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Title: Development Economics
Description: Development economics notes, ideal for a broad overview of development including issues of development/growth such as institutions, agriculture, geography and many more. Format: lecture notes and further reading summary notes from key authors. Was used for Development Economics (2nd year module) at York
Description: Development economics notes, ideal for a broad overview of development including issues of development/growth such as institutions, agriculture, geography and many more. Format: lecture notes and further reading summary notes from key authors. Was used for Development Economics (2nd year module) at York
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DEVELOPMENT NOTES AND FURTHER
READING
PAUL COLLIER
The Bottom Billion, 2007
● ‘The Bottom Billion’ poorest sixth of the population which live on less than a dollar a
day
● Four main poverty traps: conflict, natural resources, landlocked between bad
neighbours, and bad governance in a small country
OVERVIEW
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT
NOTES:
● Why are some countries rich and others are poor? matter of concern, emerging after
WW2 (roughly)
● Need for development: justice and fairness, sharp division between the rich and poor
economies may have affected international cooperation and governments of new
independent nations demanded guidance on how to face new challenges
● What can be done to improve the living conditions on the poor? How do we decrease
inequality across and within countries?
● ‘agic bullets’:
m
decolonization, birth control, free trade, fair trade, redistributive land
reform, nationalization of foreign firms/privatisation, assive aid and microcredit
m
● Measured by income per capita mostly, but increasing use of HDI and it’s components
(literacy, life expectancy and GDP) emphasise how it’s difficult to collect data
● Characteristics of developing countries: high population growth, importance of
agriculture, rural sectors still host the vast majority of the population, export of primary
goods, weak governance
INSTITUTIONAL THEORIES
NOTES:
● Three ‘institutional’ theories of development: Linear stages of growth, structural change
& neoclassical
● 5 Linear Stages of Growth:conomy stimulated over the long term by savings and
E
investment rather than consumption
...
1
...
Any trade that does occur is through barter
...
Due to the dominance of
agriculture, political power mostly held in the hands of landowners, any
growth that does occur is due to transitory conditions, like exceptional
weather promoting a good harvest
...
PreTake Off
: Conditions for ‘true’ development occur over this stage
...
As trade expands, so trade’s
infrastructure is developed
...
This activity creates an entrepreneurial class (‘petit bourgeois’)
...
Take Off
: This is the key stage of development, large expansion in
savings and investments (from roughly 5% to 10% of GDP)
...
Yet this is
limited to only a few crucial areas of the economy
...
Virtuous cycle takes place as greater
investment and higher growth rates become self sustaining
...
Drive to Maturity
: Growth spreads from just a few key industries to the
wider economy, and production diversifies
...
As economy diversifies we see
reduced dependence on imports from abroad
...
Mass Consumption
: The industrialisation process is complete, consumer
demand is sustained by highly paid industrial jobs, a service sector
emerges to satisfy this rise in consumption
...
● Challenges to this model
○ Rostow was a Cold War policy hawk, was he not ideologically invested in
maintaining the status quo?
○ Hasn’t held up to empirical analysis
● No longer used as a road map to development any more
...
M
○ Model assumes a production function with constant returns to scale
...
■ g= (s/v) [growth equals the savings rate divided by the capital output ratio]
● Model conclusions:
● Capital output ratio (v) influenced by the
amount of technology
in the
economy
● So if we can work out a certain technological constraint on the economy,
we can work out a savings rate needed to support a certain level of
economic growth
...
Lewis 2 Sector Model
(emphasis on structural change)
○ Model depicts 2 sectors: modern capitalist sector and a subsistence agricultural
sector
○ Agricultural sector acts as a basin of cheap labour for the modern sector in the
agricultural sector the marginal productivity of labour is very small, output isn’t
radically diminished if a few decide to leave
...
This wage differential remains for as long as the MPL in
the agricultural sector is close to 0
...
○ Over time, agriculture is drained so much that its MPL rises to match the
capitalist sector
...
Theory was that underdevelopment was caused
by defective government institutions, lack of incentives in an economy, corruption and
waste and so forth
...
Key to this plan was the
Solow growth
model
○ Solow Growth Model versus the HarrodDomer Model:
Key difference between
the two models is that Solow’s contains diminishing marginal returns to capital
...
Solow dictates all countries will converge to each other over time, as they
all have access to the same level of technology and they converge to a steady
state
...
High savings
rates do translate to higher levels of income per capita, in the same way higher
populations cause lower levels of income per capita
...
○ So, in terms of what explains growth, it does seem Solow has the upper hand, at
least upon examination of empirical data
...
Higher orders (increased
development) can be reached by complementarities, agents coordinating economically
beneficial behavior
...
Another case is investment, if all agents choose to
invest then it pays off more than only one choosing to do so
...
As a case in point,
disinclination of firms to invest in a country may be caused by a skills shortage, a
shortage that could be remedied by higher levels of investment
...
Yet due to no coordination,
the country is in a suboptimal equilibrium
...
Linking in with the expected number of agents
expected to take the same action
● Stable Equilibrium:
If the expected action by other agents changes then
agents adjust their behavior to restore equilibrium
...
● Note also the presence of multiple equilibria across the same line
...
In the face of attaining a suboptimal equilibrium, a case for
government intervention can be made
...
There will be no market for
the goods produced other than those who earn the wages to make them
...
○ If a series of firms choose not to make this decision, then there is a serious
wastage of potential
...
○ The solution is a
‘big push’ a surge in investment to get the industrialisation
process started
...
ORing Theory:
Stems from the notion that one tiny defect can derail a large process
...
● Kremer: ORing Production Function: Y=q(1)q(i) + q(2)q(i) + …
...
In effect, the production
process is only as strong as it’s least skilled worker
...
● If we apply this analysis to the whole economy
...
These
act to influence other agents’ behavior and to deprive agents of investment in
their skills
...
It endorses large scale investment into the skills of a country,
similar to the Big Push model
...
As differing
countries have a different mixture of these two qualities, so a “one size fits all” policy of
development just doesn’t work
...
As each country faces differing
binding constraints, this enables us to tailor our development strategy to each
country by targeting the policy that would give us the highest returns
...
Yet the economic community is waiting to see it’s effect on policy making
...
Tropical countries have a third of the GDP of temperate ones
...
● Landlocked, distance to coast:
○ Production density tends to be focussed on the coast
○ Countries that have no access to the sea experience lower growth and
landlocked countries experience half the growth rates of non landlocked ones
○ International trade is dependant on other countries import/export costs are
higher
● Case of SubSaharan Africa: High volumes of land in tropical regions, lots of landlocked
countries and fairly cut off from main global markets (USA, Japan, Europe)
ADAM SMITH
The Wealth of Nations, 1779
● ‘as by means of watercarriage a more extensive market is opened to every sort of
industry than what landcarriage alone can afford it, so it is upon the seacoast, and
along the banks of navigable rivers, that industry of every kind naturally begins to
subdivide and improve itself, and it is frequently not till a long time after that those
improvements extend themselves to the inland part of the country’
...
● 38% of the people living in the bottom billion societies are in landlocked countries it’s a
big issue to Africa
● Dependency on
surrounding countries’ infrastructure
compare Switzerland (Italian and
German infrastructure) and Uganda (Kenyan infrastructure)
● Surrounding countries are not only transport corridors but they are arkets
m
too e
...
Germany and Italy may not have been cutting off switzerland with its market but rather it
was Switzerland’s market
...
● The significance of being landlocked depends on opportunities
natural resources
Botswana is landlocked but they managed their natural resource wealth correctly
a
...
Is being landlocked only an issue if the country lacks resources?
● Growth spillovers
the global average was that if a country’s neighbors grew by an
additional 1%, the country grew by an additional 0
...
Globally, resource scarce countries seem to make a special effort to piggyback
onto the growth of their neighbors for the landlocked the spillover is not 0
...
7%
b
...
e
...
Africa’s landlocked countries are not orientated toward their neighbors they are
either ‘inwardlooking’ or toward the world market there is inimal spillover
m
0
...
7% for global economy)
● What can these countries do?
a
...
improve neighbors economic policies if economies are better integrated, the
economic performance of neighbours matters more
c
...
become a haven for the region e
...
Lebanon has become a financial centre for
the middle east
e
...
encourage remittances
to maximise remittances: educate people so they are
employable in higher income economies, facilitate the finding of these jobs,
encourage workers to remit part of their income (banking systems and exchange
rates)
g
...
■ Centripetal and centrifugal
tug of war between forces that promotes
geographic concentration
...
○ ‘Geography may have been destiny in the past, but it need not be in the future’
geography is such a crucial factor at present, and undoubtedly strong policy
implications of some sort, it is an important subject for further research
GALLUP & SACHS
Geography and Economic Development
(1998 annual world bank conference on development economics)
● Location and climate change have large effects on income levels and income growth
through their effects on transport costs, disease burdens and agricultural productivity
● Geography also seems to affect economic policy choices
● Many geographic regions that have not been conducive to modern economic growth
have high population densities and are experiencing rapid increases in population
● A large portion of population growth over the next 30 years is expected to occur in these
geographically disadvantaged regions:
○ Regions located far from coats and oceannavigable rivers are at particular
disadvantages high transport costs
○ Tropical regions which bear a heavy burden of disease are also at a particular
disadvantage
JEFFREY SACHS (working paper)
Institutions don’t rule,
direct effects of geography on per capita income, 2003
● Geography can have direct effects (through effects on productivity, population growth ,
trade and investment) and indirect effects (choice of political and economic institutions)
on economic activity
● Makes a note of alaria
m
, which is strongly affected ecological conditions, directly affects
the level of per capita income after controlling for the quality of institutions
○ Tends to occur in the tropics and subtropics because the parasite depnds on a
high ambient temperature, also depends on adequate conditions for mosquito
breeding (requires pools of clean water, usually collected rainfall) malaria
follows the rainy seasons
DAVID E
...
○ The variety of plants grown is often limited due to factors such as sunlight hour,
temperatures, humidity
Tropical populations have lower life expectancies at birth than those in temperate zones
this is because of diseases
...
3
■ Tropical Africa: 49
...
4
Low rates of urbanization in Africa, hinders development
○ Africa has a low population density; 25 people per square kilometer (Asia has
146)
○ Why? Agricultural productivity is very low
...
Many of Africa's urban areas must be fed, at least in part, from
international imports
...
WILLIAM EASTERLY & ROSS LEVINE
Troubles with the Neighbours, 1998
● The data and results suggest that Africa is in it’s current position due to the high
geographic concentration of poor policies, which is related to high geographic
concentration of ethnically divided countries
● When a country adopts growth reducing policies, this negatively affects its neighbours
...
Yet real
cases are somewhat scarce
...
Phenomena is labelled ‘the resource curse’ by many economists
...
g
...
○ Country’s economic growth is going to become overly dependant on the one
commodity
○ Outcomes for developing countries: raises the odds of a debt crisis, government
largesse in the face of a commodity boom, followed by a debt crisis and
economic contraction after a slump in the commodity price See Mexico in 1980s
PrebischSinger Hypothesis:
In the long run primary goods are ‘inferior’, rather as the
world gets richer it spends less money (proportionally) on them
...
Those who export
primary goods see ‘deteriorating terms of trade’ or rather they have to export more
primary goods for the same amount of manufactured goods
...
Limited Technological Progress: anufacturing is more conducive to technological
M
advancement, and commodity exports are less so
...
This is not as true for commodities, as
their extraction requires little input from the rest of the economy
...
The Dutch Disease is used to
explain the seeming inverse relationship between commodity exports and manufacturing
exports
...
Manufacturing competitiveness eroded, experiences less
impact on the economy, linkages shrink away and the ability of manufacturing to
grow is reduced
i
...
the country’s other export activities are made
uncompetitive
Exploitation of natural resources also promotes a rise in income and greater expenditure
on services, expanding the tertiary sector’s profitability
...
4% cut in
manufacturing’s value added & Brahmbhatt et al 2010: Resource exports 30%
GDP, tradable sector 15% lower than average
Lack of Diversification:
As these commodities are not renewable, there is a need to
diversify for after they are gone
...
Yet the caveat is that there needs to be sound institutions,
with little corruption
...
Why might this be?
○
●
●
●
●
●
●
Patronage Politics:
Commodity revenue is used to buy votes or the support of
public bodies, rather than through policy changes
...
Limited Accountability: In low tax economies, there is little incentive to hold the
government to account
...
Commodities revenue is more distant from the population
at large, so there is little incentive to engage, leads to poor institutions
...
○ Case of Sao Tome versus Cape Verde
...
Brazil discovered oil, and then saw a rise in corruption by 1724% and a
rise in incumbancy power by 7% (Brollo 2013)
○ Incumbancy/Elite Power: With resources and a richer/more powerful elite it
becomes easier to block enhancing legislation that erodes their power
...
(Collier and Hoeffler, 2009)
● Chechnya: Breakup of the USSR lead to mostly nonviolent facturing and
reconciliation
...
● DRC: First Congo War due to a conflict between Kabila and financed by
revenues from resources sales, which they then won
...
g
...
There is still a debate over resources’ impact on development, institutions are also at
fault, too
...
Perhaps the compromise is that
resources aren’t a problem if institutions are sound, yet problems arise if they are not
...
Maybe countries export
commodities because they are poor, rather than the other way around, the direction
causality is unclear
...
Make of that what you will…
PAUL COLLIER
The Bottom Billion, 2007
● Expect the discovery of natural resources to be a positive thing, like a catalyst to
prosperity
...
(see above)
● Over time countries with large resource discoveries end up poorer with the lost growth
more than offsetting the oneoff gain in income provided by the resource
● Saudi Arabia and Persian Gulf states they have enough natural resources that they can
forget about normal economic activity, the whole society can live off the unearned
income from wealth these wealthy rentier states are rare (group 1)
● Resource rich countries tend to have enough resource income to take them to
middleincome status, but not beyond
...
● Emphasis on volatility of commodity prices and dutch disease they will inhibit growth
even if the country’s politics are reasonable
FREDERICK VAN DER PLOEG
Natural Resources: Curse or Blessing? 2011
● Either outcome is possible
● Resources can lead to appreciation of the real exchange rate, deindustrialization and
bad growth prospects
...
Example: Brazil
● Resources can reinforce ‘rent grabbing’ and civil conflict especially if institutions are
bad, induces corruption especially in nondemocratic countries
...
● Curse is particularly severe for countries with pointsource resources such as diamonds
and precious metals
● For resources to be beneficial a country needs: good institutions, trade openness and
high investments in exploration technology
● Wide diversity in experiences of countries with substantial natural resources
● More work needs to be done on how to manage natural resource revenues in a way that
promotes sustainable growth, alleviates poverty and avoids conflict
○ Particularly relevant for the resource rich, volatile and conflict prone economies of
Africa
...
Does the curse really exist? There seems to be some correlation
○ Important to note that the high GDPs could be a result of other sources of growth,
so a country may not be poor in resources just because a small amount of their
GDP is resource exports they might just have other sources of growth
Almost without exception, the resourceabundant countries have stagnated in economic
growth since the early 1970s, inspiring the term, `curse of natural resources’
...
○
●
●
MACARTAN HUMPHREYS
Escaping the resource curse, 2007
● Some resource rich countries in Africa (DRC, Angola, Sudan, Nigeria) suffer from civil
strife and/or endemic corruption whereas resourcepoor countries such as Ghana and
Burkina Faso are equally poor but more peaceful and democratic
...
○ It can take place independently of other political processes, a government can
often access natural resource wealth regardless of whether it commands the
cooperation of its citizens or effectively controls institutions of state
○
●
Many natural resources, such as gas and oil are nonrenewable they are often
seen as an asset rather than a source of income
■ The detachment of these natural resource sectors from domestic political
and economic processes and the non renewable nature of natural
resources give rise to a large array of litical and economic processes that
produce adverse effects on the economy
e
...
rent seeking behaviour
Emphasis on managing the economy
INSTITUTIONS
NOTES:
● Douglass North (1990) came up with 3 notions about institutions: Human designed,
setting of constraints, that shape incentives
...
○ Case: Enforcing laws and regulations: Pollution regulations are exacted on firms,
matches public cost and private cost
...
● Institutions matter more depending on which ‘stage’ of development an economy is in
with pastoral economies, institutions matter less as there reduced scope for cheating, as
interpersonal relationships tend to govern economic activity
...
● Generally, the state or public bodies foster institutions
...
This explains checks and balances,
the need for a credible commitment to both respect and enforce property rights
...
This could include standardising
measurement, enforcing contracts effectively, and reducing rents from intermediaries
...
We see lower prices and higher
profitability instantaneously, and we see greater specialisation and growth over the long
term
...
Data backing this up:
■ GNI p
...
and number of days it takes to start a firm negatively correlated
■ GNI p
...
and judicial effectiveness positively correlated
■ GNI p
...
and public sector ethics positively correlated
■ GNI p
...
and investor protection positively correlated
■ GNI p
...
and protection from expropriation positively correlated
● Direction of causality unclear
...
Dependant on the climate
...
Areas with less
western climate saw little european settlement and little western institutions (see
Africa/Latin America)
...
g
...
g
...
Expropriation risk 198595 and log of settler mortality: positive correlation
...
But how do we create them?
● Requires coordination against vested interests
● State needs to coordinate with economic agents to ensure good institutions
● See “why nations fail” (Acemoglu and Robinson)
Point of debate: where should institutions come from? Developed organically or imposed
from outside controversial subject
A P
...
Intellectual property rights are important to encourage innovation
...
Perhaps needed more in the case of developing countries as market
failure there is more endemic
...
Also allows for unbiased forecasts so that
entrepreneurs can make informed investment decisions
...
○ Social Insurance Institutions:
These catch the fallout from economic changes
or shocks
...
This makes them less risk averse and more likely to
invest
...
○ Conflict Management Institutions:
Needed to compensate for tribal and
religious divisions within economies
...
Can include open political institutions, an
effective judiciary or the rule of law
...
Requires coordination and
may not work
●
●
●
●
Free rider problem
: Those who would benefit from improved institutions may not
have the will or the means to change them, will let others do the work for them
● Bargaining problem:
Even if institutional change occurs it may be incomplete or
defective in some form
...
If institutions are to be built from scratch then open political institutions are required to
make sure everyone gets a fair hearing and the institutions have popular consent and
legitimacy
...
Conflict between Geographical and Institutional perspectives on development:
Emphasis in the literature to avoid the direction of causality trap between development
and institutional quality
...
Yet another study unnoted in the lecture notes is
one of “institutional reversal” (Acemoglu et al 2002)
...
The explanation given is that the
poorer, sparser areas were easier to colonise and to import beneficial western
institutions onto
...
There was a direct relationship between the risk of
expropriation today and wealth in 1500
...
As geography is constant over time, it should hold that those
regions that were wealthier in 1500 should remain so, but rather they were wealthier
when industry was not an important factor in development, yet during the Industrial
Revolution, when growth became more of an outcome of institutional strength, they lost
their primacy
...
So does it matter? Controversial…
...
Yet autocracies also have no interest in maximising output or raising living standards
and may waste large amounts of resources
...
Empirical evidence also finds that
democracies have (Rodrik, 2000):
●
●
●
●
More stable/predictable long run growth rates
Greater short term stability
Better handling of adverse shocks
Fairer distribution of income
MICHAEL P
...
An outcome of the unique social history of that country
...
In order for change to occur, the support of the elites must either
be enlisted or countered by popular support crucial
Institutions shape the kind of firms that emerge
...
Typically,
low cost contract enforcement is the most pressing institutional issue facing developing
countries as a whole
...
The only time favourable
institutions emerge is when the interests of broader society and the ruling elite align
...
● Secondary education and political institutions do matter for the development of lower
income countries
...
GLAESER ET AL
...
● Institutions act as a supporting force on human and social capital
, yet they only act as a
second fiddle to their role in economic development
...
CONFLICT
NOTES:
● Conflict an important part of development
...
Civil war acts as ‘development in reverse’
(Collier, 2004)
...
Work may just be subsistence
farming, and institutions may not promote law abiding behavior as strongly as we might
like
...
Linkage between economic performance and civil war 2 studies: Dube and Vargas
2013; Miguel et al 2004
○ Miguel et al: Conflict vs rainfall most farming is grain fed in Africa & correlation
between rainfall and conflict connection is that lower rainfall reduces agricultural
production and rural income, so increases chance of civil war
...
Personal surveys also back this up
...
An explanation might be the high expected payoffs from fighting, this is especially true in
cases where large quantities of natural resources are present
...
This can also explain the Great African War in the DRC
...
In more remote areas or regions there is a greater chance of conflict as institutions are
weaker and it is easier for rebel groups to hide, reducing the expected costs of rebelling,
this is particularly true for mountainous regions in developing countries
...
○ Anocracies a case of this in action, these allow for other parties, yet do not have
the dynamism to offer them power
...
○ Weak institutions also to blame, extractive institutions raise the expected payoff
from being top of the political order, so they raise the returns from fighting
...
○ See the state fragility index: 17 fragile states, over 25 years only 1 didn’t have a
conflict of some sort
...
○ Not without its downsides, it kills any incentive to give up the fight and for the
leadership to retire
...
CIA interventions lead to a surge in demand for US exports (trade
diversion)
...
Ethnic Motivations for Conflict:
Ethnic divisions can also generate conflict
○ Fractional versus Polarised: 2 large ethnic groups worse than 100 small ones,
more conflict
...
○ Resource Struggles: If there is pressure over a certain resource, it can ferment
conflict
...
3% per year
...
c
...
○ Food supply becomes more scarce, and malnutrition becomes more prevalent
...
So poverty it seems causes war, but war also causes poverty
...
The longer the conflict the higher returns from fighting, the more specialised and skilled
rebels and government become at waging war
...
New development policy becomes geared towards sharply raising investment
immediately after a war, so as to avoid further violence
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
3%, so a typical seven year war leaves a country
around 15% poorer than it would have been
○ Civil war kills people, killed either through active combat or succumb to disease
wars create refugees and mass movements of the population, combined with
collapsing public health systems leads to epidemics
○ Some costs are borne by neighboring countries e
...
disease and growth
spillovers
●
Wars and coups keep lowincome countries from growing and hence keep them
dependent upon exports of primary commodities, because they stay poor, stagnant and
dependent upon primary commodities, they are prone to wars and coups
WORLD BANK
2011 Report on conflict and security
● More than 1
...
7& of their annual GDP for every neighbour involved in civil war
● Terrorism doubling of terrorist incidents in a country is estimated
to reduce bilateral trade with each trading partner by some 4% as
terrorism taps into illicit global activities through smuggling,
evading taxes, trafficking drugs, counterfeit money etc
...
e
...
3 types of relationship are
examined:
○ Long term conflict causes poverty
■ War affects people differently based on age, gender, race, and whether it
is regional or subnational
● Elderly are most likely to be put into poverty as they are less
mobile and may be left behind by fleeing family members
● Femaleheaded households are more likely to be put in poverty
women who have been victims of sexual violence may be
ostracized by their society or their health may suffer
● Chronic poverty tends to follow the contours of the conflict and is
most severe in ‘heartland’ areas rather than areas with low levels
of ‘geographical capital’
○ Chronic poverty causes violent conflict (grievance based analysis)
■ Institutional capacity and policies of the state are crucial in terms of
ensuring grievance is contained or to prevent it from becoming violent
○ Resource wealth causes violent conflict (greed based analysis)
■ Fights over the resources
■ Resources can finance wars according to Collier, civil wars occur when
rebel groups are financially viable
● Difference between chronically poor and transiently poor chronic poverty is
distinguished from transitory poverty by its duration chronically poor are identified not
so much by income in a year as by a low variation in income over a period of several
years
● Rebel groups face 3 hurdles: finance, mobilization and cohesion
...
g
...
Borrowing is a core element of nearly all poor countries’ development strategies
External debt is greater in countries which had undergone conflict
...
○ this process is fragile and requires commitment from both sides, donors need to
show trust and foresight and borrowers need to improve their low institutional
quality
Should donors consider debt relief before the conflict ends to accelerate the effective
relief?
Post conflict countries should receive special treatment
○ Arguably the international donor community is not yet well prepared for such
forms of conditionality and types of comprehensive policies and monitoring it
would require
...
ARUNATILAKE, S
...
KELEGAMA
The economic cost of war in Sri Lanka
● Conceptual and methodological problems associated with assessing the economic costs
of civil wars (difficult to measure) and other violent social conflicts and presents and
evaluation of the costs of the conflict in Sri Lanka
● Widespread sense of insecurity and vulnerability among the population, feelings of
despair and hopelessness amongst youth, and erosion on political, legal and social
rights
● Economic costs: battlefield losses of both personnel and equipment, civilian victims,
destruction to infrastructure/assets/property and defence expenditures are high
● Major refugee problem, large numbers of people have sought refuge in foreign countries
and many people have been ‘relocated’ away from their homes, in some cases several
times
● There are both direct and indirect costs of conflict, (direct listed above) indirect costs
include capital flights, loss of potential foreign capital and tourist inflows and emigration
of skilled labour
...
The burden will fall most
heavily on the poor and the young
MICROFINANCE
NOTES:
● Small loans to those in poverty designed to encourage entrepreneurship on of the
biggest struggles for those in poverty is a lack of money to start with they lack collateral
so struggle to get loans from regular banks
● How can microfinance firms reduce the risk of clients defaulting on their loans?
○ Lends almost only to women (thought to be more trustworthy/reliable) and can
improve the women’s power in the household
○ Weekly repayment schedule discipline, easier to save a small amount each
week than one large sum once in a while
but borrowers complain about the
frequency of meetings
○ Group lending & joint liability
people responsible for each other’s loan, group
members can’t borrow again if the group defaults
● Screening effect: people only want to team with reliable people
● Monitoring effect: they will monitor each other for free (monitoring
is one of the big costs of lending to the poor)
■ May discourage borrowing due to
pressure
■ Experiment 1:
removed joint liability randomly from half of the group
formation, isolating the monitoring effect
identical default rate after one
year across the two lending strategies (potentially because meetings were
held regularly anyway and may have conditioned behaviour)
○ Regular meetings members forge bonds and other things can be discussed
(business advice, home advice)
○ Very small loans initially, which become larger over time (after repayments)
○ Credit officers incentives based on the number of clients and repayment rates
○ High interest rates (at least 20% a year)
● Profit vs non profit organisations
some organisations lend to the very poorest even if
they’re unprofitable
● Note: this assumes that borrowing improves a person’s life when impact could be
negative
...
3%, without: 4
...
BANERGEE & ESTHER DUFLO
Poor Economics, 2011
● In theory, microfinance gives women more power and they are more likely to invest in
education and health
● In India, microfinance qualifies as a ‘priority sector’ which gives banks powerful financial
incentives to lend to them at concessional rates implicit subsidy
●
●
(Spandara example) Changing lifestyles borrowers wanting to make the most out of
their new opportunity, no clear evidence of reckless spending, households stopped
spending on ‘wasteful’ goods e
...
snacks
○ However, no radical change women were not exercising greater control over
household spending, nor did we see a difference in spending on education and
health
○ Fraction of families that started a new business over a 15 month period went up
from 5%7%
○ Microfinance does not have miraculous results, but it is working
Microcredit is not designed for larger borrowers, it does not look like established
businesses find it much easier to get credit too big for money lenders/microfinance
agencies, too small for banks
BEATRIZ ARMENDARIZ & JONATHAN MORDUCH
The economics of Microfinance, 2010
● 54% report that their business would be more profitable if they could expand
● Microfinance has allowed more than 150 million poor people around the world to receive
small loans without collateral, build up assets and buy insurance
...
● Alternative definitions (focus on unlawful use of government power):
‘the abuse of
public office for private gain’ and
‘the abuse of public power for private benefit’
● Persistence of corruption: Mishra’s hypothetical explanation rests on the suppositions
that the ore corrupt people are in one location
m
, the easier and more profitable
corruption is (because it is easier to find counterparties and the risk penalty is less) and
corruption becomes the social norm (people are not worried about the loss of reputation
normally associated with corruption)
● Measuring corruption: global competitiveness report, world bank governance indicators
and Transparency International’s three sets of ratings of individual countries
● Pretty bribery:
requirements for bribes are quite pervasive in ordinary people’s lives
with poor worst hit
...
g
...
Lowest tended to be failed states
○ Highincome OECD countries had high scores, Greece the lowest of them at 56th
from the top
○ In AsiaPacific, Japan, Malaysia and the ‘four tigers’ were all in the top 43, two
lowest of those were on a par with Italy
○ Botswana was highest in Africa at 38th from the top, Chile was highest in Latin
America and among midincome countries at 22nd
Linking corruption with income per capita; there is a lot of crosssectional econometric
evidence that greater corruption tends to be associated with lower GDP per capita and
lower GDP growth
...
the important policy question
is whether causation from corruption to low incomes is at least part of the story
Evaluative point:
does corruption enable businesses to overcome cumbersome
regulations?
Vicious cycle poverty is caused by corruption and corruption is caused by poverty
MICHAEL T
...
Corruption can be a response to either
beneficial or harmful rules corruption can also arise because bad policies or inefficient
institutions are put in place to collect bribes from individuals seeking to get out of them
● Do higher wages for Bureaucrats reduce corruption? Aid donors and international
organisations routinely recommend fighting corruption by paying higher wages to public
servants wage incentives can reduce bribery but only under certain conditions
requires well function enforcement apparatus; the bribe being offered must not be a
function of the official’s wage; and the cost of paying higher wages must not be too high
...
● Can competition reduce corruption? if firms profits are driven down by competitive
pressure, there are no excess profits in which to pay bribes (alternative to regulating
bribes)
●
●
●
Most anticorruption programs rely on legal and financial institutions judiciary, police and
financial auditors to enforce and strengthen accountability in the public sector in many
poor countries the legal and financial institutions are weak and often corrupt themselves
...
Profits/potential profits are taken away from firms through corruption so
entrepreneurs choose not to start firms or to expand less rapidly
...
● Corruption in military spending/procurement can of course be reduced through greater
transparency and reduced patronage at the level of officials receiving bribes, also
defense contracts could also be included in freedom of information legislation
PIERREGUILLAUME MEON & LAURENT WEILL
Is corruption an efficient grease?
● Corruption is less detrimental to efficiency in countries where institutions are less
effective
...
Yet agriculture is still of interest to us for it’s own sake
and also for industry’s weaknesses
...
Yet even this development is still fairly recent
...
● Models for Agricultural Organisation:
○ Latin American Model:
Agricultural production dominated by a few very large
farms called Latifundios
...
Some nations have attempted reform (Mexico,
Bolivia, Cuba) but the problem persists throughout Latin America
...
● Low productivity per hectare farmed
● Large amounts of perfectly arable land simply unused
● Costs of expanding production are too high (monitoring costs for
workers too high)
● Land would be more efficient if it was broken up
● Due to the inefficiency of the Latifundios, the majority of production in fact
occurs in medium sized farms
...
Reform progress is very slow, there is little incentive to split up the farms,
so the inefficiency and inequality persists
...
There is little use of technology to boost
yields, so the land that is worked is underutilised
...
○ This defective organisation can explain Africa’s limited growth in
agricultural yields across time
...
As, if
you like, the stakes are higher when you are on the verge of starvation,
farmers are less inclined to take risks with more variable productive
●
techniques that produce higher yields
...
Innovation
is a luxury
● Asian Model:
Population density is far higher, so the land is much more
intensively used
...
○ Sharecropping: Landowner rents the land to his sharecroppers in return
for a fixed percentage of their output
...
● Flaws:
● Because the percentage is fixed, there is little personal return for
higher effort
● So there’s little incentive to raise production or improve
productivity
● It is the landlord who benefits from the sharecropper’s investment
● As the sharecropped farms are often very small, there is little
economies of scale
● The farms are too small to justify an increase in capital
● The situation is aggravated by population growth in these areas
● Government role: Government could boost production by investing in the
irrigation system, yet as the scale of the task is very large, they don’t
...
The farmer wishes to produce
enough to feed his family and the landowner wants as large a production
of crop as possible
...
This can explain why the
sharecroppers don’t become wage workers, sharecropping is a
compromise between the farmer’s need for security and the landowner’s
need for profit/revenue
...
As well
as the aligning of incentives, sharecropping also promotes productivity
due to the fear of eviction from the landlord
...
● Evaluation: If this was true, wouldn’t production be higher? Also, there is
no evidence of a high turnover of tenants in these countries
...
● Subsistence
: Low productivity, no investment
●
●
●
Mixed Farming
: Combination of subsistence and cash crops
...
To improve small scale agriculture requires:
● Technology and innovation
● The presence of economic incentives to invest and price
● Adapting to new opportunities
Rural Development requires:
● Land Reform (breaking up inefficient farms)
● Supportive policies for those developing farmers
● Combined development in other sectors
CHRISTINE VALENTE
The Food (in)security impact of land redistribution in South Africa: microeconomic
evidence from national data
● 1913 Land Act initiated the process of confinement of the black population of South
Africa into specific areas that represented less than 10% of the country’s land, away
from the cities and farms of the white led to overcrowding
● The South African land reform program has been widely criticized for its slow pace as
well as its apparent lack of contribution to poverty reduction her research supports this
● Land reform was seen as the ‘central and driving force of a program for rural
development’, widely accepted that improved access to land is good for the poor, in
particular in terms of food security
● Land grant recipients tend to have more difficulties satisfying their food needs than
nonbeneficiaries with a similar profiles i
...
their endowments would have been better
rewards in terms of food security should they not have taken part in land reform
FRANK PLACE
Land tenure and agricultural productivity in Africa: A comparative analysis of the
economics literature
● Examines the link between land tenure security and agricultural productivity in Africa
● Tenure security of an individual is defined as the ‘bundle of land rights’
● African tenure systems are very diverse due to vast number of different ethnic groups
with their different institutions, rates of population growth, level of market development
and the degree to which formal governments have been able to influence local tenure
arrangements
● Tenure systems are not static they respond to pressures to accommodate new
demands for land access, use and security
● Positive relationship between tenure security and land investments
● World bank 1975:
3 key principles desirability of owneroperated family farms, the
need for land markets to transfer land to more productive users and the pursuit of
equitable land distributions to foster agricultural growth
CLIMATE CHANGE
NOTES:
● Human induced climate change mainly due to global warming it is caused by the
emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases to form an insulating layer
around the atmosphere
○ Stern Report: if left to its devices, average temperatures could go up by 5
degrees and a permanent loss of 20% of global output
● Threats to developing countries:
○ Accelerating soil degradation/desertification resulting from changing,
unpredictable weather patterns
○ Wet areas becoming wetter, dry areas becoming drier dwindling water
resources
○ Dieback of rainforests, radically alters biosystems further releases of large
quantities of carbon
○ Could lead to a loss of species damaged habitats
○ Rising sea levels leads to a loss of lowlying islands and coastal areas
● Consequences:
○ Falling crop yields
○ Negative effects on health due to rising temperatures and flooding malnutrition
(damaged farming) and malaria (climate)
○ Mass migration
○ Violent conflict over scarce resources
● Why are developing countries affected in particular?
○ Exposure how they are affected
■ Tropical location ost developing countries are located in the tropics
m
(harsh climates) where climate change is expected to have a greater
impact: excessive heat, erratic rainfall patterns, extreme and damaging
climatic events, heavy rainfall, pest and parasite problems and vector
borne disease (e
...
malaria)
■ Crops agricultural activity already close to environmental (climate and
biosystem) tolerance limits and crop yields are problematic even marginal
climatic deterioration could have serious immediate effects by creating
local
food shortages
and malnutrition and longterm effects on output and
growth
■ Rainforest dwellers high vulnerables
■ Water scarcity may worsen an already difficult situation
■ Rising sea levels ost small island states facing extinction are
m
developing countries
● In lower Egypt, 6 million people displaced and 4500km^2 of
farmland flooded
● In Vietnam, 22 million people displaced
●
●
In Bangladesh 18% of land area could be inundated affecting 11%
of the population
● In the maldives, more than 80% of land area is less than 1 meter
above sea level
○ Sensitivity how much they are affected
■ Developing economies focus on sectors mostly affected by climate
change (agriculture, fishing forestry)
■ Poverty increases sensitivity to climate patterms, shocks and extreme
weather events
■ Climate change will exacerbate the environmental damages linked to high
population growth (e
...
water scarcity, deforestation)
■ Cash crops in agriculture increase vulnerability less flexibility to adjust
■ Large concentration of poor in urban slums located in high risk areas
(landslides on steep slope, or flooding in flood plains)
■ Already low health status is particularly vulnerable to even small changes
...
J
...
● Other studies have suggested that people may be poor due to their climate (see
geography and agriculture)
● Politicians are proposing to spend hundreds of billions of dollars on greenhouse gas
emission reduction and at present, economists cannot say with confidence whether this
is too much or too little
● Suggests that the European union may be placing too high a price on carbon emissions,
and the US too low
● Outside the highincome countries of the world, essentially no climate policy existys
although these countries are most vulnerable to climate change and some of them like
China and India are major emitters of carbon
...
Roughly 50% of world
population living in cities, and this phenomena is especially dramatic in developing
countries
...
It has
been accelerating in developing countries, and is happening faster than it ever did in the
(now) developed world
...
● Yet there is a sharp difference between regions
...
And a
sharp difference between continents, as contemporary urbanisation is now mostly
occurring in Asia and Africa
...
● Megacity numbers set to be focussed in China and India
...
6%
population growth, 4
...
Pull Factors for urbanisation:
● Higher wages in urban areas (similar to the Lewis and Todaro Models)
● Better access to health and education in the cities, unit costs of provision are
lower
● Higher potential for diversification in the cities, less reliant on the one sector
(farming)
● Social connections in the city (family, friends) make moving easier
Push Factors for urbanisation:
● High levels of poverty in rural areas
● Civil Wars and conflict, easier for the state to defend cities, so you go
● Rural unemployment
● Landlessness and exploitation (land isn’t enough to feed a family)
● Environmental degradation (desertification of land can drive urbanisation)
Is urbanisation good or bad for growth? No development without urbanisation, yet there
is no consensus in the literature, scholars have differing views
...
■ Urbanisation leads to reduced family size, so reduced fertility rates
■ ‘Better’ population from healthcare and education
...
■ Efficiency gains from concentrating production in one area
...
● Urbanisation as a Bad (
urban residents view):
○ Mass urban unemployment if Todaro model expectations are wrong
○ Creation of slums, poor conditions, more than compensates for services
provision?
○ Diseconomies of scale present in cities (see congestion or crime)
Urbanisation as a Good (
rural residents view):
● Urban migrants pass on remittances, improves the standard of living
...
● Greater investment in urban areas, rural areas get left out
● Farming may decline, leaving those behind more in poverty
According to data,
there is a link between urbanisation and GNI p
...
but the flow of
causality is unclear
...
e
...
They export cheap primary goods and import machinery returns to
capital might be higher in a developing country inviting investors from rich,
capitalabundant countries and it mobilises capital for large infrastructure projects
needed for development
benefits both sides
○ Debt overhang
the accumulation of a stock of debt so large as to threaten the
country’s ability to repay its past loans
...
Deposits of the surpluses gave financial institutions
large amounts to invest and an increased readiness to lend to governments of
developing country, there was a view that governments should play a leading role
in the industrialization of their economies with the strategy of
industrialization by
importsubstitution
○ At first, all is well: large borrowing from private sector at commercial rates, loans
were given at variable interest rates and with short maturities, almost 80% of this
debt was on nonconcessional terms
...
2%
○ Second oil shock
increase in prices of oil and imported manufactured goods,
increase in interest rate due to the stabilization policies in the developed
countries which contributed to the decrease in demand from developed countries,
decrease in primary good prices (around 20%), domestic investors flee the
domestic banks (chasing higher interest rates)
■ Indebted countries struggled to make repayment and
inability/unwillingness to reform the economy led to further debt
■ Countries tried to renegotiate loans with private international banks
(stretch out the period for payment of interest and principal), this required
the IMF to get involved before the consortium of banks would agree to
refinance the debt the IMF policies are highly contested and hurt the
poor as in involved cutting social spending
Empirical evidence overall, mixed evidence on the impact of debt on growth, highly
debated (more details in further reading)
○ Pattillo et al
...
(2004) found that large external debt reduces the growth of per
capita physical capital and total factor productivity
○ Clemens et al
...
Other development funds and the Paris club (richcountry
○
○
○
governments) joined the effort
...
Conditions:
some tests of fiscal responsibility (to ensure reduction in debt is
sustained), commitment to use part of the additional resources for increasing
growth and reducing poverty countries had to prepare a PRSP (poverty
reduction strategy paper) with their own proposals on these topics
...
■ After a period of showing seriousness in meeting the conditions full
program of debt reduction including principal (completion point) where
debts reduced below the critical ratios to exports and to government
revenue that had caused them to be classified as ‘heavily indebted’
(150% to exports and 250% to government revenue)
MDRI multilateral debt relief initiative reduction of debt to multilaterals at
completion point, technically a different scheme to HIPC initiative launched in
2006 to provide additional support to HIPCs
Criticisms:
■ Delay in debt relief, it’s a long process not always responding timely to the
needs
...
’
● Johnson assesses the impact of debt relief on growth by looking at
resources made
available for investment from reduced debt service payments
and improved incentives to
certain evidence that it
promotes investment
and thereby growth in countries
not
classified as HIPCs
● Debt relief is increasing as a percentage of foreign aid
● Debt relief does not encourage economic growth directly but rather through investment
...
● Ironically,
debt relief seems to work best in countries where it is needed the least
,
that is in those not characterized by heavy debt burdens and low income
...
●
Excessive borrowing typically follows from debt relief (Easterly 2002) this could be due
to moral hazard it implies that debt relief does not generally reduce the debt ratio
ROBERT POWELL
Aid and debt relief in Africa: have they been substitutes or complements?
● Debt relief and aid are different but often used at the same time, aid included budget
support, project grants and concessional loans
● Relationship between debt and aid has not been widely studied, have policy changes
affected the relationship?
● Population, conduct of economic policy and the need of the recipient are significant
● Debt relief schemes since 1988 all seem to have had a significant positive effect on net
transfers to participating countries
● Donor countries seem to seem to be using debt relief and aid as complementary ways of
providing additional resources to SSA countries in need, depending on good institutions
and economic policy
○ Debt relief alone is not enough
ANDREA PESCATORI, DAMIANO SANDRI & JOHN SIMON
No Magic Threshold
● There is no clear point above which a nation’s debt dramatically compromises
mediumterm growth
● If there is no ‘tipping point’ then policymakers may find it appropriate to give priority to
increasing growth rather than reducing debt ratios
● Dispute over causality does debt cause poor growth or does weak growth cause debt
● Short term GDP growth is particularly low in the year after the debttoGDP ratio
exceeds 90%
● Performance is less affected by higher debt at the 5 year horizon and much less affected
at horizons of 1015 years
○ While debt may be associated with milder growth there is no longer any clear
debttoGDP threshold above which growth deteriorates sharply
● Debt level alone is insufficient to explain the growth potential of an economy weak
predictor
● Countries dealing with their budget deficits (high but declining debt) may be well placed
to grow in the future
BENEDICT CLEMENTS, RINA BHATTACHARYA AND TOAN QUOC NGUYEN
Can debt relief boost growth in poor countries? 2005
● High levels of debt can depress economic growth in lowincome countries, external debt
slows growth only after its face value reaches a threshold estimated to be about 50% of
GDP (or in net present value terms, 2025% of GDP) implies that the substantial
reduction in external debt projected for the countries participating in the HIPC initiative
would directly add 0
...
1% to the per capita GDP growth rates
●
●
External debt affects growth indirectly through its effect on public investment
, it is not the
stock of public debt which depresses public investment but rather the cost of servicing
the debt
○ Every percentage point increase in debt service as a share of GDP reduces
public investment by about 0
...
This is constrained by: low returns of economic activities,
high costs of finance
...
Donors interests (tied aid, loans instead of grants)
■ Tied aid:
whenever a country gives aid, the money will be spent on goods
and services in the giving economy
...
● ‘about ⅔ of our aid is spent on goods and services in Britain…
Trade follows aid… Aid is in our long term interest’ former British
minister of overseas development
● Rich countries might not know what the developing countries
need, but rules are needed in case of corruption, money might be
spent on unproductive projects/military spending
● Who is donating?
○ Interestingly, big dip in aid flows in 2007, suggests countries are willing to give
money to the poor as long as their domestic economy is doing okay
○
●
●
US is the largest donor, countries have a target to donate 0
...
Is China targeting the places rich in
natural resources? The most efficient projects in Africa are funded by the
Chinese low paperwork
Debate over whether aid works, there is a general agreement that aid failed to deliver
what was expected
...
g
...
(more
detail in further reading)
Empirical evidence linking aid and growth suggests aid works under some
conditions
○ Marshall plan for the reconstruction of Western Europe seen as a great success
○ First studies gave mixed results: Aid increases growth (Papanek 1973), aid
decreases growth (Mosley 1973), aid has no impact on growth (Mosley et al
...
Aid effectiveness depends on specific conditions in the recipient countries:
■ Good policies (budget surplus, inflation and trade openness) by Burnside
and Dollar (2000)
...
■ Climate variables: tropical climate reduces aid effectiveness (Dalgaard et
al
...
g
...
It inhibits social capital, entrepreneurship and foreign investment
○ Development results from private sector and free enterprise (discipline of
financial markets)
● Stats:
○ Subsaharan countries suffering despite the fact that their countries have
received over US$300 billion in development assistance since 1970
○
○
○
Last 30 years, most aiddependent countries have an average growth rate of
minus 0
...
(If a country does
well, they stop getting aid, why would they strive to do well?) It rewards worse
performers
...
g
...
g
...
e
...
○ More needs to be done on primary needs e
...
clean water, schooling
○ He calculates how much is needed to scale up millenium villages to the entire
country in these villages everything is ealth with at once education, health,
water etc
...
Donors would love to know what development outcome they are buying for
each dollar of aid given
Aid effectiveness linked with country policies, quality of governance, and the link
between external donors or aid agencies and policymakers or even policies
○ Agencies provide funds and technical assistance, both of which influence the
policy debate they often seek to impose conditionality even though they operate
with imperfect knowledge and have little control over implementation
Good governance counts
understanding of governance systems and how they lead to
better policy formulation and ultimately, development outcomes dimensions of
governance have a favourable impact on development so aid should be effective in
countries that meet specific governance conditions and where agencies and
governments have access to the right knowledge in terms of policies and programs
Move aid commitments toward a contractual basis built on achieving development and
balance aid between rewarding and encouraging good performance and addressing
needs
○ There is a risk that aid will be focused on a few countries that already perform
well ‘fragile states’ require a different approach
CARLJOHAN DALGAARD & LENNART ERICKSON
Reasonable expectations and the first millennium development
● How much growth should aid flows have produced in SubSaharan Africa over the last
three decades? How much aid would be needed to attain the first MDG (cutting poverty
in half by 2015) and how much would structural characteristics, such as domestic saving
rates and productivity, have to change in order to reach the MDG?
● Past and future expectations for aid in fostering growth and poverty reduction have been
too high
○ The aid costs of ensuring the achievement of MDG1 are very high
○ Burden of poverty in Africa and other lowincome countries is immense and the
findings suggest that aid may not be as effective in reducing that burden
○ Aid does have the potential to have a positive impact on growth and poverty
these impacts may be modest in absolute terms but for very poor people, small
improvements in their material conditions may have much larger impacts on
welfare
■
■
A more promising avenue would be if aid were to enhance productivity
growth though whether such an effect could be achieved is open to doubt
Greater attention should be paid to aid projects which directly reduce
poverty, either through targeting aid flows to poor individuals or toward
decreasing inequality
MARK MCGILLIVRAY, SIMON FEENY, NIELS HERMES & ROBERT LENSINK
Controversies over the impact of development aid: it works; it doesn’t, it can, but that
depends
● Aid works to the extent that in its absence, growth would be lower
...
g
...
○ A lot of aid still goes to corrupt and autocratic countries and to countries other
than those with the lowest incomes
...
ERIC WERKER AND FAISAL Z
Title: Development Economics
Description: Development economics notes, ideal for a broad overview of development including issues of development/growth such as institutions, agriculture, geography and many more. Format: lecture notes and further reading summary notes from key authors. Was used for Development Economics (2nd year module) at York
Description: Development economics notes, ideal for a broad overview of development including issues of development/growth such as institutions, agriculture, geography and many more. Format: lecture notes and further reading summary notes from key authors. Was used for Development Economics (2nd year module) at York