; Berne, B
...
Aggregation and Dispersion of Small Hydrophobic Particles in Aqueous
Electrolyte Solutions
...
Phys
...
B [Online] 2006, 110, 22736-22741
http://www
...
org/papers/jpcb_110_22736
...
Hofmeister effects: an explanation for the impact of ionic liquids on biocatalysis
...
doi
...
1016/j
...
2009
...
011
(Accessed May 5, 2013)

Page 14 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

3
...
1 Variables
Table 3
...
1: Type, name and method of control of variables
Type
Name
Independent Type of cation

Method of control
The type of cation used (Na+, K+, Ba2+) was varied by preparing their
respective aqueous nitrate solutions
...
000moldm-3 with nitric acid of 2
...
The amount of oil
emulsified will then be calculated
...
00cm3 of the same brand and type of detergent
SLES used
extracted with 5
...
00cm3 of 0
...
Ginvera 2-in-1 Liquid Hand Soap
will be used
...
1000g of the same brand and type of soap weighed
sodium
using the electronic balance will be dissolved in 20
...
100moldm-3 solution
...

Amount of oil 20
...
00cm3 pipette and used
...

Amount
of Respective nitrate salts are weighed using the electronic balance and
cation added
dissolved in 20
...
00cm3
pipettes to obtain 0
...

Time
of In reducing human reaction time, hold the digital stopwatch in one
emulsification
hand while pouring the reagents in another
...
The
saponification
time at which emulsification and saponification will be carried out is 10
and 20 minutes respectively
...
00cm3 of 3
...


Using a hotplate with magnetic stirrer, the temperature of the beakers
will be maintained at the heating scale of 3 while the glass beakers
are placed at a location not directly under any form of air-conditioning
or fans
...


Page 15 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

3
...
2
...
00cm3

Remarks
Palm Oil

25
...
5000g
N/A
1000
...
00 dm3
80
...
00cm3
3
...
0000g

Soap – with Aloe &
Olive Extracts
None
Approx
...
2moldm-3
None
None
None
None

Sodium Nitrate
Barium Nitrate

23
...
0000g

None
None

Table 3
...
2: Apparatus List
Apparatus

Range/Capacity

Uncertainty

Burette
0 – 50
...
05 cm3
Pipette & pipette filler
20
...
06 cm3
Pipette & pipette filler
50
...
10 cm3
3
Volumetric flask
250
...
3 cm3
Measuring Cylinder
0 – 100 cm3
± 1 cm3
3
Glass beaker
250 cm
N/A
Electronic balance
N/A
±0
...
2 s
Hotplate Stirrer
N/A
N/A
Retort stand
N/A
N/A
Pipette,
Graduated 0-5cm3
±0
...
3

Methodological

Development

and

Summary

of

Methodology

Procedure
developed
must be able
to measure
amount of oil
emulsified

Procedure
developed
has to ensure
a certain
trend

Trend
produced by
is explained
with
chemical
concepts

Page 17 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Page 18 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Standardization of HNO3(aq) and preparation of NaOH(aq)
Titrate 20
...
000moldm-3 Na2CO3 solution to determine exact
concentration of HNO3(aq)

Weigh 29
...
0cm3 of deionized water to obtain 3
...
00cm3 of ethanol and 3
...
00cm3 of vegetable oil
...


Titrate with known concentration of standardized
HNO3(aq)
...


Determination of oil emulsified by Soap and Detergent
Solutions in cations tested
Dissolve 0
...
00cm3
detergent in 20
...
100moldm-3 salt solutions
...
00cm3
of vegetable oil to soap-salt solution
...


Add 20
...
000moldm-3
NaOH(aq)
...
Titrate with
known concentration of standardized HNO3(aq)
...


Replicates
Page 19 of 92

Preparation of solutions, emulsification and
saponification are repeated
...


Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

3
...
4
...
Weigh 26
...
0cm3 volumetric flask to obtain a 1
...

Justification: Na2CO3 is used as a primary standard because it is a soluble,
air-stable solid, making it easy to weigh accurately
...
Pipette 20
...

Record reading obtained when the indicator changes from yellow to red
...


Figure 14: Screened methyl orange used

3
...

Page 20 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

3
...
2 Preparation of NaOH(aq) Solution:
1
...
9925g of solid NaOH and make it up to mark with deionized
water in a 250
...
000moldm-3 NaOH solution
for saponification
...


Figure 15: Solid NaOH used

3
...
3 Determination of amount of triglycerides in Control Set:
1
...
00cm3 of “Hand Brand” vegetable oil to 250cm3 beaker placed
on magnetic stirrer
...
00cm3 of vegetable oil pipetted to 250cm3 beaker

2
...
00cm3 of 3
...

Justification: Ethanol creates a single phase, increasing rate of reaction by
allowing molecules to react within the same phase compared to between
phase boundaries
...
00cm3 NaOH and ethanol to 20
...
Set heating scale and stirring scale of the magnetic stirrer to 3 and 7
respectively
...


Page 22 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Justification: Heating and stirring scale was chosen to increase rate of
reaction without resulting in significant systematic error from rapid evaporation
of solvent and spillage of mixture from flask
...
4
...

Table 3
...
1: Duration Determination for Saponification
Duration/s ±0
...
0

of 0
...
0

1800
...
50

21
...
60

28
...
10

7
...
05cm3
Final

Vol

HNO3

/

of 14
...
05cm3
Vol
used

of

HNO3 14
...
10cm3
Reading(s) taken

The volume of HNO3 used from 1200s onwards is constant suggesting that
amount of OH- reacted for saponification is constant after 1200s
...


Page 24 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 22: Oil Solution after 20 minutes of saponification

4
...

Record reading obtained when the indicator changes from pink to colorless
...


Figure 23: Phenolphthalein used

Page 25 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 24: Solution after addition of phenolphthalein

5
...


3
...
4 Determination of oil emulsified by Soap and Detergents Solutions in
the presence of cations tested:
1
...
1700g of solid NaNO3 and make it up to mark with deionized water
in a 250
...
100moldm-3 salt solution
...
Pipette 20
...
100moldm-3 NaNO3 solution to two 250cm3 glass
beakers
...
Sieve “Palmolive Naturals” soap with kitchen sieve and collect the sieved
soap in a dry reagent bottle
...
Weigh 0
...
Add the soap to a glass
beaker containing 20
...
100moldm-3 NaNO3 solution
...
0
...
Hence, amount of sodium palmate
within 0
...

Furthermore in practice, only small amounts will be used for cleaning
...
Pipette 1
...
00cm3 of 0
...

Justification: 1
...


Page 27 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 27: “Ginvera 2-in-1 Liquid Hand Soap” used

6
...
00cm3 of “Hand Brand” vegetable oil to the glass beakers
...

Justification: 600s was determined as duration of emulsification as shown in
Table 3
...
2
...
4
...
2s
Initial

Vol

HNO3

/

600
...
00

1200
...
0

11
...
00

22
...
00

11
...
00

√

√

cm3

±0
...
00
cm3

±0
...
00
/

cm3

±0
...

Page 28 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 28: Soap solution with NaNO3 being heated and stirred for 10minutes

Figure 29: Emulsion of soap solution with NaNO3 formed after 10minutes of emulsification

Figure 30: Detergent solution with NaNO3 being heated and stirred for 10minutes

Page 29 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 31: Emulsion of detergent solution with NaNO3 formed after 10minutes emulsification

7
...
00cm3 of 3moldm-3 NaOH and ethanol to the emulsions
...
Stir the mixtures again with the magnetic stirrer at stirring scale of 7 and
heating scale of 3 for 20 minutes timed with a digital stopwatch
...
Titrate the solutions with 2 moldm-3 HNO3 using phenolphthalein as
indicator
...


Figure 38: Soap solution with NaNO3 after addition of phenolphthalein

Page 32 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

10
...

11
...
2022g of solid KNO3 and 0
...


Figure 39: Solid KNO3 used

Figure 40: Solid Ba(NO3)2 used

Justification: K+, Na+ and Ba2+ were chosen due to the formation of insoluble
hydroxides of other divalent and trivalent ions such as Mg(OH) 2 and Al(OH)3
during saponification
...


Page 33 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 41: Formation of soap scum when Mg(NO3)2 was added to soap solution

0
...
1moldm -3 at room
temperature
...

The anion of the salts must be controlled
...
Barium nitrate was chosen over barium chloride due to the
hygroscopic nature 48 of the latter
...


47

Jim Clark
...
SOLUBILITY OF THE HYDROXIDES, SULPHATES AND CARBONATES OF THE
GROUP 2 ELEMENTS IN WATER
...
chemguide
...
uk/inorganic/group2/solubility
...
Barium Chloride
...
primaryinfo
...
htm (Accessed May 5, 2013)

Page 34 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

4
...
1 Standardization
Table 4
...
1: Titration of HNO3 against standardized Na2CO3
1
Initial
Vol
of 0
...
05cm3
Final
Vol
of 21
...
05cm3
Vol
of 21
...
10cm3
Readings taken

2
21
...
00

41
...
00

20
...
00

√

√

Calculations
Propagation of uncertainties
20
...
10
0
...
10
Volume of Na2CO3 used =
%∆ Vol
...
05 cm3
= ±0
...
05

Amount of HNO3 used = 1000 x 1
...
0401mol

0
...
0200
= 2
...
10
0
...
05 × 100% + 250 X 100%
≈ ± 0
...
06
= 20
...
619%
= ±0
...
005 x 0
...
019moldm-3

The concentration of HNO3 utilized is (2
...
019)moldm-3

Page 35 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Table 4
...
2: Mass of NaOH for preparation of NaOH solution
Initial mass of beaker/g ±0
...
001g
Mass of Na2CO3 used/g ±0
...
9942
Amount of NaOH used = 22
...
00+1
≈ 0
...
9433
81
...
9942

Propagation of uncertainties
0
...
9942) x 100%
≈ ±0
...
3
= 250
...
00333398%
≈ ±0
...
750

Concentration of NaOH = 0
...
000moldm-3

±∆ concentration of Na2CO3
= ±(3
...
12333398%)
≈ ±0
...
000±0
...
2 Raw Data
4
...
1 Control Set
Table 4
...
1
...
00
/
cm3

Initial
HNO3
±0
...
50
HNO3 /
cm3
3
±0
...
50
used
/
cm3
±0
...
50

3
14
...
60

22
...
10

7
...
2
...
2: Qualitative Control Set
Independent
Variable
Control –
Oil Only

Picture

Description
From a yellow oil layer, a
whitish yellow solution is
formed after addition of
ethanol
and
sodium
hydroxide
...

Upon
addition
of
phenolphthalein,
the
solution is pink and is
titrated with nitric acid until
the pink completely fades to
give rise to the original
whitish yellow colour
...
2
...
2
...
1: Soap solution

Initial Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
05cm3
Vol of HNO3
used / cm3
±0
...
00

2
11
...
30

11
...
30

31
...
00

10
...
30

√

√

4
...
3 Soap - NaNO3
Table 4
...
3
...
05cm3
Final Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
10cm3
Readings taken

1
0
...
30

3
24
...
30

24
...
70

12
...
70

11
...
2
...
2
...
1: Soap solution containing KNO3

Initial Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
05cm3
Vol of HNO3
used / cm3
±0
...
00

2
13
...
30

13
...
30

37
...
30

12
...
10

√

√

4
...
5 Soap - Ba(NO3)2
Table 4
...
5
...
05cm3
Final Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
10cm3
Readings taken

1
0
...
30

3
29
...
30

29
...
50

15
...
60

14
...
3
...
3
...
1: Detergent solution

Initial Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
05cm3
Vol of HNO3
used / cm3
±0
...
00

2
12
...
20

12
...
20

34
...
20

11
...
00

√

√

4
...
2 Detergent - NaNO3
Table 4
...
2
...
05cm3
Final Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
10cm3
Readings taken

1
0
...
00

3
25
...
00

25
...
30

13
...
10

12
...
3
...
3
...
1: Detergent solution containing KNO3

Initial Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
05cm3
Vol of HNO3
used / cm3
±0
...
00

2
13
...
60

13
...
60

38
...
30

12
...
40

√

√

4
...
4 Detergent - Ba(NO3)2
Table 4
...
4
...
05cm3
Final Vol of
HNO3 / cm3
±0
...
10cm3
Readings taken

1
0
...
70

3
30
...
70

30
...
70

15
...
00

15
...
4
...
1: Qualitative Control Set of Soap and Detergent only
Independent Picture
Variable
Soap and Oil
Only (above)
Detergent
and Oil Only
(below)
No Cations

Description
The soap and detergent
solution turned from
colourless to a milkish white
solution after emulsification
with a layer of foam above
...
A very
thick viscous yellow layer
with foam floating above a
milky yellowish solution is
formed after the
saponification process
...


Page 42 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Table 4
...
4
...
A whitish
yellow solution is formed
after addition of ethanol and
sodium hydroxide
...
Upon addition of
phenolphthalein, the
solution is pink and is
titrated with nitric acid until
the pink completely fades to
give rise to the original
whitish yellow colour
...
4
...
3: Qualitative set for soap and detergent in potassium nitrate
Independent Picture
Variable
KNO3 and
Soap (above)
KNO3 and
Detergent
(below)

Description
The soap and detergent
solution turned from
colourless to a milkish white
solution above with a clear
solution below after
emulsification
...
A
thinner viscous yellow layer
with foam floating above a
milky yellowish solution is
formed after the
saponification process
...


Page 44 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Table 4
...
4
...
A whitish
yellow solution is formed
after addition of ethanol and
sodium hydroxide
...
Upon addition of
phenolphthalein,
the
solution is pink and is
titrated with nitric acid until
the pink completely fades to
give rise to the original
whitish yellow colour
...
DATA PROCESSING
5
...
All calculations can be found in
Appendix C
...

5
...
1 Control Set
NaOH reacted:

Calculations
20
Amount NaOH used = 1000 × 3
...
0600 mol

Propagation of uncertainties
0
...
00 × 100%) + (0
...
424%
±∆ amount of NaOH = ± (0
...
424%) mol
= ± 0
...
0600 ± 0
...
10+7
...
10cm3
7
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
01424mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 7
...
919%
≈ ±2
...
0600 –
0
...
04576mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted
= ±(0
...
327% x 0
...
0006314 mol

Amount of oil reacted = 0
...
01525mol

±∆ amount of oil reacted = ±0
...
00022

0
...
01525±0
...
30+10
...
30cm3
10
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
02065mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 10
...
919%
≈ ±1
...
0600 –
0
...
03935mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted= ±(0
...
890% x
0
...
0006903mol

Amount un-emulsified oil = 0
...
01312mol

±∆ amount of un-emulsified oil = ±0
...
0002301mol

Amount emulsified oil = 0
...
01312
≈ 0
...
00022+0
...
00046mol

0
...
00214±0
...
2 Results Consolidation
Table 5
...
1: Ionic charge (C), Ionic radius (pm) and ∆HΘhyd (kJmol-1) of cations
utilized
Cation
added

Ionic
Charge (C)

Ionic radius ∆HΘhyd
(pm)
(kJmol-1)

K+

+

133

-322

Na+

+

98

-416

Ba2+

2+

134

-1332

Table 5
...
2: Amount of emulsified oil/mol by sodium palmate and SLES in
solution of 0
...
00
0
...
00046 0
...
00046
Na+
2
...
00307±0
...
00338±0
...
01 x 10
0
...
00047 0
...
00047
Ba2+
1
...
00501±0
...
00528±0
...


Page 49 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Graph 6
...
1: Amount of Emulsified Oil/mol by sodium palmate against cation
added
0
...
005

0
...
003

0
...
001

0
None

Na⁺

K⁺

Ba²⁺

Type of Cation Added

Page 50 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Graph 5
...
2: Amount of Emulsified Oil/mol by SLES against cation added
0
...
006

0
...
004

0
...
002

0
...
2
...
006

Amount of oil emulsified / mol

0
...
5x + 0
...
3447

0
...
003

0
...
001

0
0

0
...
0000002

0
...
2
...
007

Amount of oil emulsified / mol

0
...
005
y = 5741
...
0029
R² = 0
...
004

0
...
002

0
...
0000001

0
...
0000003

Charge Density of Cation added / Cpm-2

Page 53 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

6
...
1 Results
Bar graphs were used to represent data in an appropriate format for easy
comparison
...
2
...
2
...
Based on Graph 6
...
1 and 6
...
2, the amount of oil
emulsified increases in the order: None>Na+>K+>Ba2+ for both sodium
palmate and SLES
...
00214±0
...
00261±0
...
00501±0
...
00528±0
...
Hence,
the addition of cations increases emulsifying ability of sodium palmate and
SLES to almost the same extent
...
2
...
2
...
The amount of oil emulsified by sodium palmate and SLES
increased from (0
...
00046)mol and (0
...
00046)mol when
charge density is 0 (no cation was added) to (0
...
00048)mol and
(0
...
00048)mol when the charge density of ion added was (1
...
This decreases to (0
...
00046)mol and (0
...
00047)mol
respectively at charge density (2
...
Thus, there is no discernible
correlation between charge density and amount of oil emulsified
...

The strength of these correlations can be reflected by the Pearson’s
correlation coefficient
...
3447
and 0
...
There is no
significant difference between the amount of oil emulsified for varying charge
densities
...

However, within the same valence, lower charge density resulted in larger
amount of oil emulsified
...
00331±0
...
00351±0
...
01x10-7)Cpm-2

to

(0
...
00046)mol

and

(0
...
00047)mol at charge density (2
...
There
is a negative correlation between charge density and amount of oil emulsified
for the same valence
...
2 Thermodynamics of micellization
These trends can be explained with the notion of thermodynamics of
micellization
...
Enthalpy change, ΔH = ∑ ΔH(bonds
broken) - ∑ ΔH(bonds formed) is more exothermic as energy released when
bonds form is increased
...
50
6
...

Alargova, R
...
P; Kralchevsky, P
...
; Broze, G
...
Colloids and Surfaces A:
Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects [Online] 1998, 142(2-3), 201-218
http://www
...
uni-sofia
...
pdf (Accessed June 16, 2013)
50 Nispen; Sjoerd Franciscus Gerardus Maria van
...
In
Reversible binding of multivalent ions to thermoresponsive micellar systems; Technische Universiteit
Eindhoven, 2012: Eindhoven, 2011; p 13-33
...
Max-Planck-Institut fur Kolloid- und Grenzflachenforschung, Micelle Formation
...
mpikg
...
de/pdf/KolloidChemie/Scripte/Mizellbildung
...
Since V0 and I0 are constant because comparisons
were made between the same surfactant, addition of cations causes a change
in ae, equilibrium area with water molecules
...
53 Therefore, ae is decreased due to decrease
in ionic repulsions
...
Effect of Salts on
the Formation of C8-Lecithin Micelles
...

53 Alargova, R
...
; Danov, K
...
; Kralchevsky, P
...
; Broze, G
...
Growth of Giant Rodlike
Micelles of Ionic Surfactant in the Presence of Al3+ Counterions
...
uni-sofia
...
pdf (Accessed April 12, 2013)
54
Marc, C
...
; Stuart; Egbert, J
...
Two distinct mechanisms of vesicle-to-micelle and micelleto-vesicle transition are mediated by the packing parameter of phospholipid–detergent systems
...
doi
...
1016/j
...
2007
...
024 (Accessed May 10, 2013)

Page 56 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

A decrease in ae will cause an increase in P, which may result in shapetransitions of micelles shown above
...
Hence, more oil can be
emulsified
...
4 Charge Density and Hydration
Counter-ions are in equilibrium between bulk solution and EDL as
electrochemical potentials equate
...
Colloid Systems: Micelles, Nanocrystals, and Nanocrystal Superlattices
(Nanotechnology)
...
com/nanoscience-and-nanotechnology/colloid-systemsmicelles-nanocrystals-and-nanocrystal-superlattices-nanotechnology/ (Accessed April 4, 2013)
56
The group of water molecules oriented around the ion
...

http://cps-www
...
edu/Wasser/robert/work/node16
...
Water molecules are semi-rigid57 in the first hydration
shell of the ion effectively decreasing the concentration of free water
molecules (bulk water)
...
This causes an increase in entropy and hydrophobic interactions
...
59
Higher charge densities (structure-making) ions have bigger hydration shells
...

http://www
...
nl/research/ultrafast-spectroscopy/news/detailpage/artikel/science-paper-ionscooperate-in-locking-water/ (Accessed March 1, 2013)
58
F
...
USE OF NEURAL NETWORKS IN PROCESS ENGINEERING Thermodynamics, diffusion, and
process control and simulation applications
...
T
...
Tecnol
...
sci
...
edu
...
php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S012253831998000100004&lng=pt&nrm=iso (Accessed May 23, 2013)
59 Sauer, Effiette L
...
Organic Reactions under Aqueous Conditions
...
Dicks, Eds
...
HSAB states that hard ligands favour bonding to hard
cations, soft ligands correspondingly favour bonding to soft cations
...
The
hardness of acid and base is dependent on size and ease of polarizing
...
Hence,
hardness of the hexa-aqua univalent ion acids utilized is ordered as
[Na(H2O)6]+>[K(H2O)6]+, with sodium possessing a more extensive hydration
shell
...
Na+ is readily hydrated and favours interaction with the
60

ChemWiki: The Dynamic Chemistry Textbook
...

http://chemwiki
...
edu/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Intermolecular_For
ces/Hydrophobic_interactions (Accessed April 2, 2013)

Page 59 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

aqueous bulk phase and is less likely to be incorporated into the EDL
...
The binding heat evolved will be more exothermic due to stronger
binding
...


Figure 46: Hydration shells of positively charged ions of differing charge density 62

6
...
Binding of barium ion with the micelle is
driven by a gain in free energy due to exchange of two monovalent sodium
ions for a single divalent barium ion which is an overall gain in translational
entropy
...

61

Kim, Do-Hoon; Oh, Seong-Geun; Park, Young-Cheol; Chang, Yoon-Ho
...
Journal of Industrial and
Engineering Chemistry [Online] 2000, 6(3), 188-193
http://infosys
...
ac
...
pdf (Accessed March 15, 2013)
62 ars
...
com, Hydration Shells
...
els-cdn
...
0S1383586605004156-gr1
...
; Couchot, P
...
Potentiometric and conductometric analysis of the binding of
Barium ions with alkali polyacrylate
...
65 This stabilizes the micelle
...
66
Hence, electrostatic energy of micellization will be least endothermic for
barium compared to sodium and potassium solutions as more barium ions are
brought into the electrical field of the micelle for the same molar ratio
...
Structure formation in surfactant solutions
...
bath
...
uk/chske/Research%20Interests/Surfactants/Surfactants
...
http://life
...
edu/classroom/phys299/surfacepotentials
...
Influence of the Ionic Composition of Fluid Medium on Red Cell
Aggregation
...
rupress
...
full
...
Characterization of the binding of multivalent ions
to modified pluronic micelles by isothermal titration calorimetry and modified conductometry
...


Page 61 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Figure 48: Shape transitions of micelle due to increased ionic strength 68

6
...

For the comparison between sodium and potassium, differences in binding
heat and extensiveness of hydration shell between these ions account for
slightly better oil emulsifying ability of potassium ions relative to sodium
...
Hence, a
decrease in ΔH (more exothermic) causes a decrease in G
...
Hence, a smaller
number of surfactant molecules are required to form micelles; more oil will be
emulsified for the same amount of surfactants
...
This is supported by the data as
shown in Graph 6
...
1 and 6
...
2
...
Organization and dynamics in
micellar structural transition monitored by pyrene fluorescence
...
doi
...
1016/j
...
2009
...
037 (Accessed June 2, 2013)

Page 62 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

6
...
7
...
7

55
...
2

83
...
5

14
...
0

9
...
5

58
...
3

88

Percentage

17
...
4

13
...
09

Sodium
Palmate
Percentage
Uncertainty
(%)

Uncertainty
(%)
General formulas for the calculations can be found in Appendix D
...
7
...
Furthermore, error bars in
Graph 6
...
1 and 6
...
2 are large and overlap extensively, suggesting that
results are imprecise with varied results being obtained for the same cation
...
However, accuracy of the data cannot be commented upon due to
lack of literature data to refer to for this investigation
...
1
...


CONCLUSION AND EVALUATION
7
...
Firstly,
saponification and titration does not disrupt micelles formed during
emulsification releasing oil confined in the hydrophobic core
...
Therefore, each mass of soap or volume of detergent contains
equal amount of surfactants and each portion of oil used will contain equal
amount of triglyceride molecules
...

Lastly, other chemicals in cleaning agents will not affect emulsification of oil
and added ions reacted solely with surfactant and not with other constituents
of the cleaning agents
...

There are limitations to the experiment
...
Furthermore, price of pure
surfactant samples is high, restricting usage to common household soaps and
detergents
...

Secondly, concentration of anion nitrate is twice in barium nitrate which will
affect oil removal ability of the surfactants
...

Lastly, uncertainty calculated is large, resulting in high percentage uncertainty
due to low amounts of oil emulsified
...

These limitations can be overcome by reducing uncertainty via measuring
turbidity values of the emulsion with a turbidity meter
...
The turbidity meter possesses a higher degree of
accuracy that will reduce uncertainties
...
This will increase the reliability of the conclusion
...

Nonetheless, given the resources, an extension into this research could be
done to discern the effect of trivalent ions, transition metals or anions on
micelle formation of surfactants with higher purity of surfactants via turbidity
values measured using the turbidity meter
...
2 Conclusion
In conclusion, despite large uncertainty in data collected, the trends derived
cohere to the hypothesis that emulsifying action by sodium palmate and SLES
increases with greater valence of cation added and decreased charge density
of cations of the same valence
...


Page 65 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

7
...
Pharmaceutically, these salts can
be incorporated into drug delivery vehicles in targeted drug delivery to
increase amount of drugs delivered to diseased tissue
...


Figure 49: Enhanced oil recovery system 69

(3997 words)
69

The Energy Lab
...
http://www
...
doe
...
PDF (Accessed April 3, 2013)

Page 66 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

8
...
1 Journal References
1) Tianyue Jiang; Zhenhai Zhang; Yinlong Zhang; Huixia Lv; Jianping
Zhou; Caocao Li; Lulu Hou; Qiang Zhang
...
Biomaterials [Online] 2012,
33(36), 9246-9258 http://dx
...
org/10
...
biomaterials
...
09
...

2) Schätzlein; Jim Cassidy; Andreas G
...
Expert Reviews in
Molecular Medicine [Online] 2004, 6(19)
http://journals
...
org/fulltext_content/ERM/ERM6_19/S146239
9404008269sup004
...

3) Ferri; James K
...
Which surfactants reduce surface
tension faster? A scaling argument for diffusion-controlled adsorption
...
doi
...
1016/S0001-8686(99)00027-5 (Accessed January
5, 2013)
...
An investigation into the behaviour of
the electrolytes in presence of ionic surfactants
...
pjps
...
pdf (Accessed February
5, 2013)
...
; Elaine, N
...
Surfactants and their
applications
...
Rep
...
Chem
...
C [Online] 2003, 99, 3-48
http://wlxt
...
edu
...
pdf (Accessed March 15,
2013)
...
The
methods of determination of critical micellar concentrations of the
Page 67 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

amphiphilic systems in aqueous medium
...
doi
...
1016/j
...
2010
...
045 (Accessed March 15,
2013)
...
; Talens-Alesson, F
...
Effect of Competitive
Adsorption of Zn2+ on the Flocculation of Lauryl Sulfate Micelles by
Al3+
...
ntlworld
...
talensalesson/plagio/la0200820
...

8) Zangi, Ronen; Berne, B
...
Aggregation and Dispersion of Small
Hydrophobic Particles in Aqueous Electrolyte Solutions
...
Phys
...
B [Online] 2006, 110, 22736-22741
http://www
...
org/papers/jpcb_110_22736
...

9) Zhen Yang
...
Journal of Biotechnology [Online] 2009, 144(1),
12-22 http://dx
...
org/10
...
jbiotec
...
04
...

10) Alargova, R
...
P; Kralchevsky, P
...
; Broze,
G
...
Colloids and Surfaces A:
Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects [Online] 1998, 142(2-3),
201-218
http://www
...
uni-sofia
...
pdf
(Accessed June 16, 2013)
...
Effect of Salts on the Formation of C8-Lecithin
Micelles
...

12) Alargova, R
...
; Danov, K
...
; Kralchevsky, P
...
; Broze, G
...
Growth of Giant Rodlike Micelles of Ionic Surfactant in
the Presence of Al3+ Counterions
...
uni-sofia
...
pdf (Accessed
April 12, 2013)
...
A
...
Boekema
...
Biochimica et
Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Biomembranes [Online] 2007, 1768(11), 26812689 http://dx
...
org/10
...
bbamem
...
06
...

14) F
...
USE OF NEURAL NETWORKS IN PROCESS
ENGINEERING
Thermodynamics, diffusion, and process control and simulation
applications
...
T
...
Tecnol
...
sci
...
edu
...
php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S012253
831998000100004&lng=en&nrm=iso (Accessed May 23, 2013)
...
Effect of Cesium and Sodium Ions on Interfacial Tension of
Hexadecane/Aqueous Dodecyl Sulfate Solution
...
korea
...
kr/PDF/JIEC/IE06/IE06-3-0188
...

16) Pochard, I
...
; Foissy, A
...
Colloid
and Polymer Science 1998, 276(12), 1088-1097
...
Influence of the Ionic Composition of
Fluid Medium on Red Cell Aggregation
...
rupress
...
full
...

18) Arunima

Chaudhuri,

Sourav

Haldar,

Amitabha

Chattopadhyay
...
Biochemical and Biophysical Research
Communications [Online] 2009, 390(3), 728-732
http://dx
...
org/10
...
bbrc
...
10
...

Page 69 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

8
...
Surfactant design and structure-properties relationships of
surfactant-water systems
...
Eds
...
; CRC: New York, 2006; Vol
...

2) Schramm, Laurier L
...
In Emulsions, Foams and Suspensions
Fundamentals and Applications; WILEY-VCH: Weinheim, 2005; p 82114
...
Characterization of the
binding of multivalent ions to modified pluronic micelles by isothermal
titration calorimetry and modified conductometry
...

4) Sauer, Effiette L
...
Organic Reactions under Aqueous Conditions
...
Dicks,
Eds
...


8
...
“Hard Water”
...
princeton
...

2) Joyce J
...
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
...

http://www
...
edu/dept/bcbp/molbiochem/MBWeb/mb2/part1/lipoprot
...

3) Babylon English Dictionary
...

http://dictionary
...
com/emulsion/ (Accessed December 15,
2012)
...
Adsorption
...
yourdictionary
...


Page 70 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

5) Attension
...

http://www
...
com/applications/measurements/interfacialrheology (Accessed January 21, 2013)
...
Substances & Technologies
...

http://www
...
com/dokuwiki/doku
...

7) Tonya McKay
...
Surfactants, Sulfates, and You
...
naturallycurly
...

8) Guanghua Yu
...
U
...
Navy Restores Mineral
Hydraulic Oil on Submarines
...
machinerylubrication
...

9) ItchyFree Solutions
...
itchyfree
...
php?mod=WIS (Accessed
December 21, 2012)
...
com
...

http://www
...
com/surface-active-agents
...

11) TheFreeDictionary
...
http://www
...
com/micelle
(Accessed December 22, 2012)
...
com
...

http://www
...
com/definition/Hydrophobic_effect (Accessed
December 23, 2012)
...
Soaps, Detergents and Cleaning
...
csustan
...
htm (Accessed
December 23, 2012)
...
Critical Micelle Concentration
...
thefreedictionary
...

15) PharmaTutor
...
http://www
...
org/articles/surfactants-and-itsPage 71 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

applications-in-pharmaceuticals-overview?page=0,1 (Accessed
December 23, 2012)
...
Shaw
...

http://members
...
ca/gary_b_ward/chemistry/soapmakingbook
...

17) Elmhurst College
...

http://www
...
edu/~chm/vchembook/554soap
...

18) Helmenstine
...
com Chemistry, How Soaps Cleans
...
about
...
htm
(Accessed February 14, 2013)
...
Solubility
...
nmsu
...
html
(Accessed January 5, 2013)
...
Detergent
...
com/definition/english/detergent (Accessed
February 14, 2013)
...
Surfactants Types and Uses
...
nanoparticles
...
pdf (Accessed
February 14, 2013)
...
Saponification
...
csu
...
au/chemistry/options/industrial/2764/Ch955
...

23) Whitley, Kelley
...
The Kinetic Molecular Theory
Description of Mixtures
...
chemprofessor
...
htm
(Accessed February 14, 2013)
...
co
...
Oils and Fats
...
4college
...
uk/a/Cd/Oil
...

25) Soderberg, Tim
...

Solubility, melting points and boiling points
...
ucdavis
...
4%3A_Solubility,_melting_points_
and_boiling_points (Accessed 15 February, 2013)
...

http://www
...
com/CHM151W/12-Final/triglyceride
...

27) AUS-e-TUTE, Soaps and Saponification
...
ausetute
...
au/soaps
...

28) McGraw Hill Education, Chapter 20: Carboxylic Acid Derivatives
...
mhhe
...
html (Accessed January 21, 2013)
...
Martha
...

http://organicchem
...
html (Accessed
February 22, 2013)
...
Micelle Size and Shape
...
chem
...
edu/vohtar/spring05/classes/156/pdf/156w61
...

31) Chen Chen
...
Development of measurement of froth
characteristics
...
lib
...
se/records/fulltext/157953
...

32) Ceramic Industry
...

http://www
...
com/articles/measuring-zeta-potential
(Accessed May 23, 2013)
...
Kosmotropes and Chaotropes
...
lsbu
...
uk/water/kosmos
...

34) Jim Clark
...
SOLUBILITY OF THE HYDROXIDES,
SULPHATES AND CARBONATES OF THE GROUP 2 ELEMENTS IN

Page 73 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

WATER
...
chemguide
...
uk/inorganic/group2/solubility
...

35) Primary Information Services
...

http://www
...
com/projects/barium-chloride
...

36) Thomas, Arne
...

http://www
...
mpg
...
pdf
(Accessed May 1, 2013)
...
Colloid Systems: Micelles, Nanocrystals, and
Nanocrystal Superlattices (Nanotechnology)
...
com/nanoscience-and-nanotechnology/colloid-systems-micellesnanocrystals-and-nanocrystal-superlattices-nanotechnology/
(Accessed April 4, 2013)
...

http://cps-www
...
edu/Wasser/robert/work/node16
...

39) FOM Institute AMOLF, Science Paper: Ions cooperate in locking water
...
amolf
...

40) ChemWiki: The Dynamic Chemistry Textbook
...

http://chemwiki
...
edu/Physical_Chemistry/Physical_Properties_o
f_Matter/Intermolecular_Forces/Hydrophobic_interactions (Accessed
April 2, 2013)
...
els-cdn
...
http://ars
...
com/content/image/1-s2
...
jpg
(Accessed March 15, 2013)
...
Structure formation in surfactant solutions
...
bath
...
uk/chske/Research%20Interests/Surfactants/Surf
actants
...

Page 74 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

43) College of Computer, Mathematical & Natural Sciences, Electrical
potentials on surfaces and transmembrane potentials
...
umd
...
htm (Accessed
April 30, 2013)
...
Micellar-polymer Flooding
...
netl
...
gov/technologies/oilgas/publications/eordrawings/BW/bwmp
...


Page 75 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

9
...
1 Appendix A: Risk Assessment Form
Anglo-Chinese School (Independent)

IBDP Chemistry Extended Essay
(A) Chemical hazards
Chemical

Nature of hazard

Storage

Handling

Disposal

MSDS

procedure

procedure

procedure

reference

Keep

Do not ingest
...
scien

in case of skin

container

Wear safety

the sink

celab
...
Keep gloves
...
Slightly

Date accessed:
10

November

2012

contact with skin

case of inhalation

926248

label
...
php?msdsId=9

and eyes
...

Oxidizing agent
...
Do not ingest
...
scien

Carbonate

case of skin

Keep

Wear safety

the sink

celab
...
If

of eye contact

tightly closed ingested, seek

(irritant), of

in a cool,

medical advice


...
The

area
...
Avoid

be toxic to upper

24°C

contact with skin

respiratory tract,

November

and eyes
...

Sodium

Very hazardous

Keep

Do not ingest
...
scien

Hydroxide

in case of skin

container

Wear safety

the sink

celab
...
If


...


show the

(irritant,

Hygroscopic
...
Avoid

ingestion, of


...


Date accessed:
10

November

2012

contact with skin
and eyes
...
scien

Orange

case of skin

container

heat
...


celab
...
Wear


...
If

927361

(irritant), of

well-

ingested, seek

ingestion, of

ventilated

medical advice

inhalation
...
Do not

immediately and

Slightly

store above

show the label
...


25°C

Avoid contact

Date accessed:
10
2012

with skin and
eyes
...
scien

ein

case of skin

segregated

heat
...


celab
...
Wear


...
If

926477

(irritant), of

area
...
Slightly

container in

medical advice

hazardous in

a cool, well-

immediately and

case of skin

ventilated

show the

contact

area
...
Non- all possible
sources of
ignition
(spark or

corrosive for

2012

and eyes
...
Non-

November

contact with skin

Non-corrosive to

10

label
...


Date accessed:

flame)
...
Flammable
chemical
...
scien

Nitrate

hazardous in

container

heat
...
com/msds

case of ingestion
...
Wear

Very hazardous

closed
...
If

in case of skin

container in

ingested, seek

contact (irritant),

a cool, well-

medical advice

of eye contact

ventilated

immediately and

(irritant), of

area
...



...
Avoid
contact with skin
and eyes
...
Keep away from

Dispose in

http://www
...
Do not

the sink

celab
...
Wear


...
If

927232

(irritant), of

closed
...


ventilated

show the

area
...
Avoid
contact with skin
and eyes
...
scien

Nitrate

case of ingestion
...
Do not

the sink

celab
...
Wear

hazardous in

closed
...
If

case of skin

container in

ingested, seek

contact (irritant),

a cool, well-

medical advice

of eye contact

ventilated

immediately and

(irritant), of

area
...



...


Student: __________________ EE Supervisor: __________________
Date: __________________

Page 79 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

(B) Non-chemical hazards

Equipment used
Name

Purpose

Nature of

Handling

hazard

procedure

Glassware:

Containing of Broken

Handle all

Beakers,

samples
...


Pipette,

Dispose of

Measuring

broken

Cylinder,

glassware

Conical

into specified

flasks

N/A

container
...


samples
...
2 Appendix B: Standardization of HNO3 & Concentration of Cations
Concentration Na2CO3

Calculations
Amount of Na2CO3 used =
26
...
99 x 2+12
...
00 x 3

≈ 0
...
0010
%∆ Amount Of Na2CO3 used = ±(26
...
00377344%

%∆ concentration of Na2CO3
0
...
0 × 100% +0
...
12377344%
±∆ concentration of Na2CO3
0
...
250
= ±(1
...
12377344%)
= 1
...
002moldm-3

Concentration of Na2CO3 utilized is (1
...
002)moldm-3

Page 81 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Table 9
...
1: Mass of NaNO3
Initial mass of reagent bottle/g ±0
...
001g
Mass of NaNO3 used/g ±0
...
5771
2
...
1702

Concentration NaNO3

Calculations
Amount of NaNO3 used =
0
...
99 +14
...
00 x 3

≈ 0
...
0010
%∆ Amount Of NaNO3 used = ±(0
...
5875%

%∆ concentration of NaNO3
0
...
00 × 100% +0
...
8875%

0
...
0200
= 0
...
100 x 0
...
001moldm-3

Concentration of NaNO3 utilized is (0
...
001)moldm-3

Page 82 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Table 9
...
2: Mass of KNO3
Initial mass of reagent bottle/g ±0
...
001g
Mass of KNO3 used/g ±0
...
5631
2
...
2025

Concentration KNO3

Calculations
Amount of KNO3 used =
0
...
1 +14
...
00 x 3

≈ 0
...
0010
%∆ Amount Of KNO3 used = ±(0
...
4938%

%∆ concentration of KNO3
0
...
00 × 100% +0
...
7938%

0
...
0200
= 0
...
100 x 0
...
001moldm-3

Concentration of KNO3 utilized is (0
...
001)moldm-3

Page 83 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

Table 9
...
3: Mass of Ba(NO3)2
Initial mass of reagent bottle/g ±0
...
001g
Mass of Ba(NO3)2 used/g ±0
...
6491
3
...
5230

Concentration KNO3

Calculations
Amount of Ba(NO3)2 used =
0
...
3 +((14
...
00 x 3) x 2)

Propagation of uncertainties
0
...
5230) x 100%
≈ ±0
...
002002mol
%∆ concentration of Ba(NO3)2
0
...
00 × 100% +0
...
4912%
±∆ concentration of Ba(NO3)2
0
...
0200
= ±(0
...
4912%)
-3 ≈ ±0
...
100moldm

Concentration of Ba(NO3)2 utilized is (0
...
001)moldm-3

Page 84 of 92

Name: Xin Hao Kwok
Candidate Session Number: 002329-131
“WHAT IS THE EFFECT OF ADDITION OF POTASSIUM, SODIUM AND BARIUM NITRATES ON
THE EMULSIFYING ACTION OF SURFACTANTS SODIUM PALMATE AND SODIUM LAURYL
ETHER SULPHATE?”

9
...
70+11
...
70cm3
11
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
02346mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 11
...
919%
≈ ±1
...
0600 –
0
...
03654mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted= ±(0
...
774% x
0
...
0007161mol

Amount un-emulsified oil = 0
...
01218mol

±∆ amount of un-emulsified oil = ±0
...
0002387mol

Amount emulsified oil = 0
...
01312
≈ 0
...
00022+0
...
00046mol

0
...
00307±0
...
00+12
...
05cm3
12
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
02416mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 12
...
919%
≈ ±1
...
0600 –
0
...
03584mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted= ±(0
...
749% x
0
...
0007225mol

Amount un-emulsified oil = 0
...
01195mol

±∆ amount of un-emulsified oil = ±0
...
0002408mol

Amount emulsified oil = 0
...
01195
≈ 0
...
00022+0
...
00047mol

0
...
00331±0
...
60+14
...
60cm3
14
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
02928mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 14
...
919%
≈ ±1
...
0600 –
0
...
03073mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted= ±(0
...
604% x
0
...
0007696

Amount un-emulsified oil = 0
...
01024mol

±∆ amount of un-emulsified oil = ±0
...
0002565mol

Amount emulsified oil = 0
...
01024
≈ 0
...
00022+0
...
00048mol

0
...
00501±0
...
00+11
...
00cm3
11
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
02206mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 11
...
919%
≈ ±1
...
0600 –
0
...
03795mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted= ±(0
...
828% x
0
...
0007033mol

Amount un-emulsified oil = 0
...
01265mol

±∆ amount of un-emulsified oil = ±0
...
0002344mol

Amount emulsified oil = 0
...
01265
≈ 0
...
00022+0
...
00046mol

0
...
00261±0
...
10+12
...
15cm3
12
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
02436mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 12
...
919%
≈ ±1
...
0600 –
0
...
03564mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted= ±(0
...
742% x
0
...
0007244mol

Amount un-emulsified oil = 0
...
01188mol

±∆ amount of un-emulsified oil = ±0
...
0002415mol

Amount emulsified oil = 0
...
01188
≈ 0
...
00022+0
...
00047mol

0
...
00338±0
...
30+12
...
35cm3
12
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
005
≈ 0
...
02476mol

±%∆(excess NaOH) = 12
...
919%
≈ ±1
...
0600 –
0
...
03524mol

±∆ amount of NaOH reacted= ±(0
...
729% x
0
...
0007281mol

Amount un-emulsified oil = 0
...
01175mol

±∆ amount of un-emulsified oil = ±0
...
0002427mol

Amount emulsified oil = 0
...
01175
≈ 0
...
00022+0
...
00047mol

0
...
00351±0
...
00+15
...
00cm3
Amount of HNO3 used =

15
...
005
≈ 0
...
10+0
...
Of HNO3 used = ±( 2 )
= ±0
...
10

n(excess NaOH) = 0
...
00 × 100% + 0
...
586%

Amount of NaOH reacted = 0
...
03008
= 0
...
0003+1
...
02346)
≈ ± 0
...
02993 ÷ 3
≈ 0
...
0007769÷ 3
≈ ±0
...
01525 –
0
...
00528

±∆ amount of emulsified oil
= ±(0
...
0002590)
≈ ±0
...
00528±0
...
4 Appendix D: General Formulas
General formulas used for calculation of charge density, amount of oil
emulsified and concentrations of ions are shown:
Charge Density =

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
4
3

𝜋𝑟 3

, r is the ionic radius in pm

Concentrations of cations used =

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠
𝑀𝑟

÷ volume of deionised

water/dm3
Volume of HNO3 used =
Amount of HNO3 used =

𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑁𝑂3 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑑
Volume of HNO3 used
1000

x concentration of HNO3 used

Amount of NaOH reacted = 0
...
01525 – Amount of unemulsified oil
Percentage of oil emulsified =

Amount of Oil emulsified
0
...


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