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EXISTENTIALIST SYNDROME
Existentialism is a contemporary philosophy which has greatly influenced the
intellectual scenario of the post second world war
...
It gained currency as a distinct
philosophical system between the two world wars
...
Influential as it is, as a philosophy, it has not been
considered by many, a distinct philosophical system comparable to say idealism,
pragmatism, expiricism and others
...
2 Ironically,
most of the existentalists refused to be called the representatives of this movement3
and are opposed to each other in many respects
...
4
Existentialism as a philosophy is difficult to comprehend, so to say, as there is
little common ground for all the existentialists to share
...
5
All the existentialists, though they differ in many respects, have a particular common
approach to analyze ideas, situations and theories, cumulatively identifiable under the
rubric of existential philosophy
...
It
got impetus from the present uncertainty of human existence due to social, economic,
1

political and cultural tensions and conflicts
...
Awareness of problems arising out of the interaction of man and
other beings and man with himself is the basis of this philosophy
...

Unlike other philosophies, existentialism is not logical enough to providing a
systematic, coherent representation of its principle, but it certainly takes logical form
to some extent as a means of understanding and communication, the reality which is,
by its very nature, illogical
...
It is
not primarily interested in putting epistemological queries (It is greatly influenced by
the ontological tradition and by the phenomenology) and finding solutions to the
human misery
...
According to
Blackham, "The main business of this philosophy, therefore, is not to answer the
questions themselves until they engage the whole man and are made personal, urgent
and anguished"
...
It is said that, "In a sense existentialism was a reaction against scientific
rationalism, depersonalization, totalitarianism, system and dogma all assumed to be
2

connected
...
"9
The existentialists differ on many fundamental philosophical problems whether God exists; whether religion is a sign of hope or weakness; whether this or
that ideology or political programme is right or wrong; the exact meaning and areas
of individual freedom; the individual responsibility towards cosmos and so on and so
forth
...
Thus,
we can say that existentialism is a loosely knitted philosophy, an umbrella under
which different thinkers are assembled, each maintaining his individuality
...

The foremost common plane of the existentialists is that all the philosophising
begins from man, rather than from nature, or from ideas
...
10 So it is a philosophy of the subject rather than that of the object
...
Existence, they maintain, is not some thing that can be examined,
3

studied and analyzed objectively, but it is to be felt, experienced and intimated
...
Even the
evolution of existential thought in various existentialists has had a similar pattern
...
M
...
11
The man, envisaged in the existentialist's analysis, is the one who is involved
in the actualities of his existence and is influenced by factors other than reason
...
Reason is helpful in understanding,
but is not the sole factor for determining man's action and thinking
...
12 Individuals' existence is
not a concept to be theorized but a reality in which his being is involved
...

The existentialists believe that man is neither a physiological structure of
which consciousness is a part nor is he merely a spiritual being who is striving for
merging his particular consciousness into cosmic consciousness
...
His existence involves the whole world and is
irreducible to a strict logical and metaphysical concept
...
14 This involvement of man in life
is the medium through which human existence can be understood and felt
...
The existentialists are fond of expressing
themselves through novels, art and poetry which can depict human existence in its
stark openness
...
Kierkegaard argues, "While abstract thought seeks to understand the
concrete abstractly, the subjective thinker has conversely to understand the abstract
concretely
...
15 It means that the existentialists
emphasize human existence in its concreteness, individuality and subjectivity
...
Jean Paul Sartre explains, "We mean that man first of all exists,
encounters himself, surges up in the world and defines himself after wards"
...
Anything exists simply means in fact "that it is"
...
A pen lying on a table exists as a
particular item in the world and its existence is presented to us as a fact to be
accepted though we can change the form in which it exists
...
The
5

essence of an object is constituted by those characteristics that make it one kind of
object rather than another
...
Thus, essence is characterised by
abstractness and universality and can be analysed by rationalism
...
A thing is identified
through its properties and thus, its existence is known through its essence
...
Man feels his existence directly and not through his
essence
...
He is always in the process of becoming,
which is his existence, and his essence is what he becomes and thus his existence
precedes essence
...
Existence in this sense is
not merely biological or physical but essentially ethical
...
Every individual is man-in-the world, that is, he is inseparable from
the other world consisting of things and sub-human beings and his existence is a
living fact that does not require rational analysis
...
18 Soren Kierkegaard the foremost
existentialist, was one of the severe critique of Hegel, the embodiment of rational
absolutism
...
19 Kierkegaard's argument, which was shared by all other
6

existentialists was that a logical system is not necessary or adequate to reach truth
...
20
For existentialists the problems of philosophical probes are not abstract,
conceptual and objective but those which are dealing with concrete human living
...

The existentialists believe that solutions come out of rational designs and thus they
hate to give solutions of human problems
...
It is said that, "there is no permanent cure for
the human plight, so to speak only better or worse, wise or less wise, responses to the
concrete perplexities inevitably faced in living
...
21
While dealing with human problems the existentialists give greatest attention
to human freedom which they define as the ability to choose between alternatives
...
22 The existentialists also present a critique of modern civilisation, which
they argue, delimits the human existence, its concreteness, individuality and freedom
...
As the existentialists are not interested in making
general theory of human behaviour while describing human existence and its
problems, they use concepts which are existential and whose meanings are revealed
in the subjective experience of an individual
...
Although, as has already been pointed out,
the existentialists themselves are a heterogeneous group, but some issues are of
common concern to them like freedom, responsibility, choice, despair, guilt,
alienation and death
...


Being-in-the World
Being as a metaphysical concept is dear to all the existentialists
...
He distinguished being
from non-being in a classical rational way, "That which is, is; and that which is not, is
not, and can never be"
...
This primary description of
being was accepted by Plato, Aristotle, Hegel and others
...
An abstract allpervading being separated from a concrete individual being is not acceptable to them
...
24

8

The existentialists believe that individual, to begin with, is non being and
gradually through choices he becomes being but for a major part of life is in the
process of becoming
...
Kierkegaard believes that individual's attainment
of full being consists in his approximation to God through a continuous self-devised
effort towards the actualisation of his possibilities, mainly ethical
...
Karl Jaspers25
distinguished three types of being: (i) Being - there, (ii) Being - oneself, and (iii)
Being-in-itself
...
Jaspers
distinguishes objective world (Dasein) from Existenz which is self-hood
...
When a man becomes aware of natural
calamities that threaten man's existence, he transcends from 'being-there' to 'beingoneself'
...
Knowledge of being is impossible as Knower is a part of being
...
26 Marcel believed that being is a 'mystery' rather than a 'problem' and
that means that it is an inward experience of an individual rather than an observed
fact
...
Martin Heidegger also attaches great importance to the concept
9

of being
...
"27
Being is an ontological entity, undefinable yet an undeniable fact
...
In this sense man can also exist but not everyone does
actually exist in this sense
...
Dasein becomes what it is, the possible becomes
the actual, only through an active realization by the human being himself
...
Sartre believes that only man is capable of raising question of being but
even he can not create it by his consciousness
...
28 Sartre talks of two modes of being: Being-in-itself (L'etre en-soi)
and Being-for-itself (L'etre poursoi)
...
Thus, this quality of
being (en-soi) belongs to things and to those human beings who live like inactive
objects avoiding taking free decisions involving anxiety, distress and responsibility
...
This quality of
being (pour-soi) is possible only in human beings as individuals
...
Nothingness is not an intellectual conclusion reached through
objective reasoning but is an experiential concept arising out of dread or anxiety
...
For them God is the Ultimate Reality which envelops
all and thus one can talk of 'nothingness', that is, devoid of God, only when one
denies himself
...

Heidegger defines nothingness as that which is experienced by Dasein in'dread'
...
This future non-existence of self
provokes him to lead an authentic life so that he can overcome this present feeling of
'nothingness' in anticipation of future non-existence
...
29 One's realization of one's mortality must lead to
indifference on one's part towards worldly possessions and their apparent importance
and thus the void in oneself realizes 'nothingness'
...
It may be revealed
in 'boredom' arising out of the 'unsatisfactoriness' of the everyday human existence
...

11

Sartre does not link nothingness with death syndrome, like Heidegger did, but he
emphasises nothingness in the form of human consciousness
...
Conscious beings are
separated from other beings in their awareness of the world in which they can
dissociate themselves from other things
...
In this respect
nothingness is like a space and is outside the conscious being
...
In the words of Mary Warnock, "It
is the possession of this emptiness in himself which makes it possible for a Being-foritself both to perceive the world and also to act in it
...
ex-sistere) meant to 'stand out' or
'emerge'
...
Presently the commonest meaning of existence is not much
different from merely 'lying around' in specific time and place in the real world
...


33The

existentialists use

the word 'existence' in a special sense
...
34 He further
elaborates that if existence cannot be represented in a concept, it is not because it is
too general but rather because it is too concrete
...

35

Heidegger evolved three-fold terminology to explain existence
...
Secondly, for the traditional term 'existential',
Heidegger used, Vorhanden heit which may be translated as 'presence at hand'
...
Thirdly, he used a term
Existenz (existence) and defines it, "the term 'existence' (Existenz), as a designation of
being, will be allotted solely to Dasein"
...
Karl Jaspers talks of existence in a different way
...
Jaspers maintains that Existenz is not a kind of being, it is rather a
13

potential being
...
Existenz is also
freedom of transcendence and it is also the ever-individual self, irreplaceable and
never interchangeable
...
40 First,
existence is defined in its root sense of 'standing out' and is thus more aptly
applicable to human beings
...
Man is capable of being ecstatic, that is, going beyond his
normal self and able to transcend beyond what he is in a moment
...

Secondly, existence is the uniqueness of the individual existent
...
Only human existence is said to
contain qualities of irreplaceability, non-interchangeability and inexhaustible interest
and these qualities form that uniqueness of personal being which distinguishes human
beings from other beings
...
This means that
human beings have choice to become not simply to 'be' but to 'exist' in a fuller sense
or just let the things happen by remaining merely lying around
...
Heidegger
found the true beginning of philosophy in pre-Socrates philosophers (like Parmenides
and Heraclitus) especially an analysis of being and thinking
...
42
14

Teachings of Jesus, St
...
Augustine also contain shades of existential
interpretation of faith
...
In the Renaissance period, Blaise Pascal45
(1633-62) was one of the first to express the plight of human being in the light of new
discoveries about universe which dethroned Man from the centre of the universe
...
Rene Descartes (1596-1650) firmly established rationalistic
tradition in the Western Philosophy followed by Spinoza, Liebniz, Kant, Hume and
others
...

He says, "I have no aptitude for truths, principles, systems; but for crumbs,
fragments, fancies, sudden inspirations"
...


Soren Kierkegaard47 (1813-1855)
Like other existentialists, Kierkegaard's thought is affected by his life
...
His philosophy is considered theological
15

in its motivation, aesthetic in its literary and poetic form, and ethical in its import
...
Till 1836, he was devoted to art, music and drama and engaged in learning
...
The first stage was called the
'Aesthetic stage' which was full of freedom and forlornness
...
He
maintained that every individual faces the problem of choosing "either / or" one of
the type of life and the choice is very ambiguous
...
But he warned that the true religion that is Christianity was not that which
was practised by the Christian institutions
...
He, like Socrates, believed that, "Truth is
not introduced into the individual from without, but was within him all the time"
...
About Kierkegaard it is
said that, "The rejection of reason finds its most elaborate modern expression in the
voluminous writings of Kierkegaard"
...
51 Kierkegaard then advocated
16

concreteness, subjectivity and individuality of human existence which became the
basic tenets of existentialism
...
His
insistence on subjectivity and concreteness of truth made him the father of
existentialism
...
In this aspect Kierkegaard was a true Christian
...
54 His major work 'Being and Time' (Sein
and Zeit), 1927, although incomplete, is considered the most illuminating analysis of
human existence from the point of view of an existentialist
...
He analyses individual man in his relation
to himself, to other men and to his surroundings
...
He began his
discussion with exploring relationship between ' Being' (Sein) and a being (Seiendes)
...
Being in the form of human existence is
capable in perceiving totality of relations
...


Dasein, because of consciousness, can raise questions regarding Being
...
He says, "Man alone of all existing things experiences the
wonder of all wonders
...
56
Heidegger asserted that human reality cannot be fully defined and
conceptualized as it is not something given but only a possibility of bloom
...
57 But this human
existence in not isolated; it is being-in-the-world in which human being is inseparably
related to self, and non-self and other things
...
This world view is in contrast to the abstract rationalist view held by
Descartes in which the rational is real and the rationalist laws of nature are prior to
nature itself
...
Findings of modern physics have contradicted it with the notion of ‘fluidity’
and ‘timespace’ syndrome
...
It is not necessary that
every Dasein does exist but it contains the power to transform itself into a real
existence
...
59
The human existence is finite and temporal and is full of anxiety of anguish
(Angst) created primarily by a fear of inevitability of death
...
Thus, ‘death’ is not merely
non-existence of human being but is given philosophical importance by Heidegger
...
Death is thus the capital possibility of Dasein since it is the
innermost, unrepeatable, non-transferable, irrelative, individualizing, and inevitable
possibility of Dasein’s being-in-the-world
...
Care is not merely one of the qualities of human
beings, it is the totality of human existence
...
Heidegger also talks of
transcendence without any theological connotation
...


Karl Jaspers61 (1883-1969)
19

This German existentialist was trained in medicine and practiced
psychotherapy before becoming philosopher
...
62 For a useful study of philosophy he laid three conditions
...
Secondly, ‘the study of great philosophers’, that is, individuals are
as important as ideas
...
Jaspers argued that the
subject of philosophy is being-itself which is not an object and so philosophy differs
from natural sciences
...
He argued that whenever one tries to conceptualise
being-itself by generalization on the basis of one aspect of reality one makes the
mistake of attempting to explain the whole through a part
...
Reality is not made-up either of
objects alone (naturalism) or subjects alone (idealism) and so, being-itself is partially
subject, partially object and partially beyond them which makes the starting-point of
metaphysics difficult
...
For studying philosophy he distinguishes three methods
...
(ii) The second method is ‘the elucidation of existence’ (Existenzerhellung)
which is an existential method emphasizing freedom of individuals and interaction
among them which Jaspers calls ‘communication’
...
This is a method by which a philosopher searches the allenveloping absolute
...
65
Jaspers believes that philosophy has two dimensions
...
He uses concepts of
reason (Vernunft) and Existenz to describe these two dimensions correspondingly
...
In this sense the self is potentially Existenz is non-definable unconeptualisable
and non-amendable to recognition
...
”66
Jaspers like Keirkegaard believed that all abstractions about existenz expresses
only what existenz is not rather than what it is
...
67 In
21

Jasper’s view when the questions of individual existence passes into wider questions
of being and reality, a ‘limit situation’ (Grenzsituation) arises
...
69 He also gave a philosophy of encompassing saying, “We always
live and think within horizon
...
70 He asserted that, “The culmination of
philosophy is reached when the revelation of the encompassing is defined in terms of
the phenomenon of communication”
...
He, like
Kierkegaard, opposes Hegelian absolute idealism, advocates human being's freedom
of choice and talks of transcendence of man towards God
...
73 Unlike Kierkegaard, he atleast aspires for a
systematic unity of thought and represented a typical Christian existentialism
...

Marcel transcends the opposition between the subject who asserts the existence of
being, and being as asserted by that subject
...
It is said that the learning to view
being not as a problem but as a mystery is fundamental in Marcel,76 and no
intellectual solutions can be given for the miseries of the being
...
77 Mystery is an experience of a concrete individual and the word is
used to refer to that which is given in experience but which cannot be objectified in
such a way that the subject can be disregarded
...
He says, “For me, freedom is the possibility of doing what I
will…
...
79
Although Marcel believes that the union of ordinary being and God can best be
explained by the symbols of Christianity but conceded that ontological mystery can
be recognized and “that this recognition, which takes place through certain higher
modes of human experience in no way involves the adherence to any given religion”
...
‘I am’ includes body, soul and mind

23

of self; ‘to have’ conveys the feeling of possession which is external, objective and
empirical
...
One can dispose of what one
has but the relation of having and if we define (which is not purely truthful) relation
with body as ‘having’, we know that ‘having’ suppresses being that is ’I’ in normal
circumstances
...

Normally speaking the tension between being and having, what I am and what I have,
is normal and necessary, and is the very plot of the drama, and every attempt to
abolish it by reduction to having or by elimination of having (that is, in the most
typical forms of materialism, idealism, and theology) brings down the curtain
...
He says, “I am inevitably forced to ask who I am
...
The experience of personal existence Marcel asserts, is the basis
of hope and faith
...
His
version of existentialism is secular and atheistic under the influence of Heidegger,
and he popularized existentialism by giving it literary expression in his poetry, fiction
and plays
...

Like other existentialists, Sartre also believed that Being is the basis of all
knowledge but unlike theists, he did not identify absolute Being with God
...
”85 Human
being is thus as unfinished project and existence is defined as concrete individual
Being, here and now
...
Pour-Soi (For itself) and En-Soi
(in-self)
...
Poursoi is free to choose its essence
...
This contradiction is responsible for the feelings of
tension, loneliness, frustration and anxiety
...
But in the process of striving for this unity man uses choices and freedom
and this struggling life is the human reality irrespective of the fact whether a man
25

likes it or not and hence “man is condemned to be free”
...
L
...
88
For Sartre, freedom is meaningful only in a human setting
...
However, Sartre’s concern was not to provide truism of atheism
...
This undeterminable-ness is the essence of consciousness
and freedom in human beings
...
However he
was aware of the fact that most people fear this objective condition and try to regulate
their behaviour by working out routine roles in life, which make than look a
determined project
...
89 Thus, a coherent way of life is a falsification of reality; and anxiety,
nausea, meaninglessness and absurdity are symptoms of the reality of human
existence
...

Sartre later on turned towards Marxism
...
A
philosopher has to acknowledge this fact and whether he is in favour of this
philosophy or hostile to it, he has to write under its domains only then he could be
26

understood
...
This mixture of existentialism and
Marxism by Sartre made him “perhaps the most curious socialist who ever lived”
...

There are other philosophers who are either the source of existentialism or
have influenced it or have been influenced by it in their writings
...
Heidegger and Jaspers have regarded him a
key figure in existentialist movement
...
But while Kierkegaard wanted to become a
true Christian, Nietzsche was hostile to Christianity
...
92
Nietzsche like Kierkegaard regarded ‘objectivity’ as a hindrance in
understanding
...
Nietzsche like other existentialists,
believe that man chooses one’s own values
...
It be almost like
Thomism without Aristotle, but to call Nietzsche an existentialist is a little like
calling Aristotle a Thomist”
...
The Spaniard Miguel deUnamuno94 (1864-1936) gave his philosophy a tint of
existentialism under the influence of Pascal, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche
...

Nikiloa Alexandrovich Berdyayev95 (1874-1948), a Russain bourgeois mystic
philosopher and the founder of the so-called “new Christianity” is also considered an
existentialist
...
Maurice Blondel (1861-1949) although not
classed as an existentialist, certainly helped in developing a personalistic kind of
existentialism
...
Later on, he developed his thesis on perception, the
analysis of which, according to him, can give a clear understanding of the relation
between consciousness and the world
...
This antiscientific, passionate, personal
approach towards the world reminds one of Kierkegaard
...
He believed that the human life has
become absurd because of routinised behaviour of human beings conditioned by the
scientific technological surroundings
...
98 The escape from this absurd life lies in either suicide
or hope, both are even more absurd than the real life
...

In sum, it might be stated that existentialism as a philosophy is powerful but
heterogeneous
...
The quest has given rise to
renovated perspectives
...


Encyclopedia Britannica, 1967, Vol
...
964
...


Walter Kaufmann (Ed
...


3
...
See: Roger L
...
) Restless Adventure;
Essays in Contemporary Expressions of Existentialism, New York, Charles
Scribners, Sons, 1968, 13
...


Note 2, 11
...


John Macquarrie, Existentialism, New York, Pelican Books, 1978,14
...


Richard Gill & Ernest Sherman, The Fabric of Existentialism: Philosophical
Literary Sources, New Jersey, Englewood Cliffs, 1973, 3
...


H
...
Blackham, Six Existentialists Thinkers, London, Routledge & Kegan Paul
Ltd
...


8
...
Neehan, Contemporary Political Thought: A Critical Study Illinois,
The Dorsey Press, 1967, 38
...


Jean Paul Sartre, Existentialism is a Humanism, In Note 2, 289

10
...
By E
...
London, Rockchiff, 1948, 2
...


I
...
Bockenski, Contemporary Europena Philosophy, Trans
...

30

12
...


13
...
Soren Kierkegaard says, “An
existing individual is constantly in the process of becoming; the actual
existing individual subjective thinker constantly reproduces this existential
situation in his thought and translates all his thinking into terms of process”
...
Kierkegaard, Concluding Unscientific Postscript, Trans by David
Swenson, Princeton University Press, 1941, 79
...


E
...
Allen, Existentialism from Within, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul
Ltd
...


15
...


16
...


17
...
Srinivasan, The Existentialist Concepts and the Hindu Philosophical
Systems, Allahabad, Udayan Publication, 1967
...


18
...
M
...
By David Hugh
Freeman, Philadelphia P
...
, The Pressbyterain and Reformed
Publishing Company, 1953, 101
...

Davind E
...

c
...
, 1961
...


An interesting doctoral thesis of finding rationality in Existentialism, is
of Ramakant Sinari, See: Ramakant Sinari’s Reason in Existentialism,
Bombay, Popular Prakashan, 1966
...


See: F
...
Heinemann, Existentialism and the Modern Predicament, New
York, Harper and Brothers, 1958, 33
...


See: Note 5, 276-77
...


See: W
...
Deininger, Problem in Social and Political Thoughts : A
Philosophical Introduction, New York, MacMillan, 1965, 428
...


For example Mary Warnock says, “Broadly speaking we can say that the
common interest which unites Existentialist philosophers is the interest in
human freedom”
...


23
...
Angeles, Dictionary of Philosophy, New York, Barnes
& Noble Books, 1981, 25
...


Note 13, 275
...


For detail see: Karl Jaspers, Perennial Scope of Philosophy, trans
...

Manheim, New Haven, Yale University Press, 1950
...


Gabriel Marcel, The Philosophy of Existence, trans
...


27
...
By William Kluback & Jean T
...
, 1958, 71
...


Jean Paul Sartre, Being & Nothingness, trans
...
Barnes, New York,
Washington Syuare Press, 2nd Ed
...

32

29
...


30
...
Mary
Warnock remarked, “The idea of nothingness is central to Sartre’s
Existentialism”, See: Note 22, 93
...


See: Note 22, 94
...


Ibid, 94
...


For a detail discussion of Existence see: Milton K
...


34
...


35
...


36
...


37
...
By J
...
S
...


38
...
By E
...
Ashton, New
York, Harper & Row, 1967, 63-66
...


See: Note 5, 68
...


For a detailed discussion of these characteristics
...


41
...
Seidel, Martin Heidegger and the Presocratics,
Linclon, Neb; University of Nebraska Press, 1964
...


Many concepts dear to existentialism like ‘being’, ‘nothingness’ and ‘anxiety’
have been treated at length in Buddhism
...


D
...
Suzuki, Essays in Zen Buddhism, New York, Weiser, 2 Vols
...


33

b
...
Leigerecht Led
...


c
...
See for
example: K
...


d
...
28, No
...


e
...
Srinivasan
...


43
...
By
Kendrack Grobel, New York, 1951, Vol
...


44
...
And trans
...


45
...
By W
...
Trolter London
...


46
...


47
...


The Concept of Dread, trans
...


34

b
...
By D
...
Swenson Princeton
...


c
...
by D
...
and L
...
Swenson (Vol
...
Lowrie (Vol
...


d
...
By W
...


e
...
By Alexander Dru
...


The Last Years: Journals 1853-55, trans
...
Gregor
Smith, New York, Harper & Row, 1965
...


See Frank Thilley, A History of Philosophy, Allahabad, Central Publishing
House, 1984, 583
...


Ibid, 584
...


See: H
...
Paton, The Modern Predicament: A Study in the Philosophy of
Religion, London, George Allen & Unwin Ltd
...


51
...


52
...


Martin Heidegger's major works are:
a
...
by J
...
S
...

b
...
by J
...
Anderson and E
...
Freund, New
York, Harper & Row, 1966
...


Introduction to Metaphysics, trans
...
Manheim, New Haven, Yale
University Press, 1959
...


Kant and the Problem of Metaphysics, trans
...
S
...

Bloomington, Ind: Indian University Press, 1962
...


The Question of Being trans
...
Kluback and J
...
Wilde, New York,
Twayne, 1958
...


What is Metaphysics, Frankfurt, Vittori Klostermann, 1949
...
A Postscript was added in 1943, an
Introduction in 1949
...
F
...
Hull & Alan
Crick in Existence and Being, Chicago:, Regnery, 1949, contains the
lecture (pp
...


g
...
by F
...
Wieck and J
...
Gray
...


54
...


'Being' is an ambiguous word in English
...
As a noun it is a name for beings, things
...
But in its aspect as a verb 'being' signifies the 'to be' of
things, and for this we have no single word in English
...


56
...

For detail see: Note 18(c), 189; and Note 2,206
...


See: Note 7, 88

58
...
See:
a
...


b
...


c
...
, 1979
...


Note 53, Existence and Being, 40
...


Note 42(e), 114
...


Karl Jaspers' major works are:
a
...
by J
...
W
...


b
...
by Eden and Cedar Paul, New York,
Humanities, 1933
...


Nietzsche and Christianity, trans
...
G
...


d
...
by Michael Bullock, New
Haven, Yale University Press, 1953
...


The Perenial Scope of Philosophy: Trans
...
Manhiem, New Haven,
Yale University Press, 1950
...


Philosophical Faith and Revelation, trans
...
B
...


g
...
Chicago, University of Chicago, 1969-71
...


The Way to Wisdom, trans
...


62
...


63
...
For a detailed discussion See: Note 14, 99 -100
...


See: Note 48, 588
...


See: Kurt Halfman, The Basic Concepts of Jaspers' Philosophy, in Paul Arthur
Sehilpp (Ed
...


66
...
by William Earle, London, Routledge,
1956, 66
...


Cited in Note 18(d), 77
...


Sec: Note 5,245
...


See: Note 25, 65
...


Note 66, 52
...


Note 189 (d), 88
...


Gabriel Marcel's major works are:a
...
by Manya Harari, London, Harvill
Press, 1948
...


Being and Having: An Existential Diary, trans
...


38

c
...
by Emma
Craufurd, New York, Harper & Brothers, 1961
...


A Metaphysical Journal, trans
...


e
...
by G
...
Grager and R
...
,
Chicago, Regnery, 1950-51
...


Note 26, (2nd Ed
...


74
...
by Kathleen Raine, London, Dobson
Books Ltd
...


75
...


76
...


77
...


78
...
S
...
Copleston, Contemporary Philosophy, London, Newman Press, 1956,
167
...


Note 72(d), 206
...


Note 26, 31
...


Note 7, 73
...


Note 26,6

83
...


Being and Nothingness, trans
...
Barnes, London, Methuen,
1957
...


Existentialism and Humanism, trans
...

39

c
...
by Forest Williams, Ann Arbor, University of
Michigan Press, 1962
...


Literary and Philosophical Essays, trans
...


e
...
by Hazel E
...


f
...
by Bernard Frechtman, London,
Methuen, 1972
...


Sketch for a Theory of the Emotions, trans
...


h
...
by Forrest Williams and Robert
Kirkpatrick, New York, Noonday press, 1957
...


What is Literature?, trans
...


84
...


85
...


86
...


87
...


88
...


89
...

90
...
The essay was later on translated as Materialism and
Revolution
...
In
1957 Sartre's writings were published under the name of The Question of
Method, which shows liking of Marxism and in 1960 came, Critique de la
Raison Dialectique, which firmly established Sartre as a unique Marxist
...


Sec: E
...
Burns, Ideas in Conflict, London, Mathueu & Co
...


92
...


93
...


94
...
by J
...
C
...


95
...
Berdyayev are:
a
...
by M
...


b
...
by N
...


96
...


The Structure of Behaviour, trans
...
Fisher, Boston, 1963
...


The Phenomenology of Perception, translated by C
...

41

97
...


The Myth of Sisyphus, trans
...


b
...


The Fall, trans by Justin O'Brien, New York, Penguin, 1963
...


The Outsider, trans
...


e
...
by a
...


f
...


The Plague, trans
...


A Happy Death, trans
...


See: Note 97 (a), 11

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