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Title: engineering chemistry
Description: Engineering chemistry which includes chapters on water analysis of water impurities of water etc with a good understanding language
Description: Engineering chemistry which includes chapters on water analysis of water impurities of water etc with a good understanding language
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Mahima Tulsian
JHUNJHUNUWALA
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Chemistry & Environmental Engineering 1e
Dr
...
However, neither Jhunjhunuwala nor
its author guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information
herein, and Jhunjhunuwala nor its author shall be responsible for any
error, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information
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MRP 125
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jhunjhunuwala
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com
Printed by Nodia and Company, Jaipur
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SYLLABUS
204 CHEMISTRY & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
UNIT – 1
Water: Common Impurities of water Hardness of water, Determination
of hardness by Clark’s test and complexometric (EDTA) method,
Numerical based on hardness and EDTA method, Municipal Water
Supply: Requisites of potable water, Steps involved in purification of
water, Sedimentation, coagulation, Filtration and Sterilization, Break
point chlorination
...
Numerical problems based on Lime-Soda and Zeolite
softening methods
...
Renewable sources of energy, Potential &
present status of renewable sources of energy in India
...
Biodiversity, population
dynamics
...
Noise Pollution, Harmful effects of noise pollution, control of noise
pollution
...
Solid Waste
Management, Classification of solid waste, Collection, transportation,
treatment, and disposal of solid waste
...
Sanitary landfill, on site sanitation
...
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Waste water management, Treatment &
disposal of wastewater
...
Corrosion: Definition and its significance
...
Protection from corrosion,
Protective coatings, cathodic protection, sacrificial anode and
modification in designs
...
Chemistry of water treatment, Samuel Faust & Osman M Aly, CRC
Press
...
Boilers water treatment
...
3
...
4
...
5
...
6
...
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PREFACE
The book is written particularly for the II- semester B
...
The book includes 11 chapters
covering all the topics of new revised syllabus
...
The language used in the book is
very simple and theory is given point to point to avoid excessive text
...
The book includes neat and clean diagrams for a better
understanding of the topic
...
Each topic is started with a theory question which is supposed
to be sample question for university examination
...
Laboratory exercises are included
...
I express thanks to my
family for their patience and encouragement
...
Any comments, criticism and suggestion for further
improvement of the book from students and teachers shall be thankfully
acknowledged
...
Mahima Tulsian
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CONTENTS
1
WATER
1
...
2
Common Impurities in Water
1
1
...
4
Determination of Hardness
6
1
...
1
26
2
...
3
Purification of Water
29
2
...
1
42
Softening of Water
42
3
...
2
Softening Methods
42
BOILER FEED WATER
4
...
2
5
Introduction
Boiler Troubles
78
BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT
5
...
2
Segment of environment
87
5
...
4
Environmental Pollution
90
5
...
6
Classification of Pollutants
91
5
...
8
Type of Environmental Pollution
93
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5
...
10 Environmental Protection
96
5
...
12 Environment Impact Assessment
5
...
14 Non-Renewable Energy Sources
109
5
...
16 Scenario of Renewable Sources in India
6
102
123
ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY
6
...
2
Basics of Species
130
6
...
4
Structure of Ecosystem
131
6
...
6
Biodiversity
146
6
...
1
163
7
...
3
Air Pollutants and Their Classification
164
7
...
5
Control of Air Pollution
167
7
...
7
Acid Rain
170
7
...
1
Introduction
174
8
...
3
Source of Noise Pollution
176
8
...
5
Control of Noise Pollution
182
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9
SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
9
...
2
Classification and Origin
186
9
...
4
Collection of Solid Waste
189
9
...
6
Treatment
190
9
...
8
Economic Recovery of Solid Waste
193
9
...
10 On-site Sanitation
196
10 WATER POLLUTIONS
10
...
2 Source and Effects of Water Pollution
202
10
...
4 Wastewater Management
209
10
...
6 Conservation and Reuse of water
220
10
...
1 Introduction
227
11
...
3 Results of Corrosion
228
11
...
5 Factors Influencing Corrosion
236
11
...
7 Passivity
244
11
...
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1 INTRODUCTION
Human beings, plants animals and all other forms of life need water in
one or more ways and can’t survive without it
...
Although water is plenty on earth,
but 97% of total water available is too saline to drink and also not useful
for agriculture and industrial purposes
...
5% of the total amount and the rest being in the form
of oceans
...
Thus,
water available for drinking and other useful purposes is limited in amount
...
1
...
Thus, it has been termed as Universal Solvent
...
Impurities in water can be physical (suspended impurities,
colloidal impurities), chemical (dissolved gases, salts) or microscopic
(microorganisms)
...
For example, a solution of calcium bicarbonate is clear as calcium and
bicarbonate ions are atomic sized ions which are not large enough to reflect
light (dissolved impurities), whereas, sea water has very high concentration
of soluble sodium chloride, suspended sand and silt, collectively makes it
slightly cloudy (suspended impurities)
...
The impurities contained in water can be classified as follows:
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Page 2
Water
Chap 1
1
...
Smaller particles remain dispersed in the
colloidal form but the larger particles settle down on standing
...
Dissolved Impurities or Chemical Impurities
Natural water may have inorganic salts, gases and soluble organic matter
in the form of dissolved impurities
...
Zinc and
copper salts are also present in small amounts
...
These gases are pollutants, which are generally
present in the atmosphere and dissolve in water during rainfall
...
These wastes
contain organic compounds, which contaminate the natural
resources of water directly
...
Pathogenic Micro-organisms or Microscopic Impurities
Various pathogenic micro-organisms such as fungi, bacteria, viruses
etc
...
The
organisms and plankton developed at the water surface are main sources
of causing various diseases
...
3 HARDNESS OF WATER
The property which resists water from forming lather with soap solution
is termed as hardness of water
...
The water obtained
from a particular source may or may not produce a rich amount of lather
with soap
...
For example rainwater
...
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Table
...
1 Difference Between Hard Water and Soft Water
...
No
...
Does not produce lather with Produce lather with soap
soap, but produce an insoluble easily
white precipitate
2
...
1
...
1 Cause of Hardness
Water contains many dissolved salts when it passes over rocks and
through the various underlying layers of earth
...
Water containing any of these salts does not produce lather with
soap easily and is explained as follows:
Soaps are the potassium and sodium salts of higher fatty acids
like stearic acid ^C 17 H 35 COOHh , palmitic acid ^C 15 H 31 COOHh etc
...
Ca2 or Mg2
2C 15 H 31 COONa $
or
2Na
Sodium palmitate
(C 15 H 31 COO) 2 Mg
...
e
...
2C 17 H 35 COOK $
or
2K
Potassium stearate
(C 17 H 35 COO) 2 Mg
...
e
...
Therefore, no lather is produced
till all the calcium or magnesium ions get precipitated and more amount
of soap is required for the formation of lather
...
Ca2 or Mg2
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Page 4
Water
Chap 1
1
...
2 Type of Hardness
Hardness of water can be classified as temporary hardness and permanent
hardness
...
Temporary Hardness or Carbonate Hardness
Temporary hardness is due to the presence of dissolved bicarbonates of
calcium and magnesium
...
Ca ^HCO 3h2 " CaCO 3
...
H2O
CO 2
H2O
CO 2
2
...
They are chlorides, sulfates, nitrates,
etc
...
Removal of this
hardness requires certain special chemical treatment
...
1
...
3 Equivalent of CaCO 3 Concept
The concentration of hardness and non-hardness constituting impurities
are generally expressed in terms of equivalent amount of CaCO 3
...
(ii) It is the most insoluble salt that can be precipitated in water
treatment
...
CaCO 3
equivalent of a hardness causing impurity is defined as,
Wt
...
of the impurity #
(Since chemical equivalent weight of CaCO 3 50 )
...
Hence, in order
to convert the weight of CaSO 4 as its CaCO 3 equivalent, the weight of
CaSO 4 should be multiplied by a factor of 100 or 50
...
2
...
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2
...
5
100/111
MgSO 4
120
60
100/120
MgCl 2
95
47
...
5
36
...
5 # 2
H 2 SO 4
98
49
100/98
CO 2
44
22
100/44
Al 2 ^SO 4h2
342
57
100/114
FeSO 4
...
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3
...
Milligrams per litre ^mg/Lh
The number of milligrams of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness present in
one litre of water is known as milligrams per litre
...
2
...
1 ppm 1 part of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness in 106 parts of water
...
Degree Clarke’s ^cClh
The number of grams of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness present in one
gallon ^70000 L or gh of water is called Degree Clarke’s
...
Hence, 1cCl 1 part of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness per 70000 parts of
water
...
Degree French ^cFrh
The parts of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness present in 105 parts of
water is known as Degree French
...
Relationship between units of hardness
The different units of hardness are related to one another as given
below,
1 ppm
1mg/L
0
...
07cCl
1
...
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Hehner’s Method
(ii) Clark’s Test
(iii) EDTA Method
Here we only discuss last two of the above method
...
4
...
When sample of hard water is treated with a soluble soap
^C 17 H 35 COONah , the hardness producing metal ions form insoluble salts
with the soap and get precipitated
...
Ca2 or Mg2
2C 17 H 35 COONa
Hardness
Producing
metal ion
or
2Na
Sodium stearate $
(C 15 H 31 COO) 2 Mg
...
Procedure
The standardize soap solution is prepared as dissolve 100 gm soup into
800 ml alcohal and 200 ml distilled H 2 O with the standard hard water
(1000 ppm or 1 mg/ml)
...
Let the volume of
soap used be v1 ml
...
Let the volume of soap used
be v2 ml with respect to the total hardness of the sample
...
It removes the temporary hardness of the water
...
Let the volume of soap used be v3 ml with respect to the
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Page 8
Water
Chap 1
total hardness of the sample
...
Calculations
Standardization of the soap solution
Let,
The standard hard water (SHW) solution taken
x ml
Volume of the soap solution consumed
v1 ml
Hence, v1 ml of the soap solution
x ml of SHW
x mg of the CaCO 3
(1 ml of SHW 1 mg of CaCO 3 )
x mg of the CaCO
1 ml of the soap solution
3
v1
For the total hardness
The volume of water sample taken for titration
y ml
Volume of the soap solution consumed v2 ml
Suppose the lather factor is zero
...
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4
...
It is also known as
complexometric method and named as EDTA due to use of Ethylene
diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA)
...
For estimation of the amount of hardness causing ions in a water
sample, the water sample is buffered between 9 to 10 pH and is titrated
against EDTA using eriochrome black-T (EBT) as an indicator
...
It
forms unstable wine red colored complexes with Ca2 and Mg2 ions at 9
to 10 pH
...
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When all the free metal ions present in the sample
get complexed with EDTA, further addition of EDTA sets free the EBT
indicator by complexing the metal ions which were already complexed with
EBT
...
Free indicator shows blue color in solution
at 9 to 10 pH
...
Procedure
Standardization of the EDTA
EDTA is standardized by treating the known amount of the
standard hard water with NH 4 Cl NH 4 OH buffer having 9 to 10 pH
...
This solution is now titrated against a EDTA (or its disodium
salt, Na 2 EDTA ) solution and the end point of the titration is marked by
a change of color from wine red to blue
...
Determination of total hardness of the water
The known amount of the given water sample is taken and titrated
with standardized EDTA solution by the above procedure
...
Determination of permanent hardness of the water
The sample of water is boiled for about 30 minutes to remove
temporary hardness
...
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Let the volume of the EDTA used for the titration
v3 ml
...
Calculations
Standardization of the EDTA solution
The solution of standard hard water taken
x ml
Volume of the EDTA solution consumed
v1 ml
v1 ml of the EDTA solution
x ml of SHW
x mg of CaCO 3
(1 ml of SHW 1 mg of CaCO 3 )
x mg of the CaCO
1 ml of the EDTA solution
3
v1
For the total hardness
The volume of water sample taken for titration
y ml
Volume of the EDTA solution consumed v2 ml
x mg of the CaCO
1 ml of standard EDTA solution
3
v1
v2 ml of the EDTA solution
x # v2 mg of the CaCO
3
v1
y ml of the water sample
x # v2 mg of the CaCO
3
v1 # y
1000 ml of the water sample
Hence,
x # v2 1000 mg of CaCO
3
v1 # y #
total hardness of the water
x # v2 1000 mg of CaCO
3
v1 # y #
For the permanent hardness
The volume of water sample taken for titration
z ml
Volume of the EDTA solution consumed v3 ml
x mg of the CaCO
1 ml of standard EDTA solution
3
v1
v3 ml of the EDTA solution
x # v3
mg of the CaCO 3
v1
z ml of the water sample
x # v3
mg of the CaCO 3
v1 # z
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Page 12
Water
1000 ml of the water sample
Chap 1
x # v3
1000 mg of CaCO 3
v1 # z #
Hence,
permanent hardness of the water
x # v3
1000 mg of CaCO 3
v1 # z #
For the temporary hardness of the water
Temporary hardness
Total hardness
permanent hardness
1
...
The
problems created by hard water in domestic and industrial purpose is as
follows:
1
...
1 In Domestic Use
Hard water is harmful for domestic use as:
(a) Hard water is harmful for drinking purposes, due to deposition of
calcium in the bone joints and the possibility of forming calcium
oxalate crystals in urinary tracts
...
(c) It does not form lather with soaps or detergents
...
The reaction of lather
formation is:
C 17 H 35 COONa
soap
C 17 H 35 COOH
stearic acid
H2O
C 17 H 35 COONa
soap
C 17 H 35 COOH
NaOH
Lather
This causes wastage as a lot of soap is being used
...
Consequently, more fuel and
time are required for cooking
...
5
...
Each
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Page 13
Water
Chap 1
industry requires water with a definite specification
...
These impurities decrease the brightness, affect colors and
interfere with texture and uniformity
...
(b) Sugar industry: Hard water causes difficulties in the crystallization
of sugar from molasses
...
(c) Textile and dyeing industries: Hard water precipitates basic dyes
and decreases the solubility of acidic dyes, whereas iron and
manganese salts produce colored spots on fabrics
...
Hard water causes precipitation
of salts, which accumulate in the starch
...
(e) Aluminium industry: Water is used for washing the hydrate in
aluminium industry
...
Any
impurity introduced in the hydrate wash tends to accumulate in
NaOH solution and impair its function
...
It should be of uniformly low alkalinity
...
The hard
water increase the consumption of soap
...
Water should not contain high bicarbonate alkalinity
...
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1
2004, 2006
Calculate temporary hardness and permanent hardness of a sample of
water containing: Mg ^HCO 3h2 7
...
2 mg/L ,
MgCl 2 9
...
6 mg/L
...
Ca 40 , Mg 24 ,
Cl 35
...
Thus
Temporary hardness ;7
...
2 # 100 E
162
146
65 10@ 15 mg/L
Permanent hardness is due to the presence of sulphates, chlorides and
nitrates of calcium and magnesium[MgCl 2 and CaSO 4 ]
...
5 # 100 13
...
2
2010
A sample of water containing the following analytical data:
Mg ^HCO 3h2 16
...
6 ppm ,
CaCO 3 20 ppm , MgSO 4 24
...
9 ppm
...
SOLUTION :
Conversion into CaCO 3 equivalents are shown below in table:
Multiplication
factor
CaCO 3 Equivalent (mg/L)
or ppm
Constituent
Amount
(mg/L)
or ppm
Mg ^HCO 3h2
16
...
8 # 100
146
11
...
0
100
95
19
...
0
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Page 15
Water
Chap 1
CaCO 3 Equivalent (mg/L)
or ppm
Constituent
Amount
(mg/L)
or ppm
Multiplication
factor
Mg ^NO 3h2
29
...
6 # 100
148
CaCO 3
20
MgSO 4
24
...
0 # 100 20
120
Temporary hardness
^11
...
5 ppm
20h mg/L or 60 ppm
20
EXAMPLE 1
...
5 , Ca ^HCO 3h2 10
...
2 ,
CaSO 4 7
...
6
...
5, 32 and 1 respectively)
SOLUTION :
Conversion into CaCO 3 equivalent is shown in table:
Constituent
Amount
(ppm)
CaCO 3 Equivalent
(ppm)
Multiplication
factor
Ca ^HCO 3h2
10
...
5 # 100
162
6
...
5
100
146
12
...
562
CaSO 4
7
...
5 # 100
136
5
...
2
100
111
8
...
387
MgSO 4
2
...
6 # 100
120
2
...
481
8
...
515
7
...
043 ppm
2
...
069 ppm
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Page 16
Water
Chap 1
EXAMPLE 1
...
1 Na 2 CO 3 solution was added to 100 ml of a sample of hard
water
...
05 N H 2 SO 4 for
complete neutralization
...
SOLUTION :
The filtrate
30 ml of 0
...
05 ml of 0
...
1
15 ml of 0
...
So that
100 ml of water sample = 5 ml of 0
...
1
5 # 0
...
005
Strength of hardness as CaCO 3 equivalents
0
...
005 # 50 # 106 mg/L
1000
250 ppm
EXAMPLE 1
...
If 30 ml of HCl were required, calculate the hardness as parts of
CaCO 3 per 100000 parts of water
...
SOLUTION :
For the temporary hardness, the chemical reaction is
Ca ^HCO 3h 2HCl $ CaCl 2 2CO 2 2H 2 O
Thus 2 equivalents of HCl / Ca ^HCO 3h2 / CaCO 3 (since 100 parts)
CaCO 3 H 2 O CO 2 $ Ca ^HCO 3h2
Therefore, 1 equivalent of HCl
Now
100 ml of tap water
50 gm CaCO 3
30 ml of N/50 HCl
30 ml of N HCl
50
30 # 0
...
03 gm CaCO 3
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Page 17
Water
Chap 1
Therefore, 100000 ml tap water contains 30 gm of CaCO 3
...
6
How many grams of FeSO 4 dissolved per liter gives 210
...
SOLUTION :
FeSO 4 / CaCO 3
56
32
16 # 4
152 mg 40
100 ppm of hardness
210
...
5 319
...
96 mg/L or 0
...
7
A sample of water is found to contain 40
...
5 mg/L
Mg ^HCO 3h2 , 27
...
1 mg/L CaSO 4 and 22
...
Calculate the total hardness of water (Atomic weights Ca 40 ,
Mg 35
...
SOLUTION :
Conversion into CaCO 3 equivalents are shown below:
Constituent
Amount
(mg/L)
Multiplication
factor
CaCO 3 Equivalent (mg/L)
Ca ^HCO 3h2
40
...
5 # 100
162
25
...
5
100
146
46
...
85
MgSO 4
27
...
6 # 100
120
23
...
1
100
136
32
...
60
CaCl 2
22
...
45 # 100
111
Total hardness of water
^25
...
85
23
...
26
23
...
26h
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Page 18
Water
Chap 1
123
...
8
100 ml of water sample has a hardness equivalent of 12
...
05 of
0
...
What is its hardness in ppm?
SOLUTION :
100 ml of water sample
12
...
08 N MgSO 4
12
...
08 ml 1 N MgSO 4
1 ml of 1 N MgSO 4
1 ml of 1 N CaCO 3 equivalent
0
...
05g CaCO 3 eq
...
Hence, the hardness of water is 500 mg CaCO 3 equivalent per liter or
500 ppm
...
9
2002
A river water sample contains 200 mg of Ca ^HCO 3h2 per litre
...
SOLUTION :
In the present case,
Mass of Ca ^HCO 3h2
w
Equivalent mass of Ca ^HCO 3h2
E
Equivalent of CaCO 3
200 mg/litre
81
w # 50
E
200 # 50
81
123
...
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10
A river water contains 20 mg/L of Mg ^HCO 3h2 , 25 mg/L of MgCl 2 ,
19 mg/L of MgSO 4 and 24
...
Calculate the total hardness
of water in terms of CaCO 3 equivalent
...
7
MgCl 2
25
100
95
25 # 100
95
26
...
83
CaCl 2
24
...
2 # 100
111
21
...
7
26
...
83
21
...
65 mg/L or ppm
EXAMPLE 1
...
Another 50 ml of the water sample when
titrated with methyl orange requires 32
...
Calculate the
alkalinity in terms of CaCO 3 equivalent
...
5 ml of N/50 H 2 SO 4
Since P 1 , the sample consists of OH and OC 2 ions
...
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5h ml of N/50 H 2 SO 4
27
...
5
50 #
gram equivalent of H 2 SO 4
1000
5
...
5 # 10
4
gram equivalent of CaCO 3
4
5
...
of CaCO 3 50 gm )
5
...
5 mg of CaCO 3
Alkalinity due to OH per litre of the sample
27
...
5
30)
5 ml of N H 2 SO 4
50
1
5 # 50
gram equivalents of H 2 SO 4
1000
1
...
0 # 10
4
gram equivalents of CaCO 3
4
Alkalinity due to CO 2
3
1
...
12
100
650 ppm of CaCO 3
2006
Calculate the total hardness of water in cCl from the following analysis
of water sample
...
8 mg/L , Mg ^NO 3h2 28
...
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0 mg/L ,
KCl 73
...
MgSO 4
Chap 1
20
...
2 mg/L ;
CaCO 3
SOLUTION :
Calculation of CaCO 3 equivalents are shown in table below:
Constituent
Amount
(mg/L)
Multiplication
factor
CaCO 3 Equivalent (mg/L)
Mg ^HCO 3h2
20
...
8 # 100
146
14
...
8
100
148
28
...
45
MgCl 2
21
...
0
CaCO 3
21
...
2
KCl
73
...
10
16
...
62 mg/L
93
...
62 # 0
...
55cCl
EXAMPLE 1
...
01 M EDTA for titration
using Eriochrome T as indicator
...
01 M EDTA
...
SOLUTION :
Since EDTA forms 1 : 1 complex with the metal ions, hence
1 molar solution of EDTA reacts with 1 mole of CaCO 3
...
1 ml of 1 M EDTA reacts with
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...
Page 22
Water
Chap 1
100
1000 mg of CaCO 3
...
1 ml of 0
...
Strength of the given EDTA solution 1 mg/ml
(i) Total hardness:
Since 1 ml of EDTA is required for 1 mg of CaCO 3
...
Hence 100 ml of sample hard water contains 20 mg of CaCO 3
...
Total hardness
200 mg/L
200 ppm
(ii) Permanent hardness:
10 ml of EDTA is required for 1 # 10 mg of CaCO 3
...
1000 ml of boiled sample hard water contains
100 mg of CaCO 3
...
14
100
100 ppm
Permanent hardness
100 ppm
2007
0
...
100 ml of this solution required 20 ml of EDTA solution for titration
...
On boiling, titration of 100 ml of the same water sample
required 10 ml of EDTA
...
(1 ml of 0
...
SOLUTION :
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...
Page 23
Water
Chap 1
500 ml of CaCl 2 solution contains 0
...
hardness
500 mg of CaCO 3 eq
...
hardness
Strength of EDTA:
100 ml of CaCl 2 solution
100 mg of CaCO 3
20 ml of EDTA solution is required for 100 ml of CaCl 2 solution
...
15
1999, 2004
The water containing 16
...
0 mg/L of MgCl 2
, 24
...
2 mg/L of CaCl 2 , Calculate the total
hardness of the water
...
5 32 and 1 respectively)
...
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8
100
146
16
...
5
MgCl 2
19
...
0 # 100
95
20
...
0
100
120
24
...
0
CaCl 2
22
...
2 # 100
111
20
...
5
20
...
0
20
...
5 mg/L
***********
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...
Page 25
Water
Chap 1
REVIEW QUESTION
1
...
2
...
Explain various treatment methods by which hardness of water can be
minimized
...
Complete the following equations:
(i)
1 ppm
? mg/litre
(ii)
Ca ^HCO 3h2
(iii)
Mg ^CHO 3h2
/ "French
? cClark
?
2Ca ^OHh2 " ?
(iv)
Na 2 6Na 4 ^PO 3h6@ 2CaSO 4 " ?
5
...
6
...
Discuss Clark’s method for determining the hardness of water
...
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1 INTRODUCTION
The water from the surface sources may have some characteristics which
are unsuitable for human consumption, industrial use and commercial use
...
The whole process of making water free from impurities
and supply it to the consumer as shown in Fig
...
1, is known as municipal
water supply
...
1
2
...
1 Drinking Water or Municipal Water
Water is a vital and essential requirement of all the living creatures
...
The water with impurities is not suitable for the domestic uses
...
The
natural water, obtained from rivers, underground wells and canals does not
have the characteristic of the potable water
...
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Page 27
Municipal Water Supply
Chap 2
2
...
Drinking water standards can
be categorized as :
1
...
2
...
and they do not have any
noticeable hazardous effect on health
...
(ii) It should be free from all types of pathogenic micro-organisms
...
(iv) It should be free from hazardous chemicals such as poisonous gases
^H 2 Sh , lead, arsenic, chromium salts and mineral oil
...
0 7
...
(vi) The recommended hardness is about 300 mg/L as CaCO 3
equivalent
...
(vii) The total dissolved solids (TDS) in water should be less than
500 ppm
...
1 below
...
1
...
5 8
...
0
Interfere with disinfection
Total dissolved
solids
500
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Page 28
Municipal Water Supply
Chap 2
Physico-chemical
parameter
WHO
standards
for Drinking
water (highest
desirable limits)
Hazards caused beyond
permissible limits
Total hardness
100
Chlorides
200
Sulphates
200
Fluorides
0
...
0
Fluorosis, bone disease
Nitrates ^NO 3h
45
Blue baby syndrome
Ca
75
Mg
30 50
Iron
0
...
3
Changes taste of water,
causes stains on clothes
Mn
0
...
0
Changes taste of water,
causes stains on clothes
Cu
0
...
0
Loss of appetite, abdominal
cramps, diarrohea
Phenolic compounds
0
...
2
Mineral oil
0
...
050
Toxic effect on dermal and
nervous system
Lead
0
...
001
Affects central nervous
system
Selenium
0
...
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3 PURIFICATION OF WATER
The type of treatment given to water largely depends upon the quality of
raw water and also upon the specified standards
...
2 Different Processes Used for Treatment of Municipal Water
...
Sedimentation
Suspended matter like sand , clay, etc
...
2
...
1 Screening
In screening treatment the raw water obtained from rivers, reservoirs and
lakes is passed through steel screens, having large number of holes
...
2
...
2 Sedimentation
Removing of suspended clay and other colloidal matter present in water
by the process of setting is known as sedimentation
...
1
...
Heavy and
suspended particles settle down at bottom by gravitational force
...
The following are the main disadvantages of plain sedimentation process:
(i) Longer detention period is required
...
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Page 30
Municipal Water Supply
Chap 2
(iii) It does not remove colloidal particles
...
2
...
Coagulant helps in removing the
finely divided and colloidal suspended particles from water
...
The common coagulants are alum, sodium aluminate, ferrous
sulfate, ferric sulfate, etc
...
The particles settle down as sludge
...
To ease the process of coagulation
...
To reduce the cost of coagulation process
...
2
...
3 Coagulation and Flocculation
The theory of coagulation can be explained by the following phenomenon :
Alum is found to be the best coagulants and is widely used in most of
the water treatment plants
...
(i) The spongy precipitate of aluminium hydroxide entraps the finely
suspended particles and colloidal particles, carry them down and
make them to settle down as sludges
...
The ions of floc possess positive
charge and the colloidal particle possess negative charge
...
Flocculation
The process of the formation of floc is termed as flocculation
...
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(ii) Mixing: The mixing of coagulant should be perfectly done for the
quick formation of floc
...
Coagulation Tank
A coagulation tank shown in Fig
...
2, consists of the following
components:
Figure 2
...
In feeding chamber,
the feeding of coagulant is done by a suitable feeding device
...
The coagulant is added to water
by a this device
...
(iii) Mixing Device: Generally, the mixing device consists of paddles
which are rotates by a driving unit
...
(iv) Flocculation Chamber: The mixture of water and coagulant
is stand for some specified period or it is allowed to flow at a
very low velocity in flocculation chamber, so that the floc maybe
formed
...
Thus, sludge is deposited at the bottom of the flocculation
chamber
...
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Scrappers are fixed with rotating arms and are operated
by a driving unit
...
(vi) Collection of Clear Water: The clear water from the top is collected
in a draw-off chamber from where it is taken to the next unit
through the outlet pipe
...
3
...
When water
passes through the pores of filter bed, the suspended particles are arrested
by the bed
...
The two
types of filters used in water treatment are gravity filters and pressure
filters
...
Gravity filters
In these filters, water flows through the filter bed by gravity
...
A drainage system is
provided at the bottom of the tank
...
The first layer at the bottom is of gravels, the
second layer over the gravels is of coarse sand and the top most layer is
of fine sand
...
2
...
Working
Referring to the above figure, the water from the coagulation tank is
brought to the inlet chamber through inlet pipe
...
This
depth is known as filtering head
...
The water from the outlet chamber is then taken to the
next unit for further treatment
...
When the loss of head reaches a certain limit,
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Page 33
Municipal Water Supply
Chap 2
the working of filter is stopped
...
For the cleaning purpose, the top layer of sand is scrapped to a depth of
about 25 mm and replaced by clean sand before the filter is started again
for service
...
3
Rapid Sand Filters
The working principal of rapid sand filters is very much similar to that
of slow sand filters expect that rapid sand filters are provided with coarse
sand as a filter media instead of fine sand
...
The filtration head
is also increased to increase the pressure head and the rate of filtration
...
2
...
Working
In normal working condition, the valves V1 and V2 are kept open and other
valves are kept closed
...
Then the water uniformly spreads over
the filter media
...
Finally, the water is taken to the storage tank
...
At this time the function of filter is stopped
...
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Page 34
Municipal Water Supply
Chap 2
Figure 2
...
(ii) The valves V4 and V6 are opened
...
(iii) After sometime, the valve V6 is closed and valve V3 is opened so
that the dirty water can be removed through the wash water drain
...
But V1 and
V5 are kept open for sometime
...
Now, valve V2
is opened to start the normal work
...
Pressure Filters
When water is filtered under the effect of external pressure greater than
atmospheric pressure through a closed cylinder, it is called pressure
filtration
...
Construction
It is a closed cylinder made of steel sheets by riveting
...
Two
manholes are provided on top for inspection
...
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The gravels and coarse sand are placed over the under drainage
system which consists of a central drain and lateral drains
...
2
...
Figure 2
...
The water enters the chamber through the inlet valve V1
on top and passes through the filtering media under pressure
...
Cleaning
When the rate of filtration is decreased due to the deposition of impurities
on the top surface of filter media, it requires cleaning
...
The wash
water and compressed air are sent through the base materials in an upward
direction
...
The dirty water is exhausted through
the wash water drain
...
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3
...
No
...
Area
Requires larger area
for installation
Required small area
for installation
2
...
Gravel size varies
from 3-40 mm
...
Method of
cleaning
Scraping top layer of
sand to a thickness of
about 25 mm
Back washing
by water and
compressed air
...
Quality of sand
Fine sand, effective
size 0
...
35 mm,
uniformity coefficient
2 to 2
...
350
...
20 to
1
...
Supervision
Skilled supervision
not required
...
Period of
cleaning
1 to 3 months
2 to 3 days
7
...
It is economical
...
Rate of filtration
100 to 200 lits per
hr per m2 of surface
area of filter
...
9
...
Less efficient in
removing bacteria
...
Suitability
It is suitable for
towns
...
2
...
5 Sterilization and Disinfection
Contaminated water is main cause for the spreading of many diseases
like cholera, typhoid, etc
...
The chemical which are used to destroy the bacteria and viruses are called
the disinfectants and this process of destruction of bacteria and viruses
(harmful microorganism) is called the disinfection
...
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Despite this difference, the
two terms are used synonymously
...
Boiling
This method is commonly used in hospitals and for household purpose
...
Since the method is expensive, it is not used for municipal water
...
Chlorination
Chlorine is the most widely used disinfectant among the common
disinfectants, which are used in municipal water treatment
...
(ii) It has powerful bactericide property
...
(iv) It is economically priced
...
5
...
5)
Hypochlorous acid is found to be a powerful bactericidal
...
At higher pH value of 8, hypochlorous acid undergoes appreciable
ionization and exists as hypochlorite ion (OCl ) and H ion
...
Limitations
(i) High residual chlorine produces unpleasant taste and odour
...
(iii) Chlorine produces toxic compounds such as CHCl 3, CCl 4 , etc, by
reacting with the organic pollutants present in water
...
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3
...
These
include monochloramine (NH 2 Cl ), dichloramine (NHCl 2 ) and trichloramine
(NCl 3 )
...
When
chloramine is added to water, it slowly decomposes into unionized active
hypochlorous acid, which destroys the pathogenic bacteria and ammonia
as described in below reaction
...
Available residual chlorine
in chloramines inactivates any contamination that may be introduced after
the initial disinfection and thus provide adequate protection
...
(ii) It impacts good taste to water
...
(iv) Prolonged disinfection property of chloramines prevents any
growth of bacteria after initial treatment
...
Ozone treatment
Ozone is an excellent and efficient disinfectant
...
Ozone is an unstable allotropic form of oxygen
...
O 3 " O 2 [O]
The nascent oxygen is a very strong oxidizing agent, which destroys
the pathogenic germs
...
It makes the treated water
safer, tasty and pleasant
...
2
...
There is no chlorine demand in pure water
...
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It is the chlorination of raw water by which not only microorganism
but also organic impurities and reducing substance present along with bad
taste and odour in water are destroyed
...
A relationship between the amount of chlorine added and
the amount of free residual chlorine can be established by drawing a curve
between the two
...
2
...
Figure 2
...
At break point, all taste and odour disappears, i
...
, chlorination
up to break point eliminates undesirable odour and tastes
...
Initially, chlorine
reacts with inorganic impurities present in water and forms chloride
...
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Stage-II (Curve A-B)
As the amount of chlorine added is increased then it starts accumulating
as residual chlorine
...
Hence, the curve represents the residual
chlorine available in the form of combined residual chloramines and
unreacted chlorine
...
These chloro-organic compounds are responsible for bad odour and
unpleasant taste in water
...
As the oxidation of chloro-organic compounds and chlorine is completed,
suddenly the bad odour is disappears this critical point is known as break
point (Point C) and shown as decrease in residual chlorine in Fig
...
4
...
The break point is the point at which free chlorine begins to appear
again
...
It indicates that added chlorine is
not utilized in the oxidation and increases the free residual chlorine (
r
Cl 2, HOCl, OCl )
...
2 ppm to break point
...
2 ppm of free
residual causes bad odour and taste and is harmful as it creates irritation in
the intestinal membrane
...
So, the actual dose of chlorine should be determined by
carefully finding the break point formation
...
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What are the characteristics of drinking water?
2
...
3
...
4
...
5
...
***********
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...
3
WATER TREATMENT
3
...
2%)
...
However, we do use the oceans for thermal cooling of
power plants and as a sink for much of our pollution
...
98% of
water, including considerable amount in the form of polar ice caps is left
...
Thus , the conclusion is that, only 0
...
Quantity of water is not only concern
...
Overuse has resulted in the progressive deterioration
of water quality
...
The treatment of water depends upon the purpose, for which it
would be used
...
The impurities present in water vary greatly from one place to
another
...
3
...
g
...
As it discussed in previous chapter, natural or raw water contains
impurities, which causes hardness to water
...
We discussed primary treatments of water as
purification of water in previous chapter
...
3
...
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3
...
This
process involves the conversion of the soluble hardness-producing salts into
insoluble precipitates with the help of soda ^Na 2 CO 3h and lime 6Ca ^OHh2@
...
Principle
When water is treated with Known amounts of lime 6Ca ^OHh2@ and soda
^Na 2 CO 3h , the dissolved salts of Ca2 and Mg2 ions present in water,
react with these and form the insoluble precipitate
...
The reactions
involved are as follows
...
Ca ^HCO 3h2
Ca ^OHh2 " 2CaCO 3
...
(3
...
Mg ^OHh2
...
3b)
(b) Removal of permanent hardness due to magnesium salts
...
Ca ^OHh2 " Mg ^OHh2
...
3c)
CaSO 4
(3
...
Ca ^OHh2 " CaS
...
3e)
(3
...
H 2 O 1 O 2 " 2Fe ^OHh3
2
FeSO 4
2Fe ^OHh2
Al 2 ^SO 4h3
3Ca ^OHh2 " 2Al ^OHh3
...
3g)
(3
...
3i)
(e) Removal of free mineral acid:
2HCl
H 2 SO 4
Ca ^OHh2 " CaCl 2
Ca ^OHh2 " CaSO 4
2H 2 O
2H 2 O
(3
...
3k)
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Page 44
Water Treatment
Chap 3
Functions of Soda 6Na 2 CO 3@
During the removal of dissolved salts of Mg2 , Fe2 , Al3 , HCl and H 2 SO 4
by lime, the permanent calcium hardness is generated in the water due to
formation of calcium salts (e
...
CaCl 2 and CaSO 4 )
...
2NaCl
(3
...
3m)
CaSO 4 Na 2 CO 3 " CaCO 3
...
Hence, the precipitates developed in the form of [especially of CaCO 3 and
Mg ^OHh2 ] fine size and have a tendency to form colloidal solutions, which
lastly enter and deposits into the pipes and boiler tubes leading to their
blocking and corrosion of pipes
...
The Processes
Softening of water by L-S process can be done by two way, when the process
is carried out at room temperature, it is known as cold lime-soda process
and when the process is carried out at higher temperature ^90c 100cCh , it
is called hot lime-soda process
...
Cold Lime-Soda Process
In this Process, a calculated amount of lime and soda is mixed with hard
water at room temperature
...
are added
...
Method
Known quantities of lime and soda and a small amount of a coagulant
is added to the hard water from the top into inner chamber of a vertical
circular tank, as shown in the Fig
...
1
...
The chemical reactions converts the hardness producing salts into
insoluble precipitates, which gathered in the form of a heavy sludge
...
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The heavy sludge settles down at the bottom of the
outer chamber, which then taken out from an outlet of sludge
...
Figure 3
...
Hot Lime-Soda Process
When water is treated with the lime and soda at a temperature of 90c 100cC
, the process is called hot Lime-soda process
...
Method
Fig
...
2 shows a hot lime-soda water softening plant
...
Hard water is added from the top of the reaction tank where it is
completely mixed with lime and soda and is then stirred with superheated
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Page 46
Water Treatment
Chap 3
steam
...
The softened water with sludge
then enters into the sedimentation vessel where sludge settles down
...
2
Sludge is taken out through an outlet provided at the bottom of
the vessel
...
The
softened water obtained from this process contains a residual hardness of
15 30 ppm
...
1 illustrates the difference between hot and cold soda lime
process
...
1 Difference between Hot and Colt Soda-lime process
...
No
...
It is a fast process,
which is operated at high
temperature ^90 100cCh
...
2
...
In this process filtration takes
long time and not easy
...
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No
...
It has high softening
capacity and treated water
has residual hardness of
15 30 ppm
...
4
...
No reduction of pathogenic
bacteria
...
Reducing the corrosion of
distribution pipes due to
higher pH value
...
6
...
No removal of dissolved gases
...
Large amounts of sludge
formation causes disposal
problem
...
3
...
Besides this,
the process also removes dissolved Fe2 and Al3 salts, free mineral acids
such as HCl, H 2 SO 4 and dissolved gases such as CO 2 and H 2 S
...
Refer Eq
...
3a)
...
Refer Eq
...
3b)
...
Refer Eqs
...
3c) and
(3
...
(iv) One equivalent each of Fe2 , Al3 , CO 2 , H 2 S , HCl and H 2 SO 4
requires one equivalent of lime
...
(3
...
3h), (3
...
3e), (3
...
3j) and (3
...
(v) One equivalent of permanent calcium hardness requires one
equivalent of soda
...
(3
...
3m)
...
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Thus, for the calculation of the amounts of lime and soda required for
the treatment of a given sample of water, it would be easy to convert the
amounts of all the substances present in the sample in terms of CaCO 3
equivalent
...
where,
W
WEqvi
...
equivalent weight of the impurity
...
Hence, if the amounts of impurities are expressed in terms of
their CaCO 3 equivalents, the amount of lime required to soften a given
sample of water is given by
Lime required for softening
V
R
W
STemporary calcium hardness
W
S 2 (Temporary magnesium hardness)
W
S
W
S Permanent magnesium hardness
74
W # Volume of Water
100 # S CO 2 HCl H 2 SO 4
W
S
Ssalts of Fe2 , Al3 etc
...
Hence, the
permanent calcium hardness introduced during the removal of the abovementioned impurities by lime must also considered while calculating the
soda requirement
...
Thus, if the amounts of impurities are expressed in terms of their
CaCO 3 equivalents, the amount of soda required for the removal of
permanent calcium hardness already present and the permanent calcium
hardness introduced during the removal of permanent magnesium hardness,
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Page 49
Water Treatment
Chap 3
Fe2 , Al3 , HCl and H 2 SO 4 is given by
Soda required for softening
V
R
W
SPermanent calcium hardness
W
S Permanent magnesium hardness
W
106 S salts of Fe2 , Al3 etc
...
This is why corresponding
quantity of bicarbonate in equivalents has been subtracted in the
calculation of soda requirement
...
However, 1 equivalent of
NaAlO 2 undergoes hydrolysis to produce 1 equivalent of hydroxide,
which may be regarded as equivalent to 1 equivalent of lime
...
(iii) The units in which the impurities analysis are expressed, i
...
, ppm
(or mg/L), grain per gallon (or cCl ), etc
...
3
...
2 Zeolite or Permutit’s Process
Zeolites are the inorganic complex salts with the property of exchanging
the hardness producing ions (e
...
Ca2 , Mg2 , etc
...
g
...
These simple ions do not cause hardness
...
The zeolite is represented as M 2 Z , in which Z
represents the insoluble zeolite radical framwork while M is the metal,
which take part in exchange of ions
...
These are generally non-porous
...
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Natrolite ^Na 2 O
...
3SiO 2
...
Al 2 O 3
...
4H 2 Oh are the two example of
natural zeolites
...
Synthetic zeolites are porous, hence
their ion exchange behavior is more effective and fast as compared
to natural zeolites
...
Al 2 O 3 xSiO 2
...
The sodium zeolites are represented as
Na 2 Z
...
3
...
Hard water is allowed to enter in
the tank with a specific rate through it
...
Figure 3
...
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As the process continues,
the ion-exchanging capacity of the sodium zeolite gets decreased due to its
conversion into calcium and magnesium zeolites
...
Thus, it must be regenerated
...
This treatment converts calcium and magnesium
zeolites back into sodium zeolite as shown below:
CaZ
2NaCl " Na 2 Z
CaCl 2
MgZ 2NaCl " Na 2 Z MgCl 2
The chlorides of calcium and magnesium formed in the regeneration
process are removed by washing the zeolite bed with distill water
...
Advantages of the Process
(i) This process is clean and requires less time for water softening
...
Thus, occupy less
space
...
(iv) This process is free from the problems of sludge formation due to
no formation of precipitates
...
(vi) It does not create any pollution
...
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Page 52
Water Treatment
Chap 3
Limitation of the Process
(i)
This method is not suitable for water containing turbidity and
suspended impurities because turbidity clogs the pores of the
zeolite bed
...
3
Since, it can exchange only Ca2 and Mg2 ions with Na ions
...
(iv) This method cannot treat water containing excess of acidity
or alkalinity because highly acidic or alkaline water decompose
sodium zeolites
...
(vii) It does not destroy the pathogens present in the water
...
Difference between soda lime and zeolite process is as given in table
3
...
Table 3
...
No
...
This process requires soda,
lime and some coagulants
which make this process
costly
...
Only NaCl is required for the
regeneration, which is cheap
...
The cold soda-lime process
is slow but hot soda-lime
process is fast
...
3
...
This process is not useful
for the removal of the acidic
impurities and turbidity of
raw water
...
The plant occupies large
space
...
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...
Page 53
Water Treatment
Chap 3
S
...
Soda-lime process
Permutit/Zeolite process
5
...
This process can operate
under pressure and can be
made automatic
...
Treated water does not
contain sodium salts
...
7
...
The softened water contains
residual hardness of about
10 ppm
...
The softened water is free
from the hardness so can be
easily used in the boilers
...
3
...
3 Demineralization or Deionization Process
Demineralization is the process of complete removal of all the hardness
producing ions present in water
...
The two important demineralization processes are explained as
follows:
1
...
These resins act as ion-exchangers and remove all minerals from
the hard water
...
The resins are very complex organic compounds capable of
exchanging all the ions present in hard water
...
These resins possess acidic groups such as COOH or
SO 3 H groups and may be represented as R H
...
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3
...
Figure 3
...
They possess
basic groups such as OH or NH 2 group and may be represented
as R OH
...
3
...
Figure 3
...
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Method
The apparatus consists of two chambers, one containing cation exchange
resin and the other anion exchange resin which are made over a bed of
gravel as shown in Fig
...
6
...
6
Hard water is first allowed to pass through the cation exchange
resin
...
It is now passed through the anion exchange
resin and the anions ^Cl , SO 2 h exchanged with OH ions of resin as
4
shown by the following reactions:
Cl
SO
2
4
R
2R
OH " R
OH " R 2
^Anion exchangerh
Cl
SO
OH
2
4
2OH
Now, the OH ions generated from the chamber react with free H
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...
Page 56
Water Treatment
Chap 3
ions (coming from the first chamber) and form H 2 O molecules
...
Hence, it is generally known as deionised or
demineralised water
...
Regeneration of Resins
The exhausted resin in the first chamber is regenerated by passing
a appreciably concentrated ^10 20%h hydrochloric acid or sulphuric acid
solution through chamber
...
The regenerated resins are ready for reuse
...
(ii) This process soften water upto a very low hardness of about 2ppm
and is suitable for use in high-pressure boilers
...
(ii) Regeneration of resins make the process inconvenient and complex
...
2
...
In this
process, a homogeneous mixture of cation and anion exchangers is taken in
a single bed of vessel as shown in the Fig
...
7
...
Thus, the net
effect is the same as that of passing water through a number of cation and
anion exchangers
...
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When the resins are exhausted, the mixed bed is regenerated by
back washed
...
Now they are separately
regenerated
...
The regenerated resins are again mixed by injecting air
...
Figure 3
...
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1
1993, 1999, 2002, 2007
The hardness of 1000 liter of water was completely removed by zeolite
softner
...
Calculation the hardness of water
sample
...
5 gm/L of NaCl
45 gm of NaCl
45 g/L of NaCl # <
50 gm eq
...
5 gm eq
...
46 gm of CaCO 3 equation
38
...
46 # 103 mg of CaCO 3
or
1 Litre of water
38
...
46 mg of CaCO 3 equivalent
Hardness of water is 38
...
2
1993, 1998, 2003, 2007
A water sample on analysis revealed that the impurities are as follows:
Ca 2 40 ppm , Mg 2 48 ppm , CO 2 122 ppm , HCO 3
122 ppm ,
K
10 ppm
Calculate the amount of lime which is 80% pure and soda which is 90%
required to soften 1 million liter of water
...
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No
...
Ca
40
100
40
40 # 100
40
100
2
...
CO 2
22
100
44
22 # 100
44
50
4
...
K
10
_
_
2
2
Lime required
74
Mg
100 # 7
2
74
350
100 #
100
HCO 3 A as CaCO 3 equivalent
CO 2
74 200
100 6
CaCO 3 equivalent
(ppm)
100@
50
259 ppm or mg/L
Lime (80% pure) required for million litres of water
lime required # 100 # Volume of water
% purity
259 # 100 # 106 mg
80
Soda required
323750000 gm 323
...
5 kg
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...
Page 60
Water Treatment
Chap 3
EXAMPLE 3
...
0 mg/litre, MgCO 3 8
...
1 mg/litre,
MgSO 4 6
...
2 mg/litre
...
SOLUTION :
Conversion in CaCO 3 equivalent is shown below in table:
S
...
Constituents
Amount
(mg/L)
Multiplication
factor
CaCO 3 Equivalent
(mg/L)
1
CaCO 3
10
...
0 # 100
100
2
MgCO 3
8
...
4 # 100
84
3
CaCl 2
11
...
1 # 100
111
4
MgSO 4
6
...
0 # 100
120
10
...
0
10
...
0
SiO 2 neither causes hardness, nor is considered for lime soda requirement
...
74 8Temp
...
Mg2
perm ^Mg2 hB
100
74 10
100 6
2 # 10
5@
74
35 25
...
9 # 100 # 20000
90
575555
...
57 kg
106 8perm
...
9 mg/L
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Page 61
Water Treatment
Chap 3
15
...
842 mg 0
...
4
1998, 2001, 2005
Calculate the amount of lime and soda required for softening of 15000
litres of water, which analysed as follows:
Temporary hardness 20 ppm
Permanent hardness 15 ppm
Permanent Mg hardness 10 ppm
SOLUTION :
S
...
70
2
Permanent
hardness
^CaSO 4h
15
100
136
15 # 100
136
11
...
53
Lime required
74 (Temp
...
70
100 ^
74 24
...
Mg hardness)
10
...
93 mg/L
Lime required for 15000 L of water is
Soda required
17
...
03
100
10
...
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56
100 #
Chap 3
22
...
8536 # 15000
342804 mg
EXAMPLE 3
...
1 mg , Mg ^HCO 3h2 7
...
6 mg , MgSO 4 12
...
0 mg and NaCl 4
...
SOLUTION :
Conversion of CaCO 3 equivalents are shown below in table:
S
...
1
100
162
8
...
00
2
Mg ^HCO 3h2
7
...
5 # 100
146
5
...
6
100
136
13
...
0
5
MgCl 2
2
...
0 # 100 10
...
0 # 100 2
...
7
Lime required
Neglected
74 7Ca ^HCO h
3 2
100
2Mg ^HCO 3h2
10
...
0
100 6
2 # 5
...
26 # 50000
Soda required
106 CaSO
4
100 6
10
2
...
01 # 166 mg
MgSO 4
1
...
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...
0
100 6
Chap 3
2
...
0
1
...
43 # 50000
EXAMPLE 3
...
17 kg
1996, 2003
A sample of water on analysis was found to contain the following in
mg/litre: CaSO 0
...
44 , CaCO 3 2
...
80 ,
MgCl 2 0
...
40 , NaCl 2
...
(Atomic weights Ca 40 , S 32 , O 16 , Mg 24 , C 12 , Cl 35
...
)
Calculate the amount of lime and soda required to soften 20000 liters of
water per day for a year if purity of lime and soda is 90%
...
No
Substances
(mg/L)
Amount
(mg/L)
Multiplication
factor
CaCO 3 Equivalent
(mg/L)
1
CaSO 4
0
...
40 # 100
136
0
...
44
100
84
0
...
524
3
CaCO 3
2
...
00 # 100
100
2
...
80
100
120
0
...
667
5
MgCl 2
0
...
78 # 100
95
0
...
So that it is not consider in this process
...
# d 100 n # Volume of water # 365
% purity
74 2 0
...
0
0
...
821@ # 20000 # b 100 l # 365
90
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...
Page 64
Water Treatment
Chap 3
74 64
...
19 kg
MgSO 4
MgCl 2@ as CaCO 3 equivalent
# Volume of water # 365 # d
106 0
...
667
100 n
% purity
0
...
782@ 20000 365 100
#
#
# 90
100
15321240 mg
15
...
EXAMPLE 3
...
3 mg/litre, Al 2 ^SO 4h3 34
...
5 mg/litre,
NaCl 29
...
10% of chemicals are to be
used in excess in order to complete the reaction quickly
...
hardness)
Mg 2 Ca ]OHg2 " Mg ]OHg2 Ca
Ca 2 Na 2 CO 3 " CaCO 3 2Na
2
2
S
L
S
L
S
NaCl do not contribute any hardness
...
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No
...
3
100
73
7
...
2
100
114
34
...
5
100
95
9
...
22 mg/L
90
100
Now 100000 litres of water require
4522000 mg or 4
...
22 # 100000
Amount of Soda required
106 HCl
100 6
Al 2 (SO 4) 3
106 10
100 6
30
MgCl 2@ as CaCO 3 equivalent
10@
106 # 50
100
53 mg/L
Thus soda required of given quality with 10% excess is
53 # 100 # 110 59
...
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...
48 # 100000
Chap 3
5948000 mg or 5
...
8
1998, 2000
Calculate the quantities of lime and soda needed for softening 2000 litres
of hard water which analyzed as follows:
Analysis of raw water
Ca
2
Mg
2
HCO 3
160 ppm
CO 3
72 ppm
OH
2
30 ppm
17 ppm
732 ppm
Dissolved CO 2
HCl
Analysis of treated water
44 ppm
7
...
No
Constituent
(ppm)
Amount
(ppm)
Multiplication
(ppm)
CaCO 3 Equivalent
(ppm)
1
Ca
160
100
40
160 # 100
40
2
Mg
72
100
24
72 # 100
24
3
HCO 3
732
4
CO 2
44
5
HCl
7
...
3 #
73
6
OH
17
100
17
17 # 100
17
100
7
CO 3
30
100
60
30 # 100
60
50
2
2
2
400
300
Amount of lime required for softening raw water is
74 Mg 2 HCO
CO 2 HClA as CaCO 3 eq
...
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4 ppm
Amount of soda required for softening raw water is
106 Ca 2 Mg 2 HCl HCO as CaCO eq
...
6 ppm
Reactions involved to get excess OH and CO 3
Ca ^OHh2 $ Ca 2 2OH
Ca
2
Na 2 CO 3 $ CaCO 3
2
2Na
Na 2 CO 3 $ 2Na
CO 3 2
For excess OH in treated water, the Lime required is
74 OH
74
@ 100 6100@ 74 ppm
100 6
and for excess OH and CO 3 2 ions in treated water, soda required is
106 7OH
CO 3 2A
100
106 100
100 6
50@
159 ppm
Total amount of lime required for both raw and treated water is become
747
...
4 ppm
Similarly total amount of Soda required for both raw and treated water is
116
...
6 ppm
Total amount of lime required for 2000 litres of water is
]821
...
6428 kg
Similarly total amount of soda required is
275
...
9
551200 mg
0
...
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5 ppm, HCO 3
396
...
0 ppm , Ca
90
...
7H 2 O 14 ppm
...
2%
...
No
...
5
100
2
1
...
5
100
122
396
...
7H 2 O
14
100
278
14 # 100
278
5
...
7H 2 O@
5
...
23 mg/L
In case of 91% purity of lime and for 1 million of ^106h litres of water , the
amount of lime required is
lime required #
100
# Volume of water
% purity
429
...
04
6
@
2
Ca
225
471758242 mg
2
FeSO 4
...
04
164
...
75 kg
HCO 3 @
325@
100
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Page 69
Water Treatment
Chap 3
In case of 97
...
34 # 100 # 106
97
...
07 kg
EXAMPLE 3
...
00 ppm , Mg 2
1
...
36 ppm , Free acidity
This water is to be softened by lime-soda process at the rate of 5, 000 litres
of water per minute
...
9 ppm of commercial grade ferrous
sulphate ^FeSO 4
...
Calculate the quantity of
lime and soda required per hour
...
SOLUTION :
S
...
36
100
122
46
...
5
100
2
1
...
7H 2 O
13
...
9 # 100
278
5
2
2
The mount of Lime required is
74 Mg 2 CO
2
100 6
HCO 3
H
38
FeSO 4
...
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82 mg/L
In case of 80% purity of lime and for 5000 litres of water , the amount of
lime required per hour is
216
...
82 # 100 # 5000 # 60
80
81307500 mg/hour
81
...
52 mg/L
In case of 98% purity of soda and for 5000 litres of water , the amount of
soda required per hour is
362
...
52 # 100 # 5000 # 60
98
110975510
...
97 kg/hour
EXAMPLE 3
...
1 ppm
,
and
CaCl 2 33
...
5 ppm ,
Mg ^HCO 3h2 14
...
The coagulant, Al 2 ^SO 4h3 , was added at the rate
of 17
...
SOLUTION :
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Page 71
Water Treatment
Chap 3
Conversion into CaCO 3 equivalents are shown in table:
S
...
Constituent
Amount
(ppm or
mg/L)
Multiplication
factor
CaCO 3 Equivalent
(mg/L)
1
Ca ^HCO 3h2
8
...
1 # 100
162
2
CaCl 2
33
...
3 # 100
111
30
3
HCO 3
91
...
5 # 100
122
75
4
MgCl 2
38
100
95
38 # 100
95
5
Mg ^HCO 3h2
14
...
6 # 100
146
10
6
Al 2 ^SO 4h3
17
...
1 # 100
114
15
Amount of Line required is
74 [Ca HCO
HCO 3
^
3h2
100
MgCl 2
5
40
2Mg ^HCO 3h2
Al 2 ^SO 4h3] as CaCO 3 eq
...
44 # 106 mg 127
...
100 n Volume of water
#
% purity
75h mg/L@ # b 100 l # 106 L
98
#d
106 30 40 15
100 6^
106 10
100
106 mg
100 6 @ # b 98 l #
10
...
82 kg
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Page 72
Water Treatment
Chap 3
EXAMPLE 3
...
8
...
The costs per 100 kg each of lime and soda are Rs
...
2480
respectively
...
No
...
Lime requirement
74 [2Mg HCO
MgCl 2 MgSO 4
^
3h2
100
100
Ca ^HCO 3h2]
100 n Volume of water
#
% purity
50h mg/L@ # c 100 m # 20000 L
95
as CaCO 3 eq
...
4 # c 100 m # 20000 mg
95
4
...
05 kg
Soda requirement
106 [CaSO
MgCl 2 MgSO 4] as CaCO 3 eq
...
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6 # b 100 l # 20000 mg
90
3
...
77 kg
Hence, cost of softening is
4
...
3
...
100
100
3
...
50
Rs
...
54
EXAMPLE 3
...
SOLUTION :
Conversion into CaCO 3 equivalents are shown in table:
S
...
Constituent
Amount
(ppm)
Multiplication
factor
CaCO 3 Equivalent
(ppm or mg/L)
1
MgCO 3
144
100
84
144 # 100
84
2
CaCO 3
25
100
100
25 # 100
100
25
...
0
4
CaCl 2
111
100
111
111 # 100
111
171
...
0
Substances Fe 2 O 3 and Na 2 SO 4 do not impart any hardness and therefore,
these do not consume any lime or soda
...
# Vol
...
4 25
...
0@ mg/L 50000 L
#
100 #
74 467
...
31 kg
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Page 74
Water Treatment
Chap 3
EXAMPLE 3
...
The zeolite required
a total amount of 8 litres of NaCl solution containing 150 grams/liter of
sodium chloride for regeneration
...
SOLUTION :
1 liter of NaCl solution contains 150 gm of NaCl
8 liters of NaCl solution contains 150 # 8 gm 1200 gm of NaCl
10000 liters of hard water 1200 gm of NaCl
1200 # 50 gm of CaCO equivalent hardness
3
58
...
5 # 10000
1200 # 50 # 1000 mg of CaCO equivalent hardness
3
58
...
5 mg of CaCO 3 equivalent hardness
Hence the hardness of water
102
...
5 ppm
EXAMPLE 3
...
5 ppm
, CaSO 4 34
...
5 ppm , CaCl 2 27
...
0 ppm , NaCl 10
...
Also calculate the temporary and
permanent hardness of the water sample
...
No
...
5
100
162
40
...
5
100
146
36
...
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0
100
120
30
...
0
100
136
34
...
75 # 100
111
100
111
NaCl do not contribute any hardness
...
75
6Ca ^HCO 3h2
25
Mg ^HCO 3h2@ as CaCO 3 eq
...
75 ppm
Lime is required for Ca ^HCO 3h2, Mg ^HCO 3h2 and MgSO 4
Hence 84% pure lime is required for treating 20, 000 liters of water is
74 7Ca HCO
2 # Mg ^HCO 3h2 MgSO 4A
^
3h2
100
#
74 725
100
100
# Volume of water
% Purity
^2 # 25h
1761904
...
7619 kg
***********
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Page 76
Water Treatment
Chap 3
REVIEW QUESTION
1
...
2
...
Draw neat and labelled diagram Permutit of Zeolite Process
4
...
Also give the chemical equations involved in the process
...
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1 INTRODUCTION
For steam generation, boilers are universally employed in industries
...
These following conditions are
met before the water being used as feed water:
(i) Hardness of water should be below 0
...
15 0
...
45 1
...
3 0
...
2 BOILER TROUBLES
When the natural water without any pretreatment is directly fed
into the boilers, various physical as well as chemical reactions in boiler
water take place with the action of heat
...
2
...
The continuous
evaporation of water increases the concentration of dissolved salts
gradually
...
These solid precipitates are of two types as:
Sludge
It is a soft, loose and slimy precipitate formed in the boiler water during
the generation of steam
...
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Disadvantages of Sludge
(i)
Sludges are poor conductors of heat Thus, waste a portion of heat
generated for heating the water
...
Prevention of Sludge
Following precautions can prevent sludge formation in boilers:
(i) Boiler feed water should be free from the dissolved impurities
...
Scale
In boilers, scales are formed mainly due to the presence of MgCl 2
, CaSO 4 Ca ^OHh2 , Mg ^OHh2 and silica
...
They are difficult to remove, even with the help of a hammer
...
At high temperature in
boilers, CaSO 4 gets deposited as hard scale on the inner portion of
boiler
...
H2O
CO 2 -
In low pressure boilers, CaCO 3 causes scale formation
...
CaCO 3
CaO
CaO
CO 2 -
H 2 O $ Ca ^OHh2
(iii) Hydrolysis of magnesium salts: Mg salts dissolved in water undergo
hydrolysis and form precipitates of Mg ^OHh2 as a scale
...
2HCl
(iv) Presence of Silica: Silica present in water gets deposited as CaSiO 3
...
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Page 79
Boiler Feed Water
Chap 4
Disadvantage of Scale
(i)
Scale is a poor conductor of heat and decreases the efficiency of the
boiler
...
(iii) Excess of scale formation may block the boiler tubes and decreases
the efficiency of the boiler
...
Due to uneven expansion, thick scales crack and water
comes suddenly in contact with overheated iron plates, which may
lead to the explosion of the boiler
...
Some of the important methods of
external treatment are lime-soda process, demineralization process
etc
...
(iii) Carbonate treatment: In this treatment, sodium carbonate
(Na 2 CO 3) is added to boiler water, which converts CaSO 4 into
calcium carbonate as shown below
...
Calcium is precipitated as CaCO 3
...
(iv) Phosphate treatment: In this process, sodium phosphate is added
to boiler water, which form a soft sludge of calcium and magnesium
phosphates when reacts with hardness producing substances
...
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(v) Calgon treatment: Calgon is sodium hexametaphosphate
Na 2 6Na 4 ^PO 3h6@
...
Na 2 6Na 4 ^PO 3h6@
2CaSO 4
6Na 4 P6 O 18@2
6Na 4 P6 O 18@2
$ 6Ca 2 P6 O 18@2
2Na 2 SO 4
2Na
Soluble complex ion
(vi) Colloidal treatment: Scale formation can be minimized by adding
suitable colloidal conditioning agents such as glue, agar-agar,
tannin, starch etc
...
These substances act
as protective colloids and prevent precipitation of scale forming
substances
...
(vii) Treatment with EDTA: EDTA or its sodium salt (Na 2 EDTA)
form complexes with the scale forming substances easily
...
4
...
2 Priming and Foaming
When a boiler is producing steam very rapidly, the steam formed may
be associated with small droplets of water
...
Sometimes boiler feed water contains
substances which increases the viscosity of the water surface film, which
lowers the surface tension of the water and collect at the interface in the
form of bubbles
...
e
...
The liquid contamination in the steam is
expressed in percentage by weight of steam
...
g
...
5%
moisture, its steam quality will be reported as 99
...
Foaming
Foaming is the persistent formation of foam or bubbles in the boiler, which
do not break easily
...
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Foaming is due to the presence of oil or grease which
generally reduces the surface tension of water in boiler
...
Causes of Priming and Foaming
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
The presence of large quantities of alkali sulphate and chloride in
water
...
Sudden increase in steam production rate
...
The high steam velocities
...
Disadvantages of Priming and Foaming
Priming and foaming are often used synonymously
...
These
droplets and impurities lead to the following disadvantages :
(i) A part of the dried salts may be carried along with the steam
farther and deposit on the engine valves thereby decreasing their
life
...
(iii) Presence of water droplets in the steam may lead to corrosion in
the steam-inlet ends of super-heaters
...
Prevention of Priming
Priming can be avoided by:
(i) Keeping the water level lower
...
(iii) Efficient softening and filtration of boiler feed waters so as to
minimize the dissolved and suspended impurities
...
(v) Avoiding rapid change in steaming rate
...
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For example
polymide antifoaming agents may reduce foaming by simple
mechanical action
...
(ii) Removing oil from boiler water also prevents foaming
...
The coagulants like sodium
aluminate etc form hydroxides 6Al ^OHh3@ which entraps oil drops
...
2
...
Causes of Boiler Corrosion
Various factors causing boiler corrosion are as follows:
(i) Presence of dissolved carbon dioxide: Carbon dioxide usually
remains dissolved in natural waters
...
Carbon dioxide forms carbonic acid when dissolved in water and
makes the water acidic and corrodes the boiler materials
...
It also acts as
electrolyte for the corrosion of the boiler materials
...
When water is heated
in the boiler, the dissolved oxygen gets liberated and attacks the
boiler material as follows:
4Fe
3O 2
x H 2 O " 2Fe 2 O 3 $ x H 2 O
(Brown colour, rust)
(iii) Presence of acid forming salts: Certain inorganic salts such as
MgCl 2 and CaCl 2 , form hydroxide and acids in water, which have
a corrosive action on the boiler material
...
MgCl 2
Fe
2H 2 O " Mg ^OHh2
...
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2HCl
Calcium chloride also undergoes hydrolysis but to a lesser extent
...
Silicic acid also catalyzes the
reaction
...
Prevention of Boiler Corrosion
The corrosion of boiler can be prevented by the following methods:
(i) By mechanical deaeration: Mechanical deaeration is the process
of spraying water in perforated plate-fitted tower, which is heated
from sides and connected to vacuum pump
...
The deaerator can
also remove the dissolved CO 2 from the water easily
...
The use of hydrazine is preferred
over the other because nitrogen formed in the process is harmless
...
4
...
4 Caustic Embrittlement
Caustic embrittlement is the process of the formation of irregular inter
granular cracks on the boiler material particularly at points of high local
stress by the use of highly alkaline water in the boiler
...
At high pressures,
sodium carbonate reacts with water and form sodium hydroxide as shown
below:
Na 2 CO 3
H 2 O " 2NaOH
CO 2
The formation of NaOH makes the boiler water caustic
...
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In continue steam formation, the
concentration of dissolved NaOH increases gradually which make water
more and more alkaline
...
By the reaction of NaOH
, iron converts into sodium ferroate, which is not hard and developed
continuously on the boiler surfaces, which causes the formation of irregular
intergranular cracks on the boiler metal particularly at places of high local
stress such as bends, joints, rivets etc
...
(ii) The chemicals such as tannin, lignin etc
...
(iii) Caustic embrittlement can also be prevented by the addition of
Na 3 PO 4 to the boiler water
...
***********
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Boiler Feed Water
Chap 4
REVIEW QUESTION
1
...
2
...
3
...
How are they
removed?
4
...
5
...
What
are the methods employed to remove these defects?
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...
5
BASICS OF ENVIRONMENT
5
...
The word environment is derived from
the French word Environ meaning encircle
...
It includes everything around the
organism, i
...
, abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) environment
...
Commonly used definitions of environment are:
(i) It refers to the totality of all social, biological and physical or
chemical, in individually as well as collectively that compose the
nature and man-made surroundings
...
(iii) It is the representative of physical components of the earth wherein
man is the important factor influencing his environment
...
5
...
Therefore the basic components of the environment
are :
(i) Atmosphere or the air
(ii) Hydrosphere or the water
(iii) Lithosphere or the rocks and soil
(iv) The biosphere
1
...
g
...
The
atmosphere surrounding the earth acts as a gaseous blanket, protecting
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...
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
the earth from dangerous cosmic radiations from outer space and helps
in sustaining life on the earth
...
The atmosphere plays a important role in maintaining the heat
balance on the earth by absorbing the radiation received from the sun
and re-emitted by the earth
...
Apart from this, the important gaseous constituents of the earth play
important roles in sustaining life on earth
...
A constant exchange of matter takes place between the atmosphere,
biosphere and hydrosphere
...
Moreover, atmosphere is a carrier
of water from oceans to land, which is so vital for the hydrologic cycle
...
Hydrosphere
This includes all the surface and ground water resources viz, oceans, seas,
streams, lakes, reservoirs , glaciers, polar ice, caps, ground-water and the
water locked in rock-crevices and minerals lying deep below the earth’s
crust
...
Without hydrogen bonding, water would have boiled at 100cC
and in that case life on the earth would have been impossible
...
3
...
The
soil covering the rocks, which results from physical, chemical and biological
processes during weathering, is also considered to be an important part of
the lithosphere
...
The inorganic minerals constituents include complex
mixture of silicates of Na, K, Ca, Al and Fe, Mn and Ti; and carbonates
of Ca and Mg
...
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Basics of Environment
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4
...
Thus the biosphere covers the entire kingdom of living organism and
their interactions with the other segments of the environment, namely the
lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere
...
3 ENVIRONMENT AS SCIENCE AND EDUCATION
Environmental science may be defined as the systematic study of the effect
of humans on the environment
...
The use of the term Environmental Studies may simply a single
subject, but its essence is its multidisciplinary nature
...
Environmental
studies encompasses many other fields such as given in table 5
...
Table 5
...
Different Fields of Environmental Study
...
As with any of the sciences,
Environmental Scientists don’t know about all of these, areas, but
specialize
...
One may instead be interested in the effects of environmental
regulations on a segment of the economy, in this case be might be called
and Environmental Economist
...
Environmental education is a study of the
factors influencing ecosystems, mental and physical health, living and
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
working conditions, decaying cities and population pressures
...
It must
be strengthened and supplemented by corresponding social and political
action
...
(ii) Knowledge: To help individual and social groups acquire basic
understanding of the total environment, its associated problems
and humanity’s critically responsible presence and role in it
...
(iv) Skills: To help individuals and social groups acquire the skills for
solving environmental problems
...
(vi) Participation: To help individuals and social group develop a sense
of responsibility and urgency regarding environmental problems to
ensure appropriate action to solve those problems
...
4 ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
Pollution is usually brought about the addition of waste products of
human activity to the environment
...
The
three basic amenities for living organisms are air, land or soil and water
...
But the progress in
science and technology is also leading to pollution of environment and
serious ecological imbalance which in the long run, may prove disastrous
for mankind
...
The environmental pollution is thus a necessary evil of all man made
progress
...
The
developed countries dump lot of effluents into the environment, polluting
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...
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
the whole globe, US is the most polluted are of the world today and New
Delhi is the 3rd most polluted metropolis in India
...
”
5
...
Usually the waste products of human activity are not efficiently decomposed
or removed may result as pollutants
...
(ii) Pollutant is a harmful solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in
such concentration in the environment which tends to be injurious
for the whole living biota
...
(i) A chemical substance, e
...
an organophosphorus compound
(ii) A geochemical substance, e
...
dust, sediment, etc
...
g
...
Everything today is polluted by pollutants
...
In contrast with environment pollution, pollutants need not to be
material substances
...
However, today man is the principal source of
pollution
...
6 CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
Pollutants can be classified in the following manners:
1
...
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(i) Primary Pollutants: Those substances which emitted directly from
an identifiable source and remains in same form in which they
added or released into the environment
...
(ii) Secondary Pollutants: These substances are derived from primary
pollutants by chemical reactions
...
particularly in
the environment, react in presence of sunlight to form a group
of nitrous compounds like peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN) as the
secondary pollutant
...
Biodegradable Pollutants
Biodegradable pollutants are those which can be decomposed easily by
the natural biological process and also in the Engineered systems plant
debris, domestic sewage etc
...
, that are released in the biosphere
...
The domestic sewage can be easily
decomposed by natural processes or by engineered systems (such as
municipal sewage treatment plant) which enhance capacity of the nature to
decompose and recycle
...
3
...
Such pollutants are
mostly inorganic compounds like mercury and lead salts, aluminium cans,
iron, compounds like phenolic compounds and DDT etc
...
These pollutants not only accumulate,
but are often magnified biologically as they move in biochemical cycles
and along food chains
...
Their
high concentration may even prove fatal
...
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7 SOURCES OF POLLUTION
There are two main sources of pollution such as Natural sources and Man
made or Anthropogenic sources
...
Natural Sources of Pollution
Some of the natural sources of pollution are as given below:
(i) Volcanic eruptions release gases or volcanic ash
...
(iii) Dust storms increase the wind blown dust into the environment
(iv) Bacteria, spores, cysts and pollens are all natural pollutants
...
Man-made or Anthropogenic Sources of Pollution
Anthropogenic sources cover a wide spectrum of types as man has
aggravated the problem of pollution by his innumerable activities like
...
8 TYPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
There is no way for nature to decompose many man-made materials and
return their elements to the cycle of nature
...
Thus, pollution may be natural (which originates from natural
process such as forest fires, natural organic and inorganic decays, volcanic
eruptions, earthquake etc
...
However, it is better to classify pollution according to the environment
such as air, water, soil, noise, radiation, thermal etc
...
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When different spheres of the environment are affected by pollution, they
can be categorized as:
(1) Atmospheric or Air Pollution
(2) Water Pollution
(3) Soil or Land Pollution
(4) Noise Pollution
(5) Thermal Pollution
(6) Radioactive Pollution
1
...
are found,
which have practically no adverse effect
...
But due to various factors the balance of nitrogen and oxygen is getting
disturbed gradually and is causing adverse effects on human health, animal
life, plant life and other materials of the universe
...
2
...
It is
a aquatic contamination which eliminates living organisms from a rivers
lakes, ponds or ocean
...
Soil Pollution
The weathered earth crust form soil over the centuries that supports the
variety of microscopic and macroscopic life-forms
...
There are number of zones one cannot
notice when a soil profile is made for analysis of soil depth
...
However, over the years, the soil gets contaminated by a number
of ways, commonly called soil pollution
...
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
In modern economies, various types of activity like agriculture,
industry and transportation produce a large number of wastes
...
4
...
The release of unwanted sound in the environment is called noise
pollution
...
Noise pollution
is mainly caused due to technological advancement
...
This is denoted by dB
...
Sounds
pressure damage at 75 dB or higher
...
Thermal Pollution
Thermal pollution may be defined as, pollution due to heated effluents
from either natural or man-made sources which changes the physical and
chemical properties of water thus affecting the whole aquatic system
...
It also
causes changes in physical and chemical properties such as decrease of
density, viscosity and solubility of water affecting the aquatic system
...
Radioactive Pollution
The emission of energy from radioactive substances in the environment
is known as radioactive pollution
...
Natural radiation can come from earth materials,
originate in outer space or results from the from the action of radiation on
materials in the biosphere
...
Uranium which is mined for use in atomic weapons and in nuclear
power plants is one such element
...
A radio isotope is a form of a chemical element that spontaneously
undergoes radioactive decay
...
Some radioisotopes
undergo a series of decay finally reaching a stable non-radioactive isotope
...
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They are all harmful because they can ‘ionize’
living tissue, that alters its fundamental atomic structure
...
5
...
(ii) Adversely affecting the health of humans and animals, and
damaging plants and property
...
(iv) Viruses and other disease organism will increasingly slip through
water treatment and food processing plants as the quality of water
and food at the intake deteriorates
...
(vi) The damage caused to plants by pollution include necrosis (dead
areas on a leaf structure), chlorosis (loss or reduction of chlorophyll
leading to yellowing of leaf), epinasty (downward curvature of
the leaf due to higher rate of growth on the upper surface) and
abscission of leaves (premature fall)
...
Besides these, all effects of any type of pollution are considered to
be the effect of pollution on environment
...
10 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION
Over population and pollution are two major ecological forces impinging
upon man by affecting the quality of the environment
...
Unmindful exploitation of the limited resources of the biosphere has a
severe ecological backlash because no development is sustainable unless it
is environmentally compatible
...
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Pollution
is the burning issue of the day at the global level
...
Several measures were recommended by the scientists to emphasise
the need to control pollution
...
(ii) The second step should be to find out the carrying capacity of
the environment and reduce the emission of the major sources of
pollution
...
(iv) The fourth step should be to ensure that anti-pollution measures
are adopted by all industries
...
Contamination of food and water are the basic cause of pollution
is such areas
...
5
...
Articles 48A and 51A of our constitution provide for environmental
protection
...
(ii) Conservation of natural resources
...
(iv) Development of non polluting sources of energy
...
(vi) Environmental laws
...
5
...
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2
...
S
...
Pollution
Legislations
1
...
2
...
Pesticides
The Factories Act, 1948
The Insecticides Act, 1968
The Poison Act, 1991
4
...
Forest, Fisheries
and Others
The Indian Fisheries Act, 1897
The Indian Forest Act, 1927
The Prevention of Food Adulteration Act, 1954
The Ancient Monuments and Archaeological Sites and
Remains Act, 1958
The Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972, amended in
1983, 86 and 91
The Urban Land (Ceiling and Regulation) Act, 1976
The Forest Conservation Act, 1980, amended in 1988
6
...
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The Wild Life Protection Act
...
The act also provides for the constitution of a Wild Life Advisory Board,
appointment of Chief Wild Life Warden
...
India has rich wildlife heritage, it has
350 species of insects
...
Wildlife is an integral part of our ecology and plays an essential role
in its functioning
...
All wild
life animals are the property of the Government
...
,
is strictly regulated
...
A record of Wild Life animals hunted or captured has to be maintained
...
The Act provides for the establishment
of sanctuaries, national parks, game reserves and closed areas
...
2
...
The scope of the definition of “non-forest purpose” was
extended to include cultivation of tea, coffee, rubber, palms, oil-bearings
plants, horticultural crops and medicinal plants
...
(ii) Clearance of any forest land of naturally grown trees for the
purpose of re-afforestation is forbidden
...
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
3
...
The Act stipulates establishment of the central and States
Boards for this purpose and for joint Boards by two or more States or
Union Territories
...
The Act also assigns the functions to be carried out by
the Central and State Boards
...
However, dumping of any material into a stream for the purpose of
reclamation of land is not considered an offence
...
The consent of the State Pollution
Control Board is needed to:
(i) establish or take steps to establish any industry or operation or
process or any treatment and disposal system or any extension or
addition there to, which is likely to discharge or trade effluent into
a stream or well or sewer or on land or
(ii) bring into use any new or altered outlet for the discharge of a
sewage or
(iii) begin to make any new discharge of sewage
...
4
...
The cess and the consent fees
form the major sources of revenue to run the Central and State Water
Boards
...
5
...
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The objective of this Act is to
provide the prevention, control and abatement of air pollution in order to
preserve the quality of air
...
Some important features of the Air Act
are:
(i) The Central Board may lay down the standards for the quality of
air
...
(iii) The State Boards are empowered to lay down the standards for the
emission of air pollutants from industrial units or automobiles or
other sources
...
(v) The State Board are to examine the manufacturing processes and
the control equipment to verify whether they meet the standards
prescribed
...
(vii) The directions of the Central Board are mandatory on State
Boards
...
(ix) Violation of law is punishable with imprisonment for a term which
may extend to three months or fine upto Rs
...
The Act has been amended comprehensively in 1987 to render
it more effective and to include “noise” also under the definition of air
pollutants
...
The Environment (Protection) Act
...
This Acts ensures enforcement of several Acts concerning pollution
control and environmental protection
...
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It confers powers to the Central
Government
(i) to issue directions for the closure, prohibition or regulation of any
industry, operation and process and for the stoppage or regulation
of the supply of water, power or any other service, even without
obtaining court orders
...
(iii) to formulate procedures and safeguards for handling of hazardous
substances
(iv) to prohibition and restrictions of the location of industries and
carrying out processes and operations in different areas
...
(vi) to providing for remedial measures in case of accidents
...
not
to allow emission or discharge of environmental pollutants over and above
the limits of the relevant standards
...
The Act provides for stringent penalties for
defaulters
...
12 ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENT
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a study which deals with the
probable changes in socioeconomic and biophysical characteristics of the
environment that may result from a proposed action
...
It is an intrinsic link between environment and
economic growth and if detailed EIA is introduced before all developmental
projects, then it will greatly helpful in minimizing adverse effects on the
environment
...
EIA can this
be considered to be planning tool which assists planners in anticipating
potential future impact of different development activities, both beneficial
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
and adverse with a view to select the ‘optimal’ alternative
...
Thus, EIA consists
of the identification and evaluation of the environmental factors that are
likely to be adversely or beneficially affected by the proposed action
...
5
...
1 Necessity of EIA
For efficient environmental management, environmental impact assessment
must be conducted for a wide range of projects and activities which may
be unintentional such as highways, airports, canals etc
...
and also for development activities which invoice plans,
programmes and policies
...
Thus the environmental impact assessment in
necessary of the following purposes :
(i) Resource Conservation
...
(iii) Recovery of by-product
...
To ensure environmental quality, measures must be taken before the
damage occurs, not after
...
12
...
EIA can identify major areas
of environmental damage due to developmental activities in a systematic
and comprehensive manner, if carried out properly
...
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However,
using the checklist method, a comprehensive list is made of the
environmental attributes related to the particular action
...
(ii) Choosing an EIA Methodology: A large number of models and
methodologies being practiced in EIA studies, one must choose
between the two extremes : complete uniformity or complete
uniqueness
...
Fig
...
1, describes the environmental impact assessment process
...
1
Environmental impact assessment methodology consists of four
phases as:
(i) Organizing the job
(ii) Performing the assessment
(iii) Writing the Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)
(iv) Review of the EIS
...
Organizing the Job
This phase involves the identification of the action or project and
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
constitution of an interdisciplinary (ID) team for the purpose of analysis
...
Variety of problems necessitating the inclusion of
geologists, agronomists, hydrologists, meteorologists, biologists, cultural
scientists etc
...
Finally, a form is documented including particulars concerning
the project, its sponsors, the participants of the ID team, the activities
that need to be accomplished and specify responsibilities, time, frame, cost
estimate etc
...
2
...
(ii) Identification and evaluation of the likely beneficial or adverse
environmental effect of the proposed project
...
e
...
3
...
Hence, it is the conclusion of the EIA and accurately reports
the following:
(i) Description of the proposed project site or environment
...
(iii) The environmental impact of the proposed project on air, water,
land, ecology, sound, socioeconomics
...
(v) Alternatives of the activity
...
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e
...
(vii) Relationship between the local short term uses and long term
productivity of the resources involved
...
(ix) Incorporating the modification in the proposed project
...
4
...
It is
reviewed carefully before any decision is taken in favour or against passing
the proposes project
...
The proposed project is then made available for public inspection by
publicity through the press for a period of at least one month in addition
with discussion sessions of the government agency, the proponent and the
public
...
After the final review of beneficial and adverse environmental
impacts and cost benefit analysis, ultimately a decision is made to either
approve or reject the project or approve the most acceptable alternative
in actual or modified form
...
(ii) Making use of available data and experience
...
(iv) Simplifying administrative procedures
...
12
...
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Basics of Environment
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Carrying capacity of a specific ecosystem is the maximum rate of
resource consumption that can be sustained indefinitely in that specific
area and over-exploitation of natural resources above this maximum will
lead to depletion and ecological degradation
...
According to the United Nations World Commission on Environment and
Development, sustainable development must meet the requirements of
the present generations without compromising the ability of the future
generations to meet their own needs and aspirations
...
This requires a gradual shift from
uncontrolled exploitation to efficient management of natural resources
...
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) could from a major
instrument in decision making and for measurement of sustainability in the
context of regional carrying capacity, provided the conceptual framework
is extended to the cumulative assessment of developmental policies, plane
and projects on the regional basis
...
12
...
However, it suffers from the following
limitations also
...
Therefore, EIA should
be done at the policy and planning level instead of at the project
level
...
To overcome this constrain, EIA should be implemented at the
level of district planning so that reasonable number of alternatives
are available to the developer in view of the preceding development
and available carrying capacity of the local environment
...
Therefore, screening
a lot of unnecessary expenses and delays in project clearance could
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
be avoided
...
(iv) Lack of a comprehensive environmental information base,
limitations of time, manpower, financial resources etc
...
(v) More research and development of improved methodologies is
required to overcome limitations relating to the uncertainties in
data (sampling and measurement error)
...
This makes the EIA reports
difficult for a common man to understand
...
(viii) Lack of public acceptance of EIA is another limitation
...
(ix) EIA is an art and not a science
...
No two developing countries appear to have defined it in
the same way
...
The issues of resource conservation, waste
minimization, by product recovery improvement in efficiency of
equipment etc
...
Short term as well as long term training courses could be provided for
developing adequate expertise which must be multi-disciplinary focussing
on the practical and operational aspects of EIA in the form of case studies,
(various EIA methodologies etc
...
5
...
5
...
1
...
These are consumed or exhausted through
continuous use or misuse
...
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2
...
g
...
Figure 5
...
14 NON-RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
These are the resources, that once gone, have very little chance of recovery
in nature
...
These includes all non
-energy minerals resources which occur in the Earth’s crust
...
(b) Deposits of fertilizers nutrients such as phosphate rock and
potassium
(c) Minerals that are used in their natural states such as asbestos,
clay, mica, etc
...
However, it is possible, at least in
theory, to collect these materials and recycle them
...
These resources
exist in a fixed quantity in Earth’s crust and thus theoretically can be
completely used up
...
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(b) Uranium that is used for generating power in nuclear reactor
...
15 RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCES
The natural resources which are consumed or exhausted or depleted
through continuous use and can be recovered by very hard efforts taken
up for long periods are called Renewable Resources
...
Common examples of such resources are:
(i) Oxygen in the air, which is replenished through photosynthesis
...
(iii) All biological products (food, fishes, timber, etc
...
(iv) Solar energy is also considered as renewable as on a human time
scale and it is inexhaustible
...
5 billion years
...
However, potentially renewable resources can be depleted when
resources utilization rate exceeds the natural replacement rate
...
15
...
It’s potential in 178
billion MW which is about 20, 000 times the world’s demand
...
Sun’s energy can be utilized as thermal and photovoltaics
...
Solar Water and Air Heater
Solar energy is ideally suited for providing low-temperature heat for
heating building in cold weather and for providing hot water for washing
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purposes because sunlight falling on any black surface is readily absorbed
and converted to heat in the desired temperature range
...
Therefore, complex collection or conversion equipment is not
required when solar energy is to be used for obtaining low-temperature
heat
...
Flat-plate collectors basically consists of a black surface covered by
a clear plastic or glass “window” as shown in Fig
...
3
...
Air can be heated by passing it between the window
and the black surface whereas water heating can be done by passing it
through tubes embedded in the surface
...
Figure 5
...
An active solar
heating system uses either pumps or blowers to circulate the air or water
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
from the collector to the desired location
...
Passive systems are relatively inexpensive and practically free
from maintenance
...
The basic concept involves using of large, sun-facing windows due to which
the buildings itself acts as the collector
...
In summer, excessive heat
load can be avoided by shielding the windows from the high summer sun
using suitable awnings or overhangs or deciduous planting or vines
...
Photovoltaic Cells or Solar Cells
Solar energy can be used to generate electrical power using Solar cell
...
The lower
layer has atoms with single electrons in the outer orbital, which are easily
lost
...
The electrons are dislodged from
the lower layer and trapped into the upper layer, due to kinetic energy
of light striking this “Sandwich”
...
This potential provides the electric current through
the rest of the circuit, which connects the upper side through a motor or
other electrical device back to the lower side
...
However their current life span is about 20 years because
they deteriorate due to exposure to weather
...
(ii) A part of the electrical energy derived from solar energy by using
solar cells can be stored by charging Ni–Cd batteries or lead-acid
batteries
...
The
liberated hydrogen can be used in hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells
...
(v) Panels of solar cells are the most economical way of providing
power at points that are far from utility lines e
...
rural homes,
light-houses, Irrigation pumps, radio-transmitters, offshore oil
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
drilling plateforms, traffic signals etc
...
(vii) Experiments with vehicles run on photovoltaic cells are under way
using ultra-efficient designs
...
The solar trough
concept was invented by Charles Abboutt in the 1930’s
...
The heated fluid
is then used to boil water, thereby generating steam to run conventional
turbo-generator
...
The excess solar power
generated during day time may be stored by using it to pump water from a
low-elevation reservoir to a high elevation reservoir
...
Alternatively, the excess solar power
can be used to pump air into underground caverns and let this compressed
air to drive turbines whenever the power is needed
...
The intense heat produces steam in the
boiler which drives a turbo-generator
...
Solar Pond
In this method an artificial pond is partially filled with brine and fresh
water is placed over the brine
...
Sunlight passes
through the fresh water but is absorbed and converted to heat in the brine
...
The hot brine solution can be circulated through buildings for heating
...
Since the solar ponds also acts as an efficient heat
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
storage unit, it supplies power continuously
...
Hydrogen is a clean-burning gas without any
pollution because for product of combustion is only water vapour
...
The service stations should dispense hydrogen gas into
vehicle “fuel tanks”, which would consist of materials that would adsorb
large amounts of hydrogen and release it slowly, on being heated
...
However, hydrogen does not exist in free state on earth and it should
be produced by electrolysis of water
...
Use of solar energy for running electric vehicles, though feasible, still
suffers from the following limitations:
(i) Storage batteries are expensive and heavy relative to the amount
of power stored
...
General Motor’s newest prototype
electric car, which is likely to be marketed shortly, carries 360 kg
of batteries to store the equivalent of about 4 litres of petrol
...
Solar Distillation
In this method, solar radiation is admitted through a transparent air tight
glass cover into a shallow blackened basin containing saline water
...
The vapours produced get condensed to form
purified water in the cool interior of the roof
...
Per liter distilled
water cost obtained by this system is cheaper than distilled water obtained
by other electrical energy-based processes
...
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The solar furnace is used for studying the
properties of ceramics at extremely high temperatures above the range
measurable in laboratories with flames and electric currents
...
This is especially useful for metallurgical and chemical operations
...
An important future application of solar furnaces is the production
of nitric acid and fertilizers from air
...
It consists of a
well insulated metal or wooden box which is blackened from the inner side
...
As higher
wavelength radiations are unable to pass through the glass covers, the reradiation from the blackened interior to outside the box through the two
glass covers is minimized, thereby minimizing the heat loss
...
This is achieved by providing a rubber strip between the upper
lid and the box for minimizing the heat loss due to conduction, the space
between the blackened tray and outer cover of the box is filled with an
insulating material like glasswool, saw-dust, paddy husk etc
...
Cooking pots blackened from outside are
placed in the solar box
...
Collector
area of such a solar cooker can be increased by providing a plane reflector
mirror
...
Solar Green Houses
A green house is a structure covered with transparent material (glass or
plastic) that acts as a solar collector and utilizes solar radiant energy to
grow plants
...
Solar radiations can pass through the green house glazing but the
thermal radiations emitted by the objects within the green house cannot
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
escape through the glazed surface
...
As the
greenhouse structure has a closed boundary, the air inside the greenhouse
gets enriched with CO 2 as there is no mixing of the greenhouse air with
the ambient air
...
All these features help to sustain plant growth throughout
the day as well as during the night and all year round
...
15
...
The amount of energy contained in the wind at any instant is
proportional to the wind speed at that instant
...
Its conversion can be utilized to run wind mill
which in turn drives a generators to produce electricity
...
The
potential of wind energy as a source of power is large
...
6 # 107 MW ,
which is of the same order of magnitude as the present energy consumption
of the earth
...
For obtaining
substantial amounts of power from wind, massive wind machines must be
used
...
It is from this realization that the
concept of “wind farms” has emerged
...
No windmill device, however well designed,
can extract all of the wind’s energy because the propellers of the wind
mills oppose the movement of the wind, this would prevent the passage
of as much air through the rotor as theoretically possible on the basis of
wind speed
...
The limitations on the extraction of energy from the wind include
practical size of wind machines, their density, frictional losses in the
rotating machinery, and efficiencies of conversion from rotational energy
to electrical energy
...
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(ii) Wind machines can be built “on shore” or “off shore”
...
(iv) Cost effective and reliable wind power generators are now being
produced
...
(vi) It does not cause pollution during energy generation
...
Demerits of Wind Energy
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
Low energy density
...
Variable, irregular and intermittent
...
Large units require high technology although they have
lesser capital cost per KWh
...
(vi) Require energy storage batteries which indirectly contribute to
environment pollution
...
(viii) Wind generators may interfere with habitats, can cause noise
pollution, aesthetic degradation and may interfere with bird flights
...
15
...
Wave Energy
Wave energy development has not been carried out in any country and the
power in ocean waves has not been exploited to its full potential for human
purposes except as power supplies for buoys and navigational aids
...
A lot of energy is inherent twice-a-day in rise and fall of the tides
...
The incoming tide flowing through the
turbines generates power
...
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At present, tidal power
plants are in operation in Russia, France and Nova Scotia
...
Such
a situation exists only at about 15 locations in the world
...
Tidal plants are accompanied by the adverse environmental effects
because of the dams which may trap sediments, impede the migration
of marine organisms, change water circulation and cause mixing of fresh
water with salt water
...
In
tropical regions, the temperature of the surface layers of the ocean is as
high at 26cC , whereas at a depth of 1,000 meters, the temperature is 5
to 6cC
...
This concept is known as Ocean Thermal Energy Conversions (OTEC)
...
e
...
It uses the warm surface water to heat and
vaporize a low boiling liquid such as ammonia
...
The ammonia vapour
leaving the turbines would then be condensed by cold deep water which
is about 100 m below the surface and is returned back to start the cycle
again
...
Alternatively, an energy intensive industry can
be located on factory ships that would anchor alongside the OTEC Plant
...
In addition to electricity, an OTEC plant delivers cold sea water to
the surface, which can be used to air-condition nearby buildings
...
An experimental station in Hawaii is exploring
the possibilities for integrated power, water, air-conditioning and farming
activities on the shore
...
A practical application of using this mixing energy is
worth exploring
...
The conversion efficiency is as low as 2-3%
...
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5
...
4 Geothermal Energy
Geothermal Energy derives the heat in the centre of the earth
...
This geothermal energy can be used for space heating or for boiling water
and generate steam to drive turbo-generators
...
Also, in such regions
sometimes, the natural ground water comes in contact with the hot rock
and the heated water or steam may find its way to the surface through
natural steam vents
...
Natural steam vents occur only in a few regions whereas hot dry
rock structures are available in almost all places if we can drill deep enough
(about 5 to 6 km) to reach them
...
Water is forced
down one of the holes which gets heated as it seeps through the fractures
and the steam so formed comes out from the other hole
...
The world’s largest Geothermal energy production facility exists at a
location known as “The Geysors” near San Fransico In U
...
The electrical
output from this facility in the year 1988 was bout 2000 megawatts, which
is equivalent to the power produced by two large nuclear power plants
...
This is the reason why
power output from the Geysor has been steadily declining since 1988
...
Attempts
are in progress to solve the technological problems involved in such an
approach and to inject water into it but the results are not conclusive
...
(ii) Geothermal resources in the moderate temperature range (90150cC ) can be used for space heating, for generating industrial
process steam, greenhouses and aquaculture
...
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Some
of these contaminants are highly corrosive to turbines and other
equipment
...
SO 2 pollution from a geothermal plant may be as
much as that of a high sulphur coal based thermal power plant
...
5
...
5 Biomass Energy
Biomass is another renewable source of energy in the form of wood,
agricultural residues etc
...
Certain micro-organisms when they
digest biomass in the absence of air, produce either alcohol or methane gas,
which themselves give energy on combustion
...
Dry biomass like wood, charcoal, wheat straw, corn stalks, dried
vegetable matter, sugarcane residues or dried sewage sludge release bio
energy by direct combustion where as the wet biomass like cow dung, leaves,
garbage, pig dung, human excreta, poultry dropping, sewage, carcasses etc
...
Anaerobic decomposition of organic
materials produce bio-gas which is a mixture of methane (nearly 70%) and
carbon dioxide
...
In
a bio-gas plant, wet biomass in the form of a slurry is fermented in the
absence of air to form bio-gas
...
Bio energy has more advantages compared to other methods of
harnessing solar energy like thermal or photovoltaic methods because:
(i) Plants ensure a continuous supply of energy due to their continuous
growth
...
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(iii) Combustion of biomass does not cause SO 2 sir pollution
...
(iv) Growth of biomass consumes more CO 2 than is released during
combustion of biomass besides producing the atmosphere-purifying
oxygen as a by-product of the photosynthesis process
...
(vi) This energy source has wider applications than the traditional
energy sources from which it is generated
...
(viii) By reducing the faecal pathogens, biogas reduces the chances of
transfer of pathogens from one year’s crop residue to the subsequent
crop
...
15
...
Hydropower can be harnessed from flowing and falling water
...
This water is released
gradually and is made to fall under the force of gravity and drive hydraulic
turbines and electrical generators
...
The construction of big dams have
also rendered several farmers and tribal homeless and without any
livelihood
...
Further, the increase in humidity over a large area because of the
reservoir is causing rapid deterioration of ancient monuments are
artifacts which were existing over many centuries
...
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...
(iv) Other ecological factors are also affected because sediments rich in
nutrients settle in the reservoir and only small amounts reach the
river’s mouth
...
Many developing countries have great potential for large hydel
power projects but due to the above problems, there is lot of opposition
from people as well as for Environmental protection organization
...
15
...
The development of
this form of energy is relatively recent
...
A concept for developing air power was conceived by Philip Carlson,
which has been patented by Lockheed
...
The mist cools the air, thereby making it heavier and
to descend
...
It turns the blades of the turbines stationed at the bottom of the tower (in
a similar fashion as a waterfall turns a hydro turbine) and develops power
...
The original calculated cost of test unit which is 8000 ft high was
$2
...
Less ambitious scheme
has lower cost estimates
...
In 1991, Melvin Pruiett suggested that the principles of the air
energy design might be used to clean up the smoggy air over highly airpolluted cities like Los Angeles, Mexico etc
...
An investment cost of $ 10 million for
Los Angeles, would pull in half the air above the city in 1 day
...
The best time to clean air is just before the
pollutants are emitted or just afterwards when the rate of condensation of
the pollutants gases is the fastest
...
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The moisture laden air released at night would
spread out over an area estimated at 6 miles in diameter and condense on
farm plants
...
16 SCENARIO OF RENEWABLE SOURCES IN INDIA
The main sources of energy in our country constitutes coal, oil, gas and
water
...
A large amount of traditional energy sources in the form of fuel
wood, agriculture waste and animals residue are used, coupled with
commercial energy
...
7 MTOE
(million tonnes of oil equivalent) in 1991-92 to 176
...
This increase is driven by the accompanying structural change of economic
growth and a rise in population together with rapid urbanization
...
Most energy intensive industries such as fertilizer,
aluminium, textile, cement, iron and steel, pulp and paper and chloroalkali, together account for nearly 80% of the total industrial energy
consumption
...
The agricultural sector’s consumption of commercial energy has
grown considerably with mechanization and modernisation of its activities
...
9% in 1950-51 to about 32
...
In the domestic sector, around 78% of rural and 30% of urban
households depend on fire wood
...
In particular between 1970-71 and 1994-95,
the annual consumption of electricity per household went up from 7 kwh to
53 kwh, of kerosene from 6
...
9 kg and of cooking gas from 0
...
8 kg
...
The following table
5
...
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Basics of Environment
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Table 5
...
Estimates of Potential Capacities from Renewable Energy
Sources (in MWs)
Source
Approximate Potential
Biomass Energy
19500
Solar Energy
20000
Wind Energy
47000
Small Hydropower
15000
Ocean Energy
50000
Energy Production and Reserves
India is the third most coal producing country of the world
...
Only about 15% of the coal produced has coking properties
and is used in the iron and steel industry
...
This coal is of poor quality with a high ash contents (40-50%) and
low calorific value (1300-4200 Kcal/kg)
...
km against a worlds average of 100
...
81 MT of crude oil and
17
...
The country’s self reliance in
petroleum products has declined from 56% in 1990-91 to about 34% in
1998-99
...
It was 43% in 1970-71 which has now
come down to about 24%
...
Traditionally India has been deficient in power generation with
compare to its demand
...
4, shows deficit and capacity
additions during various plan periods
...
The domestic sources of commercial energy
supply have not kept pace with growing requirements as may be seen from
the following table 5
...
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Basics of Environment
Chap 5
Table 5
...
Capacity Additions and Deficit during various Plan Periods
Plan
Period
Targeted
Addition (MW)
Actual Addition
(MW)
Deficit
(%)
I
1951-56
1,300
1,100
15
...
7
III
1961-66
7,040
4,520
35
...
5
V
1974-79
12,499
10,202
18
...
7
VII
1985-90
22,245
21,401
38
...
1
Table 5
...
Commercial Energy Supply
S
...
1970
1980
1990
1993
2000
2010
1
...
Domestic Energy
(MTOE)
47
76
153
260
260
402
3
...
Rate of Growth of
Commercial energy
imports %
5
...
8
5
...
3
The table 5
...
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Table 5
...
Status of Renewable Energy Technologies
Power
Generation
Technology
Estimated
Potential
(MW)
Installed
Capacity as
on December,
2006 (MW)
{Estimated
Annual
Generation
(GWh)}
Annual
Growth
Rate
(2001-5)
Capacity
Installed
in 200506
Growth
Rate in
2005-06
Wind
45000
6270{7690}
40%
1452
49%
Small Hydro
Projects
15000
1861{6521}
6%
53
3%
Solar
Photovoltaic
(Grid
connected)
5000
2
...
There has been
a steady increase in power generation i
...
, 1600 MW (a little over 1
...
These includes solar (2
...
4%), biomass (16%) and small hydro
sources (13
...
9%)
...
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Define ‘Environment’, ‘Ecology’, and ‘Environmental Studies’
...
What are the objectives and guiding principles of environmental
studies?
...
Briefly explain the structure of atmosphere
...
Explain the need for public awareness about the environment and its
degradation
...
What are natural resources? How will you classify natural resources?
6
...
Explain in detail any two non-conventional sources of energy
...
Explain the use of solar energy for the purpose of :
(i) Solar water heating
...
9
...
10
...
Discuss the objectives of environmental management
...
Discuss the advantages and limitations of Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA)
...
What are the important aspects in the design of an EIA Process?
14
...
***********
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...
6
ECOLOGY AND BIODIVERSITY
6
...
Thus,
ecology is the science which deals with the various principles which
govern the relationship and interdependence between organisms and their
environment
...
It may be stated in simple term “It is the
study of structure and functions of nature”
...
J
...
(iii) Macfadyen (1957): Ecology is, a science which concerns itself with
the inter-relationships of living organisms, plants, animals and
their environment
...
L
...
(v) L
...
Taylor (1967): Ecology is the study of the way in which
individual organisms, populations of some species and communities
respond to those change
...
1
...
Inspite this ecology has the following objectives:
(i) To study the relationships between living organism and
environment
...
(iii) To analyze the independence between organisms and environmental
components
...
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(v) To interpret the world life in terms of natural process
...
(vii) To evolve mathematical models to relate interaction of
environmental components and predict their effects by employing
system analysis approach
...
(ix) To study the conservation and management of natural resources
and environmental pollution
...
(x) To observe the biological productivity of physical environment
or nature and how the products may best serve the mankind or
to improve the quality of man
...
6
...
2 Ecological Principles
The important principles of ecology are illustrated below :
(i) Interaction: All living organisms and physical environment are
mutually reactive
...
(ii) Uniformitarianism: The physical and biological processes follow
the principle of uniformitarianism which states the physical and
biological processes, as the environment is influenced by human
activity
...
When biological process are associated with physical
events, severe hazards are created
...
(v) Environment Principles of Holistic Nature of Natural Environment:
It largely affect the biological communities in a biospheric
ecosystem
...
(vii) Ecosystem Functions: This is through the input of energy mainly
solar radiation which is trapped by green plants and is used to
prepare food through the process of photosynthesis
...
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(viii) The ecosystem productivity: It depends on two factors
...
(ix) Ecosystem Instability: It results when an ecosystem becomes
unable to adjust with environmental changes
...
6
...
3 Significance of Ecology
Like other animals, man is also influenced by the physical features of
his environment
...
He has to adjust to other individuals of
his own species
...
By applying certain ecological principles to the fields of agriculture,
biological surveys, game management, pest control, forestry particular
and fishery biology, tremendous economic growth has been received
...
Therefore, the future of human
life on earth demands more knowledge about the ecosystems and other
ecological problems
...
2 BASICS OF SPECIES
Species and populations are probably the two most commonly used ecology
terms, but they are often difficult concepts to grasp
...
In other words, a species is any group of individuals
that is “reproductively isolated
...
Some animals that would not normally be considered part of the
same species can breed with limited success
...
There are also organisms that do not interbreed at all, but propagate
through direct cloning of an individual, for example many plants and
insects
...
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In particular, there has been a great deal of discontinuity between the
application of the same species concept in a taxonomic or systematic
sense and in an evolutionary sense
...
However, evolutionarily, species are considered only as elements
of a process called speciation
...
In other words, a
species is a parentage or a closely related set of parentage, which occupies
an adaptive zone minimally different from that of any other parentage
in its range and which evolves separately from all parentage outside its
range
...
6
...
Thus, ecosystem is defined as a community of organisms interacting
with one another and the environment in which they live
...
This structural and functional system of communities and
their environment is called an ecosystem”
...
are common examples of ecosystems
...
4 STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEM
The structure of ecosystem provides information about the range of
climatic condition that prevail in the area, composition and organization
of Biological Communities and Abiotic compounds constitute the structure
of an ecosystem
...
6
...
6
...
1 Abiotic Components
The non living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an
ecosystem form the abiotic components
...
Abiotic components are mainly two types:
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Figure 6
...
Materials or Chemical Factor
The materials are like water, minerals, atmospheric gases and other
inorganic salts
...
2
...
Annual rainfall, wind latitude and altitude etc are also some physical
factor, which have a strong influence on ecosystem
...
4
...
On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic
components can be classified into three main groups :
1
...
They are also called ‘convertors’ or
‘transformers’
...
This
process is known as photo-synthesis
...
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e
...
2
...
Therefore, they depends on the producers for their food
...
e
...
The consumers
are of four types, namely:
(i)
Primary Consumers or Herbivores :
These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers
...
Example are rabbit, deer, goat cattle, etc
...
Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc
...
(iv)
Quaternary Consumers or Omnivores:
These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and
are not eaten up by any other animal
...
3
...
They
breakdown the dead organic materials of producers (plants) and consumers
(animals) for their food and release to the environment the simple organic
and into inorganic nutrients produced as by-products of their metabolism
...
The decomposers are known as Saprotrophs
(i
...
sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder)
...
6
...
3, describes the concept of ecosystem and the major
ecosystem components with their inter-relationships
...
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Title: engineering chemistry
Description: Engineering chemistry which includes chapters on water analysis of water impurities of water etc with a good understanding language
Description: Engineering chemistry which includes chapters on water analysis of water impurities of water etc with a good understanding language