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Chapter 1: Invitation to Biology
A
...
Organisms: any living creature either unicellular or multicellular
...
Bacteria is unicellular
b
...
Taxon: a group of organisms
a
...
Organisms, Classified Based on Nutrition
a
...
Organisms that can make their own food
1
...
Photosynthesis: plants make the food they need
b
...
Organisms that feed on other organisms
1
...
A Pattern in Life's Organization
a
...
Atoms: smallest unit of an element
ii
...
Organelle (nucleus, chloroplast)
 There are many organelles inside a cell
iv
...
Can survive and multiply on its own
a
...
Tissue: made up of cells
1
...
Organ: made up of tissue
1
...
Plants are also made up of organs
vii
...
Ex: digestive system
viii
...
Ex: animals, plants, human
ix
...
Ex: species of animals
x
...
Ecosystem: communities + environments

1
...
Biosphere
F
...
DNA is genetic blue print
b
...

c
...
Homeostasis: sensing and responding to the environment
e
...
Mutation: sudden changes in the genes
G
...
Prokaryotes:
i
...
Pro: early/first/beginning
iii
...
Eukaryote:
i
...
Eu: true
iii
...
Archaea: Kingdom Archaebacteria
2
...
Eukarya: 4 kingdoms
H
...
Kingdom Prostista: algae, amoeba
i
...
Kingdom Fungi: mold, mushrooms
i
...
Kingdom Plantae: plants
i
...
Kingdom Animalia: animals
i
...
Organizing Information About Species
a
...
Genus/genera: includes one or more species
c
...
Order: includes families
e
...
Phylum: includes classes
g
...
Domain: includes kingdom
J
...
Observation
b
...
Prediction: a clam about what can be expected in nature, based on the
premises of a theory or hypothesis
d
...
Test: an attempt to produce actual observations that match predicted or
expected observations
f
...
Report: a statement about whether a theory or hypothesis should be
accepted, modified, or rejected, based on tests of predictions derived
from it
K
...
Molecular biology: structure and function of biological macromolecules
b
...
Taxonomy: classification and naming
d
...
Zoology: study of animals
f
...
Anatomy: study of internal structure
h
...
Ecology: study of the interaction of living organisms with one another
and their environment

Chapter 2
A
...
Matter is anything that takes up space and mass
...
Matter is composed of elements
...
Element
a
...

b
...

c
...

d
...

e
...

f
...

g
...
Elements required by organisms in minute quantities
...
Ex: boron, iron, copper, iodine
h
...
In humans, deficiency results in goiter
...
Atomic structure, subatomic particles
a
...
protons, neutrons, electrons: subatomic particles
b
...
Elements are pure substances, each consisting only of atoms that have the
same # of protons in the nucleus
...
Structure of Atoms
a
...
Electrons ( )
c
...
In stable atom, # of protons and # of electrons are equal
...

e
...
The number of protons in the atom
f
...
Number of protons and neutrons
E
...
Some atoms of a given element have more neutrons than other atoms of
the same element
...
Most naturally occurring elements contain two or more isotopes
...
Radioactive Isotopes
a
...
Unstable isotopes are radioactive isotopes
G
...
As tracers: any molecule with detectable substance attached
...
As diagnostic tools in medicine: PET scanner
c
...
Electrons and Energy Levels
a
...
Electron shells can include up to 4 orbitals except energy levels
I
...
From Atoms to Molecules
a
...
Molecule: two or more atoms bond together
1
...
Compound: a substance consisting of 2 or more different elements in a
fixed ratio
1
...
Mixture: two or more elements intermingled in proportions that can vary
a
...
Solution: a liquid mixture
M
...
pH: a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions
...
Acids: pH<7
c
...
Water is pH 7
e
...


Chapter 3: Molecules of Life
A
...
Carbon atoms form the backbone of organic compounds
C
...
Dissolved sugars
b
...
Amino acids
d
...
They are the building blocks for the following 4 large biological molecules
a
...
Carbohydrates Saccharides (sugar)
ii
...
Proteins  Amino acids
iv
...
Condensation: monomers  polymers
c
...
Carbohydrates
a
...
Composed of many sugar units
c
...

d
...
Monosaccharides: one monomer of sugar
1
...
Disaccharides: two monomers of sugar
1
...
Polysaccharides: many monomers of sugar
1
...
Lipids
a
...
Hydro: water, phobic: repel
b
...
Certain lipids with fatty acid tail form the main reservoirs of stored
energy, structural materials in cell membranes and surface coatings
...
Ex: triglycerides: fat (in adipose tissue) [adipose: love handles
or excess skin in hip area]

c
...
Fats and Fatty Acids
i
...
Carboxyl group (COOH)
iii
...
Unsaturated: vegetable oils
v
...
Phospholipids
i
...
Waxes: another kind of lipid
i
...
Animals:
1
...
Lubricate
3
...
Steroids are lipids without fatty acid tails
i
...
Steroidal hormones:
1
...
Testosterone
iii
...
Synthetic variants of male hormone testosterone
G
...
Large biological polymers
b
...
Consist of one or more chains of amino acids (which form polypeptides)
d
...
Cells build diverse proteins from a pool of only 20 kinds of amino acids
f
...
Transport many cell activities like:
i
...
Tissue defense (antibodies)
iii
...
And control of glucose metabolism (insulin)
h
...

H
...
Nucleotides are the monomers

b
...
The nucleotide ATP (adenosine triphosphate) has three phosphate groups
i
...
Basis of inheritance and cell reproduction in storage, transmission,
translation of genetic information
i
...
RNA: ribonucleic acid

Chapter 4: Cell Structure
A
...
The smallest unit that still retains the characteristics of life
...
All organisms are composed of one or more cells
...
Microscope:
i
...
To view cells
B
...
Frog egg: 3 mm
b
...
Bacterium: 15 micrometers
d
...
There are two major types of cells which are distinguished by their internal
organization:
a
...
Eukaryote
D
...
Do not have a distinct nucleus
b
...
Karyon: nucleus (kernel)
d
...

e
...
Organelles comparable to eukaryotic cells are absent
...
DNA is coiled in to a nucleoid region
h
...

i
...
Ribosomes: protein synthesis
ii
...
Capsule
iv
...
Pilus (plural: pili)
E
...
Eu: true
b
...
The DNA is organized and contained within the nucleus
...
Different membrane-bound organelles are present
...
Ex: algae, animals, plants, etc
...
Defining Features of Eukaryotic Cells

i
...


iii
...
Thin, outermost lipid bilayer
2
...
Nucleus: control center of the cell
a
...
Instructions for building proteins are contained in the DNA
c
...
DNA and associated proteins are found in the form of
chromatin (46 threads in most human cells)
e
...
Nuclear envelope: membrane that surrounds the nucleus: 2
membranes
Cytoplasm
1
...
Cytosol:
a
...
Ribosomes:
a
...
Protein synthesis
c
...
Endoplasmic reticulum: rough and smooth ER
i
...
Endo: inside
iii
...
Reticulum: network
v
...
Rough endoplasmic reticulum: ribosomes attached to
ER, gives "rough" look
e
...

4
...

a
...
"Golgi": last name of scientist
5
...
Intracellular digestion
b
...
Some (soma): "body"
d
...
Peroxisomes: fatty acid breakdown, detoxification
7
...

a
...
Cytoskeleton: consists of microtubules
a
...
"Cyto": in cytoplasm
c
...
Maintain cell shape
e
...
Centrosomes and centrioles:
a
...
Centrioles: special centers that organize microtubules
...
Absent in plant cells
c
...
Flagellum (plural: flagella) or cilia: motile structures that
project from the surface of many cells and beat in distinctive
patterns
a
...
Cilia: little hair-like structures surrounding flagellum;
move in distinct pattern to swim through surface
F
...
Cell wall: most cells have more than one cell wall
i
...
Mostly cellulose
ii
...
Cellulose and lignin
a
...
Middle lamella: wall in between the two cells
1
...
The substance, a type of cellulose, that is found in between
two cell walls
b
...
Central Vacuole: disposal site for metabolic b y-products; has some
pigments; contribute to cell growth; has its own membrane; do the
function of recycling; stores water
d
...
Thylakoids, grana, stroma
G
...
Plasmadesmata in plant cells
i
...
Desma: "canal/bridge"
H
...
All organisms pass DNA to offspring when they reproduce
B
...
Chromosome:
i
...
Carries part or all of a cell's genetic information
iii
...
For example:
i
...
Genome (chromatin): entire DNA content of the cell
iii
...
Apples: 34
v
...
DNA has capacity to:
a
...
Copy it
c
...
To understand this phenomena, we have to understand the chemical
structure of DNA and its chemical cousin RNA
D
...
Chromatin:
a
...
DNA and RNA are nucleic acids
i
...
DNA: deoxyribonucleic acids
d
...
DNA is a polymer (polynucleotides) of many monomers
f
...

g
...

F
...
A nitrogenous base with a purine or pyrimidine
i
...
Cytosine and Thymine are pyrimidine
1
...
In RNA, thymine is replaced by Thymine
...


It is the order of these bases in nucleic acid that specifies genetic
information
b
...
Small hydroxyl groups hang from the sugar portion of the nucleotide
ii
...
RNA has 2 OH groups
c
...
Attached to the carbon groups
G
...
Around 1950s:
b
...
James Watson and Francis Crick
d
...
Comparison of DNA to a rope ladder with wooden rungs, twisted to the
right
f
...
A=T; C=G
i
...
DNA Replication
a
...
DNA Replication and Repair
a
...
DNA polymerase:
1
...
Proofreads; uses ATP
ii
...
Participates in DNA repairs; fills tiny gaps
b
...
Any change in the nucleotide sequence of DNA
ii
...
Using DNA To Duplicate Existing Mammals
a
...
Results in an exact genetic copy of an adult individual
1
...
Therapeutic Cloning:
i
...
Human Genome Project:
i
...
Some Definitions
a
...
Ex: 46 in a human cell
b
...
Diploid cell: made of 2 sets of 23 chromosomes each, 2n
1
...
Haploid cell: have only one set of chromosomes (23
chromosomes)
iii
...
Sex cells: (gametes) of most animals are haploids
B
...
Mitosis is a nuclear division mechanism that maintains the
chromosome number
b
...
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis
a
...
Interphase
a
...
"Gap 1"
ii
...
S
i
...
G2
i
...
Preparation for division
E
...
Division of the nucleus (Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase,
Telophase)
b
...
Division of cytoplasm
F
...
Chromatin threads to chromosomes
b
...
Nuclear envelope breaks down
d
...
Chromosome Structure in Prophase
i
...
Metaphase:
a
...
Chromosomes move to the equatorial plane
H
...
"ana" means "away"
b
...
Daughter chromosomes (formerly sister chromatids) move to the
opposite poles
I
...
New nuclear envelopes are formed
b
...
Chromosomes decondense to chromatin thread
d
...
Cytokinesis:
a
...
Division of cytoplasm
c
...
The constriction is called "cleavage furrow"
d
...
Vesicles appear across the plane and gradually fuse to form a
cell plate
...
Summary of Mitosis
a
...
A fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes mitosis to accomplish growth
c
...
Cancer
a
...

b
...
Onco: 'onko' means a bulging mass
c
...
Tumors and moles: abnormal masses of cells
e
...
Cancers are abnormally growing and dividing cells of a malignant
neoplasm
g
...
Three Types of Skin Cancer
a
...
Squamous cell carcinoma is the second most common
c
...
Cancer Facts
a
...
Life-style choices can reduce one's risk of acquiring mutations that
cause cancer
c
...
Henrietta Lacks: admitted to a hospital due to cervical cancer;
nurse observed her cells dividing rapidly

Chapter 12: Meiosis and Sexual Reproduction
A
...
Asexual reproduction: produces genetically identical copies of the parent
i
...

b
...
Somatic Cells versus Germ Cells
a
...
"Soma" means body
ii
...

b
...
Ex: cells of ovary in females produce eggs, testes in males produce
sperms
1
...
Homologous Pairs
a
...
One chromosome of this pair is inherited from the father, the other from
the mother
i
...
Homologous chromosomes are of the same length, centromere position,
and possess the same genes or alternative form of a gene
d
...
Alleles
a
...
Ex: variations of a flower color
E
...
Diploid: cells with 2 sets of chromosomes
b
...
Sexual life cycle involves the alternation of haploid and diploid stages
F
...
Involves two divisions, not one
b
...
Followed by:
i
...
DNA is not replicated between Meiosis I and Meiosis II

e
...
Germ Cell at Interphase
a
...
DNA replicated
c
...
Details of Meiosis I
a
...
Chromosomes condense
ii
...
Each duplicated chromosome lines up with its partner and makes a
homologous pair
iv
...
Chiasmata and crossing over may occur between the non-sister
chromatids of a homologue
b
...
Spindle apparatus appear
ii
...
Anaphase I:
i
...
Thus, the number of chromosomes are reduced to half
iii
...

d
...
New nuclear membrane and nucleoli appear
ii
...
Cytokinesis I:
i
...
Followed by a second set of divisions, where the chromosomes
behave independent of each other
I
...
Prophase II:
i
...
Nuclear envelope breaks down
b
...
Chromosomes align at the equator
ii
...
Spindle apparatus appear
c
...

ii
...
Telophase II:
i
...
Major changes in each of the above phases resemble mitosis
...

K
...

L
...
biology
...
edu
a
...
Then "meiosis"
M
...
Crossing over (or recombination)
b
...
Random fertilization
N
...
Germ Line Cells
O
...

Mitosis
Meiosis
Occurs in: 2n somatic cells
2n germ cells
Results in: 2, identical daughter cells 4 different daughter cells
Chromosomes: behave independently Form a homologue
One set of phases
Two sets of phases
P
...
Chromosome number has to be reduced to half before the formation of a
zygote
b
...
All living organisms (which reproduce sexually) undergo meiosis at
some stage, followed by fusion, syngamy (fertilization)
Q
...
Characteristics are inherited
b
...
Some Definitions:
a
...
Ex: freckles
b
...
Ex: FF/ Ff
c
...
Contains units of information about specific traits
d
...
Ex: flower color: red or white
e
...
Homozygous: both alleles are the same (AA or aa) {true breeding}
g
...
Phenotype is dependent upon the relationship between the two
genes present
B
...
Gregor Mendel: conducted experimental crosses with pea plants
i
...
Monohybrid cross: involving a single trait
c
...
Genes:
a
...
Complete dominance: the dominant allele expressed whenever
present, either alone, or in a pair
...
Ex: dimple can be due o the alleles DD or Dd
c
...
e
...
Ex: cleft chin due to cc
ii
...
Cc is heterozygous
D
...

Dominant
Recessive
Widow's peak

Straight line

Broad eyebrows
Dimples
Tongue rolling
Left thumb on top

Thin
No dimples
Can't roll
Right thumb on top (when putting hands
together)
No cleft chin
Cleft chin
E
...
Incomplete Dominance
b
...
Ex: human hair type
F
...
In a heterozygous condition, phenotypes of both alleles are
expressed at the same time
i
...
Pleiotropy
a
...
The gene influences multiple traits
i
...
sickle-cell anemia: deformed red blood cells
2
...
Marfan syndrome: lack of elasticity in the muscle cells
H
...
Effect of many genes on the expression of one trait
i
...
Examples:
i
...
Human skin and eye color
1
...
Continuous variation
a
...
The traits occur in a range of small differences
c
...
Type of Epistasis
i
...
Environmental Effects on Phenotype

a
...
Ex: Sun tan, camouflage, flower color based on acidity of soil
K
...
The expression of different phenotypes due to the presence of
multiple alleles
b
...
Ex: Human blood type ABO (A, B, AB, O)
L
...
Universal donor: O (-)
b
...
Agglutination: red blood cells clump together when rejecting donor
d
...
Rh Blood Typing
a
...
Rhesus: Rh+ is dominant, RH- is negative

Chapter 14: Human Inheritance
A
...
Autosomes: the chromosomes in an individual's cells that do NOT
play a role in sex determination
b
...
Ex: 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes in a human cell
B
...
After meiosis, all eggs of a female will carry one X chromosone
each
C
...
Problem 1: Human females are XX and males are XY
i
...
Mother
a
...
How many different types of gametes can a female produce?
1
...
How many different types of gametes can a male produce?
1
...
Karyotype Analysis
a
...
Human Genetic Disorders
a
...
Ex: extra toes, folded ear lobes
b
...
Inherited Disorders
a
...
Recessive Disorders
a
...
Caused by homozygous recessive alleles
i
...
Prone to pneumonia
d
...
Tay-Sachs disease: lipid accumulation in brain cells; mental
deficiency; lethal

f
...
Albinism: lack of pigments in skin, hair, and eyes; easily sun
burned
H
...
Some disorders are nonlethal, many are harmful
b
...
Mental deterioration and uncontrollable movements
ii
...
Alzheimer's disease:
i
...
Strikes in middle age
d
...
Case of incomplete dominance
ii
...
Achondroplasia:
i
...
Normal individuals are recessive for this allele
f
...
Abnormal or missing connective tissue
g
...
"Achoo": autosomal dominant compelling heliopthalmic
outburst
ii
...
Camptodactyly
i
...
Polydactyly
i
...
Neurofibromatosis
i
...
Progeria:
i
...
May be due to gene mutation
I
...
Changes in the number of autosomes
i
...
Ex: 2n+1, 2n-1
ii
...
Edward syndrome

iii
...


Trisomy 18
Down syndrome:
1
...
Due to change in the number of autosomes
3
...
Trisomy 21
b
...
Turner syndrome: 44 + X0 (zero)
1
...
Characteristics as a female
3
...
Klinefelter syndrome: 44 +XXY
1
...
Mildly retarded, phenotypically normal
3
...
Male features and characteristics
iii
...
2 Y: will look like male
2
...
Pre-exposed to committing a crime (not proven, not
accepted)
4
...
XXX syndrome:
1
...
Tall, heavy
3
...
Alterations in chromosome structure
i
...
Cri-du-chat syndrome
a
...
Duplication:
1
...
Inversion:
1
...
Translocation:
1
...
Leads to cancer, birth defects, and other abnormalities
d
...

ii
...
Sex-linked
1
...
Y-linked
J
...
X-linked recessive:
i
...
Hemophilia A: interferes with blood clotting
iii
...
X-linked Dominant Inheritance Pattern:
i
...
Y-Linked:
i
...
Gene Mutation
a
...
Hemophilia A
c
...
Progeria
e
...
Pedigree Analysis
a
...
Prenatal Diagnosis
a
...
Ultrasound imaging: ultrasound waves are used
c
...
Amniocentesis: fluid drawn from amniotic sac
e
...
Preimplantation Diagnosis: a procedure that relies on in-vitro
fertilization
...
Viruses
a
...
Noncellular, infectious agent
c
...
Protein coat, nucleic acid core (genetic material)
e
...
Bacteriophage: contains DNA
i
...
65 nm diameter head, 225 nm total length
g
...
Attachment
ii
...
Replication and synthesis
iv
...
Release
h
...
Lysogenic pathway: virus doesn't kill the hot cell; viral DNA is
incorporated into the host DNA
i
...
HIV replication: inside human WBC (white blood cells)
B
...
Cold, certain cancers (HPV [Human Papilloma Virus]- cervical
cancer)
b
...
Wart, HIV (Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
d
...
Emerging Viral Diseases
a
...
West Nile Fever: birds, humans
...
SARS: Sudden Acute Respiratory Syndrome
...
Avian Flu (H5N1): bird flu, since 2003 in Asia
e
...
Ebola
g
...
Viroids
a
...
Smaller than viruses
c
...
Strands or circles of RNA
e
...
Affects citrus, potatoes
E
...
Microorganisms
b
...
Bacteria are the smallest living organisms
d
...
Bacteria are very minute, measured in micrometers
i
...
Much smaller than most eukaryotic cells
g
...
Prokaryotic, no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles
ii
...
Some may have semi-rigid cell wall
F
...
Binary Fission
b
...
Plasmid
a
...
Resistance to antibiotics
c
...
Bacterial Diversity
a
...
Cyanobacteria: blue-green, aquatic
c
...
Escherichia coli (E
...
Salmonella
iii
...
Helicobactor pylori
v
...
Clostridium
vii
...
Thiomargarita namibiensis
d
...
Chlamydia: sexually transmitted
I
...
Methanogens

i
...
Also in the intestine of certain animals
b
...
Salt-loving
ii
...
Extreme thermophiles
i
...
Live in hot springs

Chapter 25: Plant Tissues
A
...
Mosses: Bryophytes
b
...
: Seedless vascular plants
c
...
Roses, Orchids: Angiosperms (flowering plants)
B
...
"covered" seed
b
...
Autotrophs
d
...
Annuals: plants that complete their lifecycle within one year
i
...
Biennials: two year plants
i
...
Perennials: live for a long time
i
...
The Basic Body Plan
a
...
Stems, branches
ii
...
Leaves, petioles
iv
...
Axil= "arm pit"
2
...
Root system:
i
...
Functions of Stem/Root:
a
...
Support
c
...
Wood, bark, paper, medicines, food, clothing, etc
...
Eudicots versus Monocots
a
...
Monocotyledonae
c
...
Cotyledons= "seed" leaves
e
...

Dicotledonae "dicots"

Monocotyledonae "monocots"

Dandelion, magnolia, rose
Cotyledons: 2
Leaves: netted venation
Tapered roots
Vascular bundles: in a ring
Flower parts: in 4/5's
Pollens: 3 pores

Grass, lily
Cotyledons 1
Parallel
Roots fibrous
Scattered
In 3's
1 pore

2- ry growth: present
Absent
G
...
Dermal Tissue Systems: Epidermis
b
...
S
...
Ground T
...
: Cortex, Pith
d
...
Meristems: plants continue to grow throughout their lives
i
...
Consists of cells capable of dividing repeatedly to form tissues
1
...
Primary Growth by Apical Meristem
1
...
M
...
Helps to increase in length
iv
...
L
...
is found inside a stem or root
2
...
Components of Plant Tissues: Simple and Complex Tissues
a
...
Parenchyma: most abundant in the plant body
ii
...
Sclerenchyma
b
...
Dermal tissues: epidermis, the outermost layer of the plant body
1
...
After secondary growth, epidermis is replaced by bark
ii
...
Xylem: conducts water and minerals
2
...
PLEASE NOTE
a
...
Annual growth rings are due to the activity of vascular cambium
J
...
The photosynthesis organs
b
...
Leaf blade: flat portion of the leaf
ii
...
Leaf veins: run through leaf
K
...
Abscission: dropping of leaves, or other parts from a plant
b
...
Ex: magnolia trees
c
...
Ex: maple leaves
L
...
Rhizome: underground stem (ginger)
b
...
)
c
...
Sweet potato: root and white potato: stem
d
...
Useful Plants to Mankind:
a
...
Beverages: tea, coffee, chocolate, Coca-Cola
c
...
Fibers for ropes from century plant
e
...
Abused Plants:
a
...
Angel's trumpet/Jimson weed: poisonous and hallucinogenic

Chapter 34: Immunity
A
...
Most animals have immune systems that resist disease
b
...
Some Definitions
a
...
Ex: virus, bacteria, fungi, Protista, worms, etc
...
Antigen: any agent recognized as foreign to the body
i
...
Antibodies: help fight the pathogens
i
...
All preceded by Ig (immunoglobulin)
1
...
IgE: during allergy response
b
...
IgA: found in saliva and mother's milk
d
...
IgD: unknown
d
...
Ex: penicillin
C
...
Enhanced:
i
...
Ex: vaccine for tetanus and polio
2
...
Passive immunity: already have antibodies in body
b
...
Allergies: an allergy is a second dry immune response to a
normally harmless substance
1
...
Local inflammatory response results
3
...
Allergen: pollen, etc
...
Transfusion/transplant rejection: most transplant recipients are
given drugs to suppress their immune system

iii
...
Lymphocytes turn against body's own cells
2
...
Rheumatoid arthritis: inflammation of the joints
4
...
Type 1 Diabetes: insulin
6
...
Compromised:
i
...
Due to outside agents:
1

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