Notesale: Turn your study into money

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SRGQ  
WEEK  1  
1) What are the usual steps in the scientific process? 
(pg
...
Selection and definition of a problem
...
Upon identifying a research
question, researchers make an educated guess (hypothesize) to answer
the question
2
...
Collecting data
4
...
Data is analyzed to test the research hypothesis or
answer the research question
...
Comparing results to hypotheses
...

Conclusions should indicate whether the hypothesis was supported or
not
...

2) What is the advantage of the scientific method? (pg
...
It is more efficient and more reliable than relying
solely on experience, authority, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning as
sources of knowledge
...

3) What are some limitations of the scientific method? (pg
...
Inability to answer some types of questions (e
...
personal philosophy, values,
and ethics)
2
...
Limitations of measuring instruments (e
...
surveys can capture surface-level
information, but they do not record the actual behaviours of participants)
4
...
g
...
5)
Educational Research is the formal, systematic application of the scientific

method to the study of educational problems
◦ The goal is to describe, explain, predict, or control educational phenomena
◦ Share some similar approaches with the Scientific Method
◦ Main philosophical belief address issues related to ontology (nature of reality),
epistemology (how researchers know what they know), and methodology
(the methods used)
◦ Involves both Quantitative and Qualitative research
◦ Can be basic or applied research
5) Summarize quantitative research in terms of data, research problem,
manipulation of context, sample size, research procedures, participant
interaction, and underlying beliefs
...
8 – Table 1
...

◦ Research Problem: Hypothesis and research procedures stated before the
beginning of the study; We start with a theory to formulate a hypothesis
prior to determining the appropriate measuring method to collect data
◦ Manipulation of Context: Yes; maintain control over contextual factors,
establish controls over variables
◦ Sample Size: Larger sample size to provide statistical/meaningful data
◦ Research Procedures: Relies on statistical procedures; need to be specific
and use measuring instruments to collect data
◦ Participants Interactions: Little interaction; require minimal personal
interactions with participants because most data can be collected through
non-interactive means
◦ Underlying Belief: We live in a stable and predictable world that we can
measure, understand, and generalize about; that there are consistent laws
and forces governing our world that we can study by direct observation;
nothing can be true unless we can measure and see it in action
6) Summarize qualitative research in terms of data, research problem,
manipulation of context, sample size, research procedures, participant
interaction, and underlying beliefs
...
8- Table 1
...

◦ Underlying Belief: Meaning is situated in a particular perspective or context
that is different for people and groups; therefore the world has many
meanings
...
The world is not a stable, coherent, and uniform place
...
15Figure 1
...
15- Figure
1
...
15- Figure 1
...
16-17)
Basic research is conducted solely for the purpose of developing or refining a
theory; theory that produces concepts for solving educational problems; not
concerned with practical applications of findings – may take years to be
applicable to education
...
16-17)
Applied Research is applying or testing a theory to determine its usefulness in
solving practical problems
...

Find out what works and what don't work, instead of determining why they work
or not
...
19)
◦ Participants should not be harmed in any way – physically, mentally, or
socially
...
The consent
form must thoroughly explain the risks and rights of the participants – for
example the right to be debriefed on and withdrawal from the experiment
It is also important for researchers to maintain confidentiality and anonymity
when required
...

2) What does it mean to obtain “informed consent” and how do researchers
obtain it? (p
...
Researchers obtain informed consent by making sure
that research participants enter the research freely and understand the nature of
the study, along with possible dangers that may arise as a result of participation
...

Participants who are not of legal age or are not mentally capable cannot give
informed consent; in these cases, a parent or legal guardian must give
permission
...
21)
Freedom from harm means not exposing participants to undo risk
...

Freedom from harm also covers ensuring that the researcher has the
appropriate permission to collect said information
...
21)
The identities of participants are not known/revealed to the researcher
...

5) What does “confidentiality” mean? (p
...
In
ethical research researchers protect confidentiality when they know the
identities of the participants but do not disclose that information
...

6) Though often simply depicted as a linear process, in reality, what is
educational research like? (p
...

Educational research is truly a process of trial and error, therefore, the reality of
research is that not all ideas are as clear on paper as they were in your head
...

7) What does a research topic provide when following the steps in the
scientific method? (p
...
An initial topic that
is broad and complex often proves unmanageable for study, and the researcher
must narrow its scope to complete the study
...

8) What other terms can be used for “research topic”? (p
...

9) What are the four sources of research topics? (p
...
This can involve
incorporating new ideas and experimentation to find new ways of thinking or
develop hypotheses
...

2) Personal Experiences involve the questions that we ask ourselves and
capture our interest
...
Questions that arise from your experience, whether it be
volunteering, work, or being in school, can often serve as the premise for new
research questions to be explored
...


This is often done by switching a variable and testing a new theory surrounding
an old one
...
Replicating a
study is very important in the accumulation of information
...
Instead, it means to
test the potential flaws of the previous studies and see if the theory will still hold
up when the flaws have been controlled
...
Also, the accumulated results of these
studies will help improve the original theories and provide better predictions that
are relevant to the real world
...
While library research is encouraged, it allows
investigators a variety of sources to review and narrow or answer a topical
question
...
” (p
...
Theories are not a rule, but rather a
skeletal basis from which new ideas can arise
...
63)
Replication is to replicate or repeat a study by using different participants, or
altering other variables or aspects of the original study
...
This is important because no single study can provide definitive proof
that a hypothesis will be true in all or most situations
...

12) Between quantitative and qualitative research, which is most likely to
require narrowing? (p
...
Without a
narrow topic, it would be difficult to start the research or collect data
...

Qualitative research also requires narrowing because the researcher enters the
research setting with a broad and general topic in mind
...
This type of
research is exploratory; therefore the focus of the study (i
...
, narrow topic) will
emerge during the process of research
...
65)
It tends to result in a study that is typical, difficult to carry out and difficult to
understand
...

14) When do quantitative researchers typically narrow their topic? (p
...
A broad
topic can lead to grief and complicates the organization of the literature review
...

15) When do qualitative researchers typically narrow their topic? (p
...
It is not until after they have observed the participants and context over
a period of time, that the researcher will then formulate a narrower research
topic
...
A researchable topic is one that can be investigated through
collecting and analyzing data
...
In other words, research topics that contain the word "should" are
often not very easy to answer or resolve and for that reason they are not good
research topics
...
A good research topic
must have significance or practical implications
...

Fourthly, researchable topics must not harm participants
...

Lastly, given your current level of research experience and the time frame, the
research topic should be manageable
...


17) What are five characteristics of good topics? (p
...

◦ Select a topic that is researchable, in other words, that can be investigated by
collecting and analyzing data
...
That is to say, that
contributes to the understanding or improvement of educational theory or
practice
...

◦ Select a topic that is manageable for you, the researcher, and make sure you
have the skill and resources to carry out the study
...

66)
For a quantitative study, a well-written topic statement describes the variables
of interest, the specific relations among those variables, and important
characteristics of the participants
...

19) How do qualitative research topics differ from quantitative ones in how
they are stated? (p
...

Qualitative Research Topics
A qualitative researcher gives a more general topic statement because they
need to spend time in the research context before the focus of the study is
developed
...

20) Define the term “hypothesis”
...
70/71)
A hypothesis is a researcher’s prediction of the results from the study, a
statement of the researcher’s expectations about the relations among the
variables in the research topic, and typically derived from knowledge gained
while reviewing the literature
...

21) A researcher does not seek to “prove” a hypothesis
...
70)
Rather than trying to prove a hypothesis, a researcher endeavours to collect

data that either supports or does not support it
...

22) What are four attributes of good quantitative research hypotheses?
(p
...
The purpose, no matter the findings/outcomes, should
contribute to educational theory or practice
...

◦ Provides reasonable explanation for the predicted outcome
...
It also must
define variables in operational and measurable terms
...
e
...
This way your hypothesis won't be too
long
...

◦ It must be testable within a reasonable time frame
◦ It must be falsifiable/testable by collecting and analyzing data
◦ Testable hypothesis are measurable and can be observed in some way
...

24) What is a “null hypothesis”? (p
...
Accepting the null
hypothesis will require the researcher to work towards other possible answers;
whereas, rejecting the null hypothesis supports a researcher’s basis, leading to
new research and replication
...
72- 73)
...

Hypothesis: Sixth-grade general math students who learned in a small class
environment performed greater on academic tests than sixth-grade general
math students who did not learn in a small class environment
...

26) What do the results of an analysis when testing the hypothesis not do?
(p
...
If a hypothesis is NOT supported, the data may contribute to
the development of new research methods or a revision of an aspect of a theory
– it directly relates to the expanding, refining, or revising the education
knowledge base
...

73)
The results of analysis indicate whether a hypothesis is supported or not
supported for the particular participants, context, and instruments involved
...
It is also not a
matter of failure or success if the data doesn't/does support the theory being
studied
...
The results can only help expand the
current knowledge base
...
74)
Qualitative researchers may develop what is known as guiding hypotheses,
rather than testing them, a qualitative researcher will develop a new hypothesis
based on their research as it unfolds
...
The qualitative researcher
can look for non-binary answers and help identify patterns and associations that
may lead to a new hypothesis
...

29) What do most qualitative research questions focus on? (p
...
They may develop a
"guiding hypothesis" through inductive reasoning to help focus the purpose and
question
...


WEEK  3  
1
...
80)
The review of related literature involves systematic identification, location and
analysis of documents containing information related to the research topic
...
Reviews of
related literature are usually in the intro section of a research study
...
What kinds of documents are typically consulted in a review of the
literature? (p
...
What is the major purpose of reviewing the literature? (p
...
It can prevent
you from duplicating another person’s work and help place your topic
within a knowledgeable framework
...

• provides the rationale for formulating hypotheses, prevent repeating
mistakes done by other researchers, inspire new methods or strategies to
collect data, and help facilitate interpretation of results
...
As compared to quantitative researchers, how do qualitative researchers
sometimes differ with how they regard and use the literature and why? (p
...

Qualitative researchers disagree about the role of the literature review in the
research process: they say it should be introduced earlier and others believe it
will unduly influence the direction of their research
...
What are six basic questions to evaluate literature sources critically?
(CH
...
93-5/103)
1) What was the problem statement of the study?
◦ The problem statement is usually found in the abstract and will allow you to
determine the relevance of the research to your own research
◦ Determine if the source really applies to your research topic and if it qualifies
to be included in a review of related literature
◦ (Examples
...
) Does the information come from a scholarly or peer-reviewed
journal, an education related magazine, or a popular magazine? Is the
information personal opinion or the result of a research study?
4) How was the study conducted?
◦ It is important to verify that the information presented in a source is objective
and impartial
◦ (Examples
...

6
...
83)
Where a source is published gives the researcher important information into the
reliability of it
...
It will indicate if it a refereed source, if it
scholarly etc
...

A reliable source is usually one from a peer-reviewed, academic journal,
scholarly texts and dissertations, these publications for strict guidelines
regarding format and procedures
...
Primary sources, written and researched by reputable authors, can lend
important insights, and secondary sources can be helpful in comparing already
existing research and pointing the direction to other sources
...
What kind of published source must be particularly carefully scrutinized
and why? (p
...
Websites may post research articles
aimed at promoting a certain perspective or educational products and so, they
must be carefully examined for bias, subjectivity, intent, accuracy and reliability
...
Blogs and wikis are not as
reliable as peer-reviewed academic research due to the constant creation and
manipulation of content by users
...
What is important to consider when looking at how a study was
conducted? (P
...
It should be objective, impartial, and
have relevancy that pertains to their and your own studies
...
A source, meaning
a place of origin and publication should be provided
...
Resources should also be considered, since they
apply to the quality and background of the study
...
What is a research plan? (p
...
Both
qualitative or quantitative research study both need intros, a section on
reviewing the literature, discuss the research design and procedure, and include
some general info about data analysis
...
Before conducting the actual study, the research
plan must be submitted for approval
...
Researchers might notice some major
errors, which can then be avoided in the actual study
...
Though not included in a research plan, what general consideration
should be made? (p
...
To avoid many problems and to
obtain strategies for overcoming them, it is useful to talk to more experienced
researchers
...

11
...
4 – PG
...
What does “design” mean in a quantitative research plan and what does
it include? (p
...
Basic
structure, goals, nature of the hypothesis, variables involved, and the constraints
of the environment are discussed
...
Researchers will outline the type of design, eg,
experimental, casual-comparative etc
...
What does “procedure” mean in a quantitative research plan?
(p
...
It typically begins with a detailed
description of the technique used to select study participants and describes
methods for carrying out all other significant components of the study (e
...
,
gaining entry to the research site, collecting and storing data)
...
The strength of the procedure, and how detailed it is written
will help the readers judge the quality of the research
...
Also, procedures for conducting experiments
differ from procedures for conducting surveys
...
The
procedure should contain detailed information so that external readers can
make reasonable judgments about the usefulness of the potential results
...
What is an “assumption”? Give an example
...
115)
An assumption is an assertion presumed to be true but not actually verified
...

15
...
115)
A limitation is when there are some aspects of a study that can't be controlled
by the researcher; usually something that can be negative to the study
...
In this case, researchers will have to honestly address the set-backs

during their data analysis and explain how these factors can affect the overall
quality of the data collected
...

16
...
116-118)
1 Title of the Study
Provides the researcher with a frame of reference for continuous reflection
...
The title also must convey
the right key words so they could be properly catalogued and attract the right
readers' attention
...
Case study)
Provides a rationale for why the approach is appropriate
Provide a link to the appropriate literature on research methods
b) Site and sample selection
Qualitative researcher describes the rationale for choosing a particular
sample and/or explains why a site is chosen
c) The researcher’s role (entry to the research site, reciprocity, and
ethics)
The researcher should describe any negotiations that must be undertaken
to obtain entry to the research site, any expectations of reciprocity that
the research participants may have, and any ethical dilemmas that may

face the researcher
...

f) Data analysis strategies
weighted towards interpretive rather than statistical data analysis
the qualitative researcher should describe the procedures for collating the
various forms of data and the manner in which they will be categorized,
often by emergent themes
g) Trustworthiness features
consists of any efforts by the researcher to address the more traditional
quantitative issues of validity and reliability
h) Ethical considerations
the most pervasive ethical issues relate to informed consent and the
researcher's ability to have closely aligned personal and professional
ethical perspectives
4 Potential Contributions of the Research
◦ elaborates on the significance of the study
5 Limitations of the Study
◦ should focus the discussion on any perceived limitations, over which you have
no control, that may affect your ability to conduct the proposed research
6 Appendixes
a) Timeline for the research
b) Proposed table of contents for the study
c) Consent forms, IRB approval
d) Samples of structured surveys or questionnaires

WEEK  4  
1
...
129/130/144/Lecture
slide 5)
o A sample represents the group of people being studied in order for

researchers to learn about a given population
...

o The purpose of a well-selected sample is to help a researcher make
inferences about the performance of the population
...
When a researcher uses a sample, what does it allows the researcher to
do?
Using a sample of the population allows researchers to extrapolate important
data about the entirety of a population from a small group
...
Using the entire population would create
large, unwieldy groups to work with and would simply take researchers too long
to collect data
...
What is the population? (p
...
Although researchers would prefer to
interview the target population, the more realistic approach would be to sample
from the accessible population
...
By selecting a smaller, more
defined population, the researcher saves time and money, but also loses the
ability to generalize about the target population
...
What is the process of selecting a sample called? (p
...
Sampling is choosing a
particular individual or group from a population so that they represent a larger
group or whole
...

5
...
(p
...

If the target population of interest is too large, it can be difficult to recruit all the

participants or even get permission for such a large sample size
...
As a suggestion, it may be wise to set
restrictions on the study, if possible, to target certain regions for study and to
mention such limitations within the study as well
...
130)
If a sample is well scattered, the results of a study testing that sample should be
generalizable to the population
...
In other words,
generalizability is the applicability of research findings to settings and contexts
different from the one in which they were obtained
...
If the sample of those selected teachers is correctly
selected, the conclusions based on their interviews should be the same or very
close to the conclusions based on interviews of all the teachers
...
What does a “representative” sample mean or refer to? (PG
...
`
Several techniques including defining a population, selecting a random sample,
determining sample size, avoiding sampling error and bias, and selecting a
nonrandom sample aid in increasing the odds of a “perfectly” representative
sample
...
What is the first step in sampling?
The first step in sampling is to define the population from which you can
generalize your results
...
First, that the target population is the ideal population from which a
researcher would like to draw his/her sample from, and second, that there is an
actual, realistic population from which a researcher can draw on which is known
as the accessible population
...

9
...
Each of the techniques listed requires
these steps: identify the population, determine the required sample size, and
select the sample
...
What is "Simple Random Sampling"? (p
...
This seeks to find a fair selection from
a general group
...

11
...
131)
Although random sampling does not guarantee a representative sample, it does
increase the probability of achieving one
...
g
...
This
sampling strategy does not inform the researcher on how the selection is done,
thus removing any opportunity to assign specific selection order or have a
chance to be biased
...
The best way to avoid bias is to have a randomly selected target sample
...
131)
Statistical analyses often require random sampling
...
If samples are not randomly selected, then a major assumption of many
statistical analyses is violated, and inferences made from the research are
suspect
...
How is a sample selected from the population with the stratified
sampling method? What are strata? (PG
...

◦ In stratified sampling, samples are selected from subgroups in the population
rather than the population as a whole – random sampling is done from
each subgroup
...

(Example: elementary school, middle school, and high school students
and or teachers)
Example of Proportional Stratified Sampling:
◦ The target population of teachers is 5000
◦ The sample size 10% of all teachers = 500
◦ The variable of interest is female vs
...
When is stratified sampling the best approach? (p
...

Ensuring that your sample is representative of a population can mean ensuring
that all groups within a larger population are adequately represented within your
sample, under those circumstances a researcher would employ the stratified
sampling technique
...
What is “proportional stratified sampling”? (133)
Proportional stratified sampling is a type of random sampling and is the process
of selecting a sample in such a way that identified subgroups in the population
are represented in the sample in the same proportion in which they exist in the
population
...
e
...
Some standard factors for this type of sampling may include race,
gender, socioeconomic status, and level of education
...
In contrast to proportional stratified sampling, what other kinds of
groups can you have? (p
...

There are equal and non-equal group selections that consist of different

characteristics like gender, race, status, language, location, employment, etc
...
What is “cluster sampling”? (p
...
Cluster sampling is useful when it
is not feasible for the researcher to obtain all the group members sharing similar
characteristics
...
This method usually
involves less time and expense
...
To ensure a higher probability
of obtaining a representative sample, it is better to have more clusters
...

Steps in cluster sampling:
1) Identify and define the population
2) Determine the desired sample size
3) Identify and define a logical cluster (e
...
neighborhood)
4) List all clusters that make up the population of clusters
5) Estimate the average number of population members per cluster
6) Determine the number of clusters needed by dividing the sample size by the
estimated size of a cluster
7) Randomly select the needed number of clusters, using a table of random
numbers
8) Include in your study all population members in each selected cluster
18
...
135)
Any location within which we find an intact group of population members with
similar characteristics is a cluster
...

19
...
135/136)

o
o
o
o
o

In cluster sampling groups, not individuals are randomly selected
...
What are the advantages of cluster sampling over simple random
sampling or stratified sampling? (p
...
Because the groups are predefined, it is much easier to study them since they are already all in one place
...
It is
also helpful if the population is very large or spread out of a large area
...

21
...
139)
For quantitative studies, these guidelines can be applied to help determine
sample size:
◦ The larger the population size, the smaller the percentage of the population
required to get a representative sample
◦ If the sample size is small, there is no point in sampling; survey the entire
population instead
◦ If the population is approximately 500, ≥ 50% should be sampled
◦ If the population size is around 1,500, ≥ 20% should be sampled
◦ If the population size is large and irrelevant (approx
...

22
...
139-140)
A sampling error is a slight variation in the selection of samples, and tests if a
sample is largely different from the population on a variable
...
If the sample is greatly underrepresented on a particular
variable, the researcher should stratify on that variable (i
...
, create a new sample
using stratified sampling) because stratification can provide proportional or
equal-sized samples
...

23
...
140)
Sampling bias is a systematic sampling error, which occurs when some aspect
of the sampling creates a bias in the data
...
Sometimes it can be difficult to secure approval for the best
target sample
...

24
...
140)
Non-random sampling (also called non-probability sampling) is the
process of selecting a sample using a technique that does not permit the
researcher to specify the probability that each member of a population has of
being selected for the sample
...

There is one main disadvantage with regards to non-random sampling
...
To
compensate for this problem, researchers may obtain information from nonrespondents
...
140, 141,145)
1 Convenience sampling (selecting whoever happens to be available)
◦ Also known as "accidental sampling" or "haphazard sampling"
◦ Example: randomly interviewing people that you conveniently encounter to
participate in your study and they willingly participate
◦ Weakness: those who agreed to volunteer in your study will be recorded, but
those who chose not to volunteer will be underrepresented; therefore,
results are not generalizable to the population
...

◦ Weakness: can be biased, or inaccurate

3 Quota sampling (selecting a sample based on exact numbers, or quotas, of
persons of varying characteristics)
◦ Example: doing wide-scale survey research on a given population including 35
working women with children under the age of 16, and 20 working women
with no children under the age of 16
◦ Weakness: people who are less accessible are underrepresented
What is “convenience sampling”? Provide two examples
...
141 and
lecture)
Convenience sampling occurs when the sample used in a study is comprised of
whoever happens to be available at the time
...

Convenience sampling, as the same suggests, does present the advantage of
being easy to conduct
...
The disadvantage is
that it is difficult to impossible to generalize about a bigger population from a
convenience sample
...
(p
...
The researcher selects a sample using his
experience and knowledge of the group to be sampled
...
The clear criteria provide a
basis for defending and describing purposive samples, which also results in the
main weakness of such sampling: the potential inaccuracy in the researcher’s
criteria and resulting sample selections
...

28
What is “quota sampling”? When is it most commonly used? (p
...
This is a more strategic or numeric
approach to select sample participants
...
Advantages: widely used in large-scale surveys when data are
obtained from easily accessible individuals within the well-defined categories
...
141)
Example: you would have to select the exact number of individuals, with the
same age, and the same socioeconomic background, etc
...
The main disadvantage would be that it sets
too much restriction on the sample
...

Describe qualitative sampling and the goal when selecting individuals
for such a sampling method
...
142)
Qualitative sampling is the process of selecting a small number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the individuals chosen will be good key
informants (i
...
, co-researchers) who will contribute to the researcher’s
understanding of a given phenomenon
...

When choosing a sampling technique and the sample itself, qualitative
researchers need to remember a primary goal: selecting participants who can
best add to the understanding of the phenomenon under the study, not
participants who necessarily represent some larger population
...

130,144-145)
Quantitative Research Samples
◦ Purpose of sampling is to gain information about a larger population – a
population is the group to which a researcher would like the results of a
study to be generalizable
◦ Researchers typically do NOT gather data from the entire population – it’s
rarely necessary
◦ Uses a target population to refer to the generalized population that is being
referred to
◦ The steps in sampling no matter which technique include: identifying the
population, determining the required sample size, and selecting the
sample
◦ Sampling approaches include:
▪
Simple random sampling
▪
Stratified sampling
▪
Cluster sampling
▪
Systematic sampling
31

▪
Selecting a non-random sample
◦ Samples size should be as large as possible— the larger the sample the more
representative and more generalizable results
Qualitative Research Samples
◦ Purpose of sampling is to select a small number of individuals who will
contribute to the researcher’s understanding of the phenomenon under
study
◦ Usually deals with small, purposive groups
◦ Researcher’s insights are gained through firsthand experience in the research
setting, guide the selection of participants
◦ Sampling approaches include:
▪
Intensity sampling
▪
Homogenous sampling
▪
Criterion sampling
▪
Snowball sampling
▪
Random purpose sampling
◦ No hard-and-fast numbers that represent the correct number of participants
◦ Can be conducted with a single participant or 70 participants
◦ In order to determine whether a sample is of sufficient size is to use two
general indications of redundancy of information and representativeness
What is the interest of qualitative researchers? What does this
require more so than in quantitative research? (p
...
Studying a small group
over a long period of time the qualitative researcher immerses him/herself into
the setting
...

32

Instead of generalizability, what do qualitative researchers want to
do? (p
...
The main goal is to select participants who can
best add to the understanding of the phenomenon under study, not participants
that represent some larger population
...
Qualitative research requires a more in-depth
understanding of the context, people and phenomena under study unlike
quantitative research
...
141, 142,143)
Purposive sampling is present in both quantitative and qualitative research
...
It usually involves less participants, but with accurate representation
for the group in which they belong or are representing
...
Instead of relying on
randomness, the researcher relies on experience and insight to select a sample
...

Are there simple and clear guidelines for sample size in qualitative
studies? (p,142-143)
It depends on the nature of the study, the researcher's time, expense,
participant availability, participant interest, and other various factors
...
Unlike quantitative studies, more participants do not necessarily mean
the data collected is more reliable or useful in a qualitative study
...

o The extent to which the participants chosen represent the range of
potential participants in the setting
...
g
...

o Data saturation: If you notice the data you've collected is starting to sound
the same across almost all participants, then that means you don't need
any additional participants in your sample
...

35

WEEK  5  
1
...
150)
◦ Data are the pieces of information you collect and use to examine your topic,
hypotheses, or observations
◦ Regardless of the type of research you conduct, you must collect data
◦ Before you collect data you must determine what kind of data to collect
◦ The scientific method is based on the collection, analysis, and interpretation of

data
2
...
The idea of the construct is an invention used to explain behavior
...
150)
...
What are examples of constructs? (p
...

4
...
15)
To measure a construct, it is necessary to identify the scores or values that it
can deduce
...
Applying these
constructs to an action can make it easier to watch, operationalize, grade,
measure, or apply to realistic situations
...

5
...
1500
When constructs are operationally defined, they become variables and also
become measurable because the operations/processes can be observed
...
For
example, we can define different kinds of personality types using scores (low
number for introvert and high number for extrovert)
...

◦ Constructs can be used to explain a phenomenon/behaviours
...

6
...
150)
Variables are placeholders that can assume any one of a range of values
...
We deal with
variables in all our research studies
...
Variables differ in many
ways: they can be represented by different kinds of measurements, identified as
categorical or quantitative, or classified as dependent or independent
...
What is an “instrument”? What is an example of an instrument? (p
...
What is a measurement scale? (p
...
The scale is the instrument used to provide
the range of values or scores for each variable
...
Also, it is important to know which scale is
represented in one's data because different scales require different methods of
statistical analysis
...

9
...
151)
Answer: A nominal variable can also be referred to as a categorical variable
...
Gender and ethnicity are examples of nominal variable
...

10
...
(p
...
What is an “ordinal variable”? (p
...

The rankings make it possible to make comparisons, but it doesn’t indicate how
much better Rank 1 is compared to Rank 2; the intervals between ranks are not
equal
...
Because the intervals are not
equal and there is no true zero point, it limits the statistical methods that can be
used to analyze the variables
...
What are examples of ordinal variables? (pg
...

Similarly, this is known as an ordinal scale, which is a measurement scale that
classifies persons or objects and ranks them in terms of the degree to which
they possess a characteristic of interest
...
What is an “interval variable”? (PG
...
e
...
e
...

o Example:A score of 10 and a score of 30 have the same degree of
difference as a score of 60 and a score of 90
o In educational research, scores on most tests such as achievement,
aptitude, motivation, and attitude tests, are treated as interval variables
o An interval variable does NOT have a true zeropoint
o Example:Without a true zero point we can say that a score of 90 is 45
points higher than a score of 45, but we cannot say that a person scoring
90 knows twice as much as a person scoring 45
...
What do interval variables lack?
Answer: Interval variables lack a true zero
...
The text book gives the following example: “without
a true zero point, we can say that a test score of 90 is 45 points higher than a

score of 45, but we cannot say that a person scoring 90 knows twice as much
as a person scoring 45” (p
...

15
...
(p
...
Another
example would be the difference between 53 and 54 being relatively the same
as the difference between 54 and 55
...
If someone were to score 0 on a test, that
doesn't mean that value represents the full extent of what they know about the
material being tested
...

16
...
151, 152)
A ratio variable has variables in two or more named categories, classifies and
ranks the variables, equal intervals, as well as a true zero point
...
Example: a test
can have 0 correct answers, but that doesn't mean the student knows nothing
about the content being tested
...
Or, the difference between 3'5" and 4'5" is the same as
6'7" and 7'7"
...

17
...
(p
...
Height, weight, distance, and speed are some examples of ratio
variables
...
For example, it is entirely possible that a student could
answer all questions incorrectly and have a total zero score, in this case the zero
number of right answer would be a true zero point if we are only assessing how
many questions have been answered correctly and not how intelligent the
person actually is
...
The
difference between them is 10 questions, and so we can say the second student
had twice as many correct answers than the first student because the true
numerical values (eg
...
Overall, ratio variables have a true zero point because a student can

have zero questions answered correctly, they have equal intervals, as well as
ordinal and nominal characteristics
...
What is the relationship between dependent and independent variables?
(pg
...

The dependent variable is the change or difference in a behaviour or
characteristic that occurs as a result of the independent or grouping variable
...

It is important to remember that the independent variable has at least two levels
of treatments
...

For example:
"Teachers who participated in the new professional development program are
less likely to express approval of new teaching strategies than teachers who did
not
...
What else is the independent variable sometimes called? (p
...
In what kind of studies independent variables are primarily used?
Answer: Independent variables are most often used in experimental studies
...
Because the independent variable is the cause, it is necessarily
present in experimental studies
...
What are 3 major ways to collect research data? (p
...
Administer a standardized instrument (more reliable and valid)
ii
...
Record naturally occurring or already available data (e
...
, make observations
in a classroom or record existing grade point averages)
22
...
153)
Standardized instruments can provide a variety of data for many variables
...
It takes less time to use a previously
developed instrument than to make your own, and they are managed,
rated, and interpreted in similar ways no matter the usage
...
This means that there are previous studies
that have used the same instruments and can be compared to
...
What is a “Likert scale”? (p
...
strong disagree,
disagree, undecided, agree, strongly agree)
...
1= strongly disagree and 5=strongly agree)
which can then be tallied by the end of the survey to determine the overall
attitude for the topic being studied (eg
...

24
...
157)
Firstly, a rating scale is also used to measure a respondent’s attitudes towards
self, others, activities, institutions, or situations
...
The difference is
Likert scale focus on the extent you "agree/disagree" to statements while the
Rating scale asks participants to "rate" the performance/preference with
numerical values
...
What can a researcher never be sure about with self-report
instruments? (p
...
What bias can occur with self-report instruments and why? Give an
example
...
For example, one common
response set occurs when individuals select responses that are believed to be
the most socially acceptable, even if they are not necessarily characteristic of
the respondents themselves
...
In other words, both affective and cognitive instruments are subject
to bias, which is the distortion of research data that renders the data suspect or
invalid
...

27
...
160)
Validity refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to
measure and permits appropriate interpretation of scores
...
Validity is
important in all forms of research and all types of tests and measures, and is
best thought of in terms of degree: highly valid, moderately valid, and generally
invalid
...

28
...
160)
Validity is a fundamental consideration for making and assessing tests
...
If a test achieves an outcome that is
expected or reasonable, it is considered valid
...

29
...
161)
Content validity is the degree to which a test measures for the intended
content/area of study
...
overall knowledge in Biology)
...

Thus, content validity is especially important when designing standardized tests
to assess students' overall knowledge in certain subject areas or even in an
entrance exam such as the GRE
...
162)
Criterion-related validity is determined by relating performance on a test to
performance on a second test or measure
...
Criterion-related
validity has two forms: concurrent validity and predictive validity
...
In terms of purpose, criterion-related validity tests the
extent to which the test correlates highly with another test
...
163-4)
Construct validity is the most important form of validity because it asks the
fundamental validity question: what is this test really measuring?
The purpose of construct validity is to determine the degree to which a test
measures an intended hypothetical construct
All variables derive from constructs, and constructs are nonobservable traits,
such as intelligence, that are invented to explain behaviour
To determine construct validity you must gather a number of pieces of evidence
to demonstrate validity
In terms of method, construct validity tests collect convergent, divergent, and
content-related evidence to determine what the presumed construct is what is
being measured
31

32
...

The more reliable a test is, the more confidence we can have that the scores
obtained from the test are essentially the same scores that would be obtained if
the test were readministered to the same test takers at another time or by a
different person
...
e
...
There are five types of reliability:
◦ Stability (test-retest): given the same group, they would get the same score on
the same test at a different time
...

◦ Equivalence and Stability: test results of different versions on the same
material at different times would be about equal
...

◦ Scorer/Rater: Receiving the same grade from two (or more) different markers
or from the same marker over time
...
165)
Stability, also known as test-retest reliability, is the degree to which scores on
the same test will be consistent over time
...
The more
similar the scores on the test over time, the more stable the test scores
...

o After a time, administer the same test
...

o Evaluate the results
...
(Complete the sentence)
...
(p
...

If a test is measuring what it is supposed to be measuring, it will be reliable, but
a reliable test can consistently measure the wrong thing and be
invalid
...

35

36
What is “internal consistency reliability”? (p
...
This approach only
requires one test administration, as a result, it factors out the possibility of

measuring errors due to differences in testing conditions
...
given 2
scores - one for right and one for wrong answer)
▪
Examples: Multiple choice and true/false questions are dichotomously
scored items
▪
Provides a more easily computed formula called KR-21
...

◦ Cronbach’s Alpha
▪
Is a general formula compared to Kuder-Richardson
▪
Used when items on a test can have more than 2 scores
▪
For example: Which of the following classes have you taken before?
Select all that applies
...


36
What is “interjudge” (i
...
, inter-rater) reliability? (p
...
Subjective scoring, especially on open-ended
questions, can lead to errors
...
This can be detrimental if the results are
significant in determining whether the test taker will pass the grade level or
graduate
...

37
Why is interjudge (i
...
, inter-rater) reliability important? (p

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