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1

Anatomy and Physiology
Unit 1
Lecture 1
1
...
Chemical level
i
...
Cellular level
i
...
Cell: smallest independently functioning unit of a living organism
c
...
A community of similar cells form a body tissue
d
...
Two or more different tissues combine to form an organ
e
...
Two of more organs work closely together to perform the functions of a body system
f
...
Many organ system work harmoniously together to perform the functions of an independent organism
2
...
Explain the
roles of smooth muscle tissue in the movement of food through the digestive system as well as mechanical
breakdown of food
a
...
Begins in the mouth
ii
...
Chewing and churning of food in the stomach, segmentation in the small intestine
b
...
Begins with the salivary glands
ii
...
Smooth muscle tissue: muscularis mucosa: thin layer of smooth muscle in a constant state of tension, pulling the
mucosa of the stomach and small intestine into undulating folds
i
...
Contractions : promote mechanical digestions, expose more of the food to digestive chemicals, and
move the food along the canal
3
...
Area is squared and volume is cubed, so it gets bigger faster
...
Because enzymes are on the surface
c
...
Epithelial cells of small intestines
4
...
Compare the advantage of epithelial cells with columnar vs
...
Describe one of the advantages of having a stratified e pithelium, for example, on the surface of
the skin (will not ask about shapes)
a
...
Features
i
...
Avascular
iii
...
Function
i
...
Protection from acid
iii
...
Secretion

2

5
...
Cell junction: adjoining cells form a specialized intercellular connection between their cell membranes
b
...
Impermeable barrier
d
...
Barrier
6
...
Describe the advantages of a higher SA/V for a cell
a
...
But the ratio decreases exponentially
c
...
You don’t want ratio to get smaller—won’t be as metabolically efficient, etc
...
As cube size increases or cell gets bigger, then the surface area to volume ratio decreases so metabolic rate
decreases
f
...
Greater than one ratio  maximum efficiency
ii
...
Then becomes less than one
g
...
Volume increases more rapidly than does the surface area, so the relative amount of surface area
available to pass materials to a unit volume of the cell decreases
ii
...
Compare the roles of bile (salts) from the liver and pancreatic enzymes in digestion
...
Bile: mixture secreted by the liver to emulsify lipids in the small intestine (just into smaller drops)
i
...
Bile salts are absorbed and returned
iii
...
Between meals bile is produced but conserved and stores in the gallbladder
v
...
Gall bladder  duodenum  capillaries  recycled via hepatic portal vein
vi
...
Storage and release
1
...
Fat
a
...
Removes toxins
b
...
Clear
ii
...
Digestion of sugars, proteins and fats chemically
iv
...
Acidic chime prompts release
vi
...
Also produces insulin and glucagon
1
...
If blood glucose drops, glucagon goes up (increase release of fatty acids from cells)
c
...
Stores, concentrates, and propels bile into the duodenum
8
...
Predict when the liver has more glycogen and lipid stored
...
Liver can store glycogen (complex sugar) and lipids (fat)
b
...
Circular design
d
...
After eating
f
...
What changes occur in a non-alcoholic fatty liver (steatosis?)
...
Too much lipids
b
...
Liver enlargement (excess lipids)
d
...
Cirrhosis cell death, liver cancer
10
...
Abnormal cholesterol levels, obese or overweight, insulin resistance, high blood pressure
b
...
Occur together, increasing your risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes
Lecture 2
1
...
Set point: a physiological value around which the normal range fluctuates
b
...
What are the benefits of a negative feedback response? In what direction does a variable change as a result of a
negative feedback response to a stress?
a
...
Activated when a regulated variable moves outside of its normal range
ii
...
Stimulus is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis
c
...
Rate of change decreases as variable reaches normal values
3
...
Intensifies a change in the body’s physiological condition rather than reversing it
b
...
Childbirth and body’s response to blood loss: have to have a definite end point
d
...
Rate of change increases as variable reaches tolerance limits
i
...
Homeostasis failure: organ failure
g
...
Draw 2 graphs to show negative and positive feedback response over time
...
Describe these components of a homeostasis loop: stress, receptor, integrator/ controller, effector, response
...
Sensor (receptor): monitors a physiological value
b
...
Effector: component in a feedback system that causes a change to reverse the situation and return the value to
the normal range
d
...
Describe the difference between the normal range and tolerance limits of a variable such as core body
temperature that is regulated by homeostasis
...
Normal range: restricted set of values that is optimally healthful and stable
b
...
Explain the events in the normal regulation of body temperature and plasma glucose
a
...
Specific endocrine cells in the pancreas detect excess glucose in the bloodstream
ii
...
Insulin signals muscle fibers, fat cells, and liver cells to take up the excess glucose, removing it

4

iv
...
Blood glucose
1
...
Blood glucose concentration decreases
2
...
Alpha cells release glucagon (hormone, inverse to insulin)  inhibits body cells from
taking up glucose from the blood, glycogen (Stored—must be broken down to be used)
from the liver is broken down into glucose and released into the blood
b
...
Diabetic: too much glucose and a lot of insulin, but glucose isn’t going into your cells (insulin
resistance)
a
...
Alpha cells aren’t affected by low insulin levels, glucagon very elevated
b
...
Outside normal range stimulate heat loss center (receptor: body’s temperature sensors)
1
...
Blood vessels dilate, allowing more blood from the body core to flow to the surface of the skin
(vasodilation)
3
...
Sweat glands increase production
5
...
Or opposite if cold
iii
...
Stimulus: body temperature falls
2
...
Control center: brain
4
...
Response: decreased blood flow, etc
...
Describe the changes in plasma glucose, beta cell mass in the pancreas and insulin production, and cellular
responses to insulin in Type I and Type II Diabetes
a
...
Glucagon
1
...
Increases blood glucose levels
ii
...
Facilitates the uptake of glucose into body cells
2
...
Reduces blood glucose levels
4
...
At early stages
5
...
Neonatal: extremely low
b
...
Beta cell mass in the pancreas: secretes insulin
1
...
Beta cells do not produce insulin: synthetic insulin must be administered, glucose
cannot go into cell
b
...
Type II: beta cell mass starts higher (above normal) then drops
a
...
Cells become resistant to the effects of insulin
c
...
Early stages: huge beta cell mass and huge insulin production
ii
...
Islet: beta and alpha
iv
...
Buffer
c
...
How does elevated insulin production lead to a fatty live r? Explain key steps in the pathway
a
...
Still releasing fatty acid
c
...
Which one increases a person’s risk for metabolic
syndrome and type 2 diabetes?
a
...
Harmful!
b
...
What do scientists do if the test does not support the original
hypothesis? What do scientists do if results support the hypothesis?
a
...
Question
c
...
Hypothesis may be falsified by facts
ii
...
Prediction
e
...
Test does not support hypothesis: revise hypothesis or pose new one
ii
...
Fructose may affect the microbiome in the intestines and loosen the tight junctions of the epithelial
cells of the gut
...
Direct
i
...
Affects the microbiome in the intestines  increased permeability  more endotoxins  fibrosis and
inflammation
iii
...
Building up fibrosis from endotoxins
b
...
Body weight and fat  dysregulation
c
...
Liver uses fructose to create fat (lipogenesis)
ii
...
Elevates triglycerides
iv
...
Makes tissue insulin-resistant
4) Compare the relative sample size and methods of a meta-analysis, randomized controlled clinical trials, and
cohort studies
...
Meta-analysis : combining the findings of independent studies
b
...
Cohort: longitudinal
d
...
Placebo
1
...
Could show no change, dramatic improvement, or suffer from side effects
ii
...
Sham event that harms you
5) Draw the lines showing the usual percentage of calories from added sugar on the horizontal axis vs the average
hazard ratio for cardiovascular disease risk as shown in the cohort study
...

a
...
Actually did not promote weight gain, might promote weight loss
b
...
Sharing electrons unequally between oxygen and hydrogen
b
...
Polar: molecule that contains regions that have opposite electrical charges
i
...
Oxygen: slightly more negative
iii
...
Charge
v
...
Non-polar: everything equal
e
...
Hydrogen bond: a weakly positive hydrogen atom already bonded to one electronegative atom (oxygen) is
attracted to another electronegative atom from another molecule
i
...
E
...
weakly negative oxygen atom in one water molecule is attracted to the weakly positive hydrogen
atom of two other water molecules
iii
...
Viscosity: stickiness of hydrogen bonds
c
...
A long time for water to gain and lose heat
e
...
Hydrophobic: water-fearing, does not mix in water
...
Need specialized transporters
3) What chemical properties and pH values define acids? Bases? Recognize acids and bases if you see a chemical
reaction
...
Acid: substance that releases hydrogen ions in solution
i
...
High H content
b
...
Base: something that binds with a hydrogen ion (often OH)
i
...
Releases OH in solution or accepts H already present in solution
iii
...
Why is 7
...
Describe how
the carbonic acid—bicarbonate buffer system aids pH homeostasis
a
...
When it ionizes, it gives off an equal amount of base and acid
b
...
Less than seven: acidic
d
...

i
...
Limits the potential shift in pH caused by an excess of acid or base
e
...
Each movement is 10x
ii
...
100 times more acidic than 3: 1
5) What is the normal range for extracellular (plasma) pH? What symptoms occur when a person is suffering from
acidosis or from alkalosis?
a
...
Acidosis: up to and less than 7
...
Inhibits brain, muscle fatigue, coma
c
...
45
i
...
Ketones: acidic
i
...
Diabetics have too much
iii
...
Made if your body does not get enough carbs to supply the body with glucose or if your body does not
use glucose properly (not enough insulin to get sugar from the blood and into the cells)
b
...
Insulin is too low, breaking down fatty acids for energy
ii
...
Metabolism: sum of all the chemical reactions that are involved in catabolism and anabolism
b
...
BMR decrease from age 1-20 because the SA / V ratio of a person decreases with age
8) Describe the metabolic states of the body
a
...
After a meal when your body is digesting and absorbing
ii
...
Post absorptive
i
...
Body relies on stored glycogen
1
...
Glucagon is released by the alpha cells
c
...
Body uses ketones
ii
...
Ketones become major source of fuel
9) What are the differences between kinetic vs
...
Chemicals (potential energy)
i
...
Chemical energy: form of potential energy in which energy is stored in chemical bonds
1
...
Protein
iv
...
Fat
b
...
Form of energy powering any type of matter in motion
10) Compare synthetic (anabolic) reactions to decomposition (catabolic)
...
Catabolic: breaking things down (Decomposition)  give off energy
i
...
Anabolic: building things up  use energy
c
...
Net energy change positive: catabolic releases more than anabolic uses
e
...
Carbon
i
...
Sugar: soluble: will readily travel in our bloodstream
b
...
Anything with an OH group is polar
2) What is unique about the ratio of Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen in a carbohydrate? Name one monosaccharide
and one disaccharide
...
Which complex
carbohydrate is most rapidly catabolized? Explain why
...
Carbs: most common source of energy to fuel the body
i
...
CH2O –all carbs have this (including glucose)
2
...
Complex carbs
iii
...
Starch: can digest
a
...
Glycogen: digest most rapidly (most surface area)
a
...
Cellulose: not digestible
iv
...
Glucose and fructose
2
...
Disaccharides
1
...
Compare their number of double C-C bonds
...
Lipid: all are hydrophobic
b
...
Storage and fat
ii
...
Three fatty acids
c
...
Straight, rigid
ii
...
Animal fats: high in both saturated fat and cholesterol
d
...
Unable to pack together as tightly
ii
...
Polyunsaturated: two or more double bonds
i
...
Light weight, low density
iii
...
Trans fatty acids: unsaturated fatty acids that are chemically treated to produce partially hydrogenated fats (by
breaking a double bond kinds  worse for you)
4) Given examples of dietary lipids that are liquid vs
...
How does hydrogenation alter a fatty
acid? Which types of fatty acids are “unhealthy”? List some foods that contain those types of bad fatty acids
...
Side effect of partial hydrogenation: trans-fat
i
...
Complete hydrogenation: flattened out
c
...
Metabolized in the liver
1
...
Important component of bile acids
3
...
Found in the cell membrane, where hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions help regulated the
flow of substances in and out of the cell
5
...
Molecules with polar and non-polar regions are ideal for transporting lipids in the blood
i
...
Ketone
i
...
Low insulin and increased glucagon
1
...
Proteins: organic molecule composed of amino acids linked by peptide bonds
i
...
Amino acid: a molecule composed to an amino group and a carboxyl group
c
...
Hydrogen atom
ii
...
Acidic carboxyl group (acid)
iv
...
An amino acid with a positively charged remainder group will be attracted to an amino acid
with a negatively charged remainder group
d
...
About 20 natural amino acids, very different
f
...
Primary: sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain (strongest—not broken down by
temperature or pH shifts)
i
...
Secondary: alpha-helix or beta-pleated sheet (can be both)
c
...
Quaternary: two or more separate polypeptide bonds
Describe how enzymes increase the efficiency of metabolic processes
...
Specificity: a substrate with a particular shape and electrical charge can bind only to an active site corresponding
to that substrate
b
...
Very specific
d
...
Also destabilized when hot
f
...
Enzymes are used many times before they break down and decreases the energy needed to complete a chemical
reaction
i
...
How will denaturation affect protein function?
a
...
Exposed to extreme heat, acids, bases etc
...
Primary
iii
...
Lose their functional shape  cannot carry out their jobs
c
...
Denatured by high / low temperature and pH shifts

Lecture 6

10

1) Name the extracellular vs
...
Extracellular: outside
i
...
Intracellular: cytoplasm
i
...
What are some of the general functions of a
cell membrane?
a
...
Phospholipid bilayer
c
...
Unique
e
...
Hydrophilic heads interact with water of both extra and inter cellular
b
...
Have to be very small or hydrophobic to go through
i
...
Phospholipids: two fatty acid chains (charged region  polar head)
e
...
Phospholipid bilayer blocks ions
g
...
Only small, non-polar molecules can move through
ii
...
Which transport methods use ATP, which
use kinetic energy of the molecule? Which goes up or down a concentration gradient? Compare the differences in
the actions of channe l and carrier proteins?
a
...
Movement of substances across the membrane without the expenditure of cellular energy
ii
...
Eventually will reach a point where there is an equilibrium
2
...
Down a concentration gradient (high to low)
1
...
Types of diffusion: simple, facilitated, osmosis
v
...
Active
i
...
“Up” a concentration gradient (low to high)
iii
...
vesicles
5) Describe simple diffusion
...
Simple diffusion: fat soluble molecules directly through the phospholipid bilayer
i
...
Temperature: warmer, speeds up diffusion as molecules move faster
c
...
Molecular / ion mass: higher masses  slower diffusion
i
...
Describe the role of insulin in regulating the number of
glucose transporters
...
Facilitated diffusion: the diffusion process used for those substances that cannot cross the lipid bilayer due to
their size or polarity (using carrier proteins)
i
...
Both facilitated diffusion and active transport are carrier-mediated
b
...
Insulin signaling: triggers a cell to put more transporters in a cell membrane
d
...
Faster than simple and has a max rate
i
...
Simple: linear
f
...
Insulin receptors / transporter is defective
ii
...
Know my “simple” definition of osmotic pressure and tonicity of a solution
...
Diffusion of a solvent such as water through a specific channel protein or through the lipid bilayer
b
...
Osmotic pressure opposes the movement of water
ii
...
Hypertonic to its surroundings: higher osmotic pressure
c
...
Hypertonic: a solution that has a higher concentration of solutes than another solution
i
...
Water molecules diffuse into a hypertonic solution
iii
...
Diabetes: unregulated diabetes may result in hypertonic plasma
e
...
Lower solutes and more water
ii
...
Water: easily transferable (rapid)
g
...
Describe vesicular transport
...
ATP is required, because usually going against the concentration gradient
i
...
Sodium potassium pump: transports sodium out of a cell while moving potassium into a cell using carrier
proteins
c
...
Endocytosis: the process a cell ingesting material by enveloping it in a portion of its cell membrane, and then
pinching off that portion of membrane
i
...
Uses ATP and movement of the cytoskeleton within the cell
e
...
Exocytosis: the process of a cell exporting material using vesicular transport
i
...
E
...
ER to Golgi (making vesicles)
g
...
Catabolism
b
...
support
d
...
Membranous exterior
i
...
Rough endoplasmic reticulum

12

a
...
Lipids, oxygen, water can pass through
b
...
Dotted with ribosomes
1
...
Synthesis and modification of proteins destined for the cell membrane or for export
from the cell
ii
...
Sorting, modifying, and shipping off the products that come from the rough ER
2
...
Lysosomes
1
...
Protein based
c
...
Mitochondria
i
...
Outer lipid bilayer and inner lipid bilayer
iii
...
Cellular respiration
1
...
Oxygen is required
e
...
Largest and most prominent of a cell’s organelles
ii
...
Nucleolus
i
...
Region of the nucleus that is responsible for manufacturing the RNA necessary for construction of
ribosomes
g
...
Group of fibrous proteins that provide structural support for cells
ii
...
Epithelial cells of airways
2
...
Move substances over the surfaces of a cell by bending their microtubules using ATP
iii
...
Sperm cell
h
...
Produce the mitotic spindle
3) Describe the structure and internal environment of a lysosome
...
Loaded with catabolic digestive enzymes
b
...
Helps to denature the proteins that it wants to digest
c
...
Has its own membrane
e
...
Endocytosis
g
...
The process of a cell digesting its own structures
1
...
Defects linked to diabetes, obesity, cancer
iii
...
Limit
h
...
Can be triggered to open up and release their digestive enzymes into the cytoplasm of a damaged or
unhealthy cell, killing the cell
ii
...
What organic molecules can mitochondria
use to supply the energy needed to build ATP? Are oxygen molecules required? Can ATP be built anywhere else
in the cell? What effect does a high fat diet have on mitochondrial function and autophagy by lysosomes? What
effect do these changes have on beta cells of the pancreas (where insulin is produced)?
a
...
Inner: surface area, folds called cristae
c
...
Oxygen is required (catabolized)
i
...
Excess fatty acid intake  damage mitochondria and impair autophagy  beta cell failure in pancreas  cell
death  Type 2 diabetes
5) What are the subunit molecules that are present in ATP? Compare the structure of ATP and ADP that breaks off
in ATP to release energy for cellular work?
a
...
Supplies energy to cells when covalent phosphate bonds are broken, supplying energy to cells
c
...
When a phosphate group is cleaved off, the products are ADP and P (phosphate)
6) Describe the overall function of the cytoskeleton
...
Describe the structure and function of cilia and flagella
...
Quaternary: multiple proteins linked together end to end (fibrous proteins provide structural support)
b
...
Actin: protein that forms chains: primary component of these microfilaments
ii
...
Responsible for muscle contraction
iv
...
Microtubules: structural filament composed of subunits of a protein called tubulin
i
...
Quaternary structure
iii
...
Set the paths along which the genetic material called be pulled during cell division (requiring ATP)
1
...
List the three types of molecules in a nucleotide
...
Nuclear envelope
i
...
Bigger barrier
b
...
Nucleotide
i
...
Pentose sugar: deoxyribose or ribose
iii
...
Can be assembled into DNA, RNA, or triphosphate (ATP)
d
...
Deoxyribose, phosphate group,
ii
...
Double helix
iv
...
RNA
i
...
Single strand
Summarize the two major events in protein synthesis: transcription and translation
...
Transcription (within the nucleus to make mRNA)
i
...
initiation: a promoter triggers that start of transcription
iii
...
RNA polymerase unwinds the DNA segment
2
...
Polymerase aligns that correct nucleic acids (A, C, G, or U) with its complementary base on the
coding strand (inverse)
iv
...
Translation (translating to amino acid sequences)
i
...
Limits risk of damage to DNA
iii
...
Process of synthesizing a chain of amino acids called a polypeptide
v
...
Elongation: recognition of a tRNA anticodon with the next mRNA codon in the sequence (triplet 
codon  anticodon)
1
...
Stringing together specific amino acids
3
...
Termination: when the final codon on the mRNA is reached
c
...
Copy DNA to from MRNA
ii
...
Rough ER folds proteins
iv
...
Vesicle pinches off and forms a lysosome
Compare the design and function of these types of RNA:
a
...
Transfer (tRNA): ferries the appropriate corresponding amino acids to the ribosome, and attaches each new
amino acid to the last, building the polypeptide chain one by one
i
...
within the nucleus
c
...
Positions so that everyone goes in order
d
...
Each codon identifies one type of amino acid
...
Codon: three base sequence of MRNA
1
...
Triplets: minimum required to give an individual sequence of info
1
...
Matches one codon
iii
...
Matches amino acid
The primary structure of a protein is defined by the sequence of amino acids
...
Where are these proteins found?
a
...
Ribosomes and ER
i
...
Pinched into a vesicle
iii
...
Can become:
a
...
Vesicle
c
...
Pre-pro insulin: leading segments guides it into the ER
i
...
No insulin production from birth (neonatal diabetes)
c
...
How is insulin released?
i
...
chromatin
...
How do environmental effects alter chromatin without
altering the DNA? How do these epigenetic changes affect the DNA? Are epigenetic changes inherited? When do
they occur? Can they be reversed?
a
...
Along the chromatin threads, the DNA is wrapped around a set of histone proteins
ii
...
Histones can come off of DNA in order to be able to copy it
iv
...
Chromosome: DNA and proteins, condenses form of chromatin when the cell is in the process of division so that
DNA can be safely transported
c
...
Exercise: benefits
ii
...
Can be caused by environmental agents
iv
...
Prenatal (parental epigenome)
2
...
Throughout your lifetime
4
...
Are they inherited?
1
...
Identical twins will show increasingly different epigenetic modifications as a result of their
lifestyle differences
vi
...
Potentially  changes in behavior, environmental exposure
d
...
Does not code for genes
ii
...
Enhancers, repressors, or regulators
iii
...
What design and functional features do connective tissues have in common? What protein forms most of a tendon
or ligament? Why are those fibers “wavy?”
a
...
Structural support
ii
...
Fat storage and blood cell production

16

1
...
Red marrow: hematopoiesis: production of blood cells
iv
...
67 percent inorganic
vi
...
Collagen: tough and thick
i
...
Tendons and ligaments: not really any blood vessels
iii
...
Wavy: to be able to give a tiny bit in one direction due to tension
v
...
In part due to lack of blood vessels
c
...
Smoking, high cholesterol can affect blood flow
ii
...
With age in children who played gymnastics:
i
...
Males  increased bone strength
iii
...
Describe the differences in design and function of these bone cells:
a
...
Secrete bone (collagen and minerals)
ii
...
Found in growing portions of the bone
b
...
Mature
ii
...
Maintain mineral concentration
iv
...
Stasis mode: keeping bone alive
c
...
Actively transport out H
ii
...
Pours acid onto surface of bone: demineralize
iv
...
Made of white blood cells that fuse together into a large cell
vi
...
Homeostasis of bone tissue formation and resorption in young adults
3
...
Why is
homeostasis of calcium so important? Diagram the pattern of PTH release with plasma calcium; predict the
pattern for calcitonin and plasma calcium
...
Not about maintain bone mass but plasma calcium: immediate need
b
...
Stimulates calcium deposition in bones (osteoblast)
ii
...
Blood calcium falls
iv
...
Falling blood calcium level: Parathyroid glands release PTH
i
...
Sensitive around set point (within tolerance limits)
ii
...
Increased Ca uptake in kidneys
1
...
Blood calcium rises
d
...
Amount of PTH released from parathyroid changes rapidly as calcium levels rise

17

i
...
How is active vitamin D formed? What is vitamin D derived from? What can you predict about the water
solubility of Vitamin D?
a
...
Dehydrocholesterol: UV energy metabolized and creates pre-cursor of Vitamin D, liver and kidney modify it
c
...
Globally, where are Vitamin D deficiencies high? Explain why
...
Sunlight, diet
b
...
Late 1800’s  smoke from industrial age, lack of sunlight
ii
...
Bones curve under mass of the body weight
c
...
Predict bone density in males vs
...
Why do women lose bone density faster? Why do
women tend to have lower bone density than men?
a
...
What role do sex hormones and growth hormones have on bone density? What are the two uncontrollable risk
factors for osteoporosis among women? Do men ever develop it? Did Vitamin D supplements in older women
affect bone density? Predict other dietary of behavioral factors that affect bone density
a
...
Thyroxine: promotes osteoblastic activity and the synthesis of bone matrix
c
...
End growth of long bones
d
...
Decrease in bone mass when rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation
ii
...
Cease the production of estrogen
iii
...
Prevention: vitamin D, calcium, lifestyle
1
...
Treatments: calcitonin, estrogen for women
vi
...
Describe the anatomical
hierarchy of a muscle organ using these: organ, fascicle, 1 cell or myocyte = 1 muscle fiber, sarcomere,
myofilaments
a
...
Depends on the signaling from the nervous system to work properly
ii
...
Generate heat
iv
...
Postural
b
...
Smooth
d
...
Each layer / outside / cell surrounded with fibrous connective tissue (collagen mostly)
1
...
Blood vessels and nerves travel
3
...
In addition, protect from electrical signal

18

2)

3)

4)

5)

4
...
Fascicle: a bundle of myocytes
6
...
What produces passive tension when a muscle is stretched?
Predict what might affect the elasticity of different skeletal muscles or elasticity between different individuals
...
Passive tension generated by stretching  connective tissues (no energy required)
b
...
Graph the proliferation of myofibers and
myoblasts on and Y axis with age on the X axis
...
Myoblasts: stem cells start forming early in development
i
...
Fuses into skeletal muscle fiber
c
...
Peak at myoblast creation at birth, then it goes down until maturity
e
...
E
...
hard / impossible to regrow bicep
ii
...
Satellite / progenitor: satellite cells
i
...
Ability to replicate declines with age: repair will be slower as you grow older
iii
...
Nuclei: lots of nuclei
i
...
Build and repair microfilaments really rapidly
b
...
More myofibrils, stronger the cell (bigger diameter cells have more force
than small)
i
...
Part of the cytoskeleton of cells bigger here than usual, specific arrangement
c
...
Use active transport (Ca pumps)
ii
...
Mitochondria: energy
e
...
Allow electrical signal to travel into the core of the cell
f
...
Organ = muscle
h
...
One muscle fiber= one muscle cell (myocyte) (fiber = cell = myocyte)
j
...
One myofibril = many sarcomeres
l
...
How does a sarcomere shorten during a
contraction? What limits sarcomere shortening? Graph the active tensions curve of a muscle with resting length
on the X axis, explain why active tensions varies at different sarcomere lengths
...
Sarcomere
i
...
Specialized cytoskeleton made up of actin and myosin
ii
...
Sarcomeres themselves get shorter, not the filaments
1
...
Thick filaments: made of myosin packaged together
c
...
Anchored in the z line
d
...
Limits: boundaries, how far apart you can pull

19

ii
...
Active tension
i
...
Highest at normal
1
...
E
...
if normal resting length is 2, maximized a 2
2
...
Optimal overlap
iii
...
Too far apart
2
...
Passive: increasing as length increases
6) What neurotransmitter is released by excited motor neurons at a neuromuscular junction for skeletal muscle?
What role do T-tubules play in the excitation of the sarcoplasmic reticulum in a muscle cell?
a
...
Electrical signal opens up channel
b
...
Every skeletal muscle fiber in every skeletal muscle is innervated by a motor neuron at the NMJ
ii
...
Membrane potential: usually -60 to – 90
d
...
Neuronal action potential travels along the axon of a motor neuron, then along the individua l branches
to terminate the NMJ
1
...
Ach diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to receptors
3
...
Voltage gated sodium channels are triggered to open
a
...
Then the membrane repolarizes and ach is degraded by acetylcholinesterase
ii
...
Ensure that the membrane can get close to the SR
2
...
Action potential goes along the sarcomere as a wave
iv
...
Ca moves aside shielding proteins so that the actin binding sites are available for attachment by myosin
heads (forming cross bridges ATP necessary for energy to pull)
1
...
Pumps: always slower than diffusion
vi
...
Calcium movement inside the cell
8) Describe the major steps involved in a muscle contraction with regards to actin, myosin, activation sites, calcium,
and energy (ATP  ADP)
a
...
ACH from motor neuron innervating the fiber
ii
...
Action potential  rest of membrane depolarizes
iv
...

c
...

e
...
Ca initiates contraction, sustained by ATP
vi
...
Stops when:
1
...
Ca ions pumped back into the SR
3
...
Myosin heads pull on the actin filaments
1
...
ATP: supplies the energy for muscle contraction, active-transport Ca pumps in the SR
Myosin heads hydrolyze ATP and become reoriented and energized
Myosin heads bind to actin, forming cross bridges
Myosin cross bridges rotate towards center of the sarcomere
As myosin heads bind ATP, the cross bridges detach from actin

Lecture 13
1) Compare these aspects of Type I red and Type IIB white muscle fibers:
a
...
Red: much darker (more myoglobin  more oxygen)
ii
...
Diameter (number of myofibrils)
i
...
Aerobic  much longer duration (high endurance)
2
...

3
...
While white gets smaller with age, red has continual maintenance
ii
...
Anaerobic
2
...
But add them together to do high intensity work
4
...

c
...
Red: more fatty acids
ii
...
Blood supply (number of capillaries)
i
...
Aerobic exercise can increase the capillaries around red myofibers
a
...
Weight training  white fibers
ii
...
How may a high percent of red of white fibers affect your athletic skills?
a
...
Why does each motor unit have an all-or-non response? Describe the major differences
between asynchronous and synchronous motor unit recruitment
...
Motor unit: single motor neuron innervating a group of muscle fibers
b
...
One motor neuron (one controller) controls a group of similar cells
1
...
“stair” : a different signal will kick in each motor unit, but the previous ones will keep firing
1
...
Red first (small), then white
3
...
Doesn’t become synchronous until you have a lot working together
iv
...
E
...
back muscles holding head up all the time  seamless transfer
4) What type (Size, metabolism) of motor units are used for postural maintenance or aerobic work? What type of
motor units are used only if maximum effort of force is necessary?
a
...
Very fine motor control
ii
...
Large
i
...
As more strength is needed, larger motor units are activated
c
...
Simultaneous recruitment: cannot last for very long
5) How do skeletal muscle fibers change with age? Compare Type I and Type II responses to aging
...
Muscles atrophy with age (atrophy  number of sarcomeres and myofibrils disappear, but not muscle fibers)
b
...
Effects of age: less noticeable in endurance athletes vs
...
As muscles age, muscle fibers die and are replaced with connective tissues and adipose tissue
i
...
Can be delayed to some extent by exercise
i
...
Compare how much stored glycogen and fat is in the body
a
...
ATP burned through in seconds, first
i
...
Tiny amount available
7) Explain the sequence of peak energy sources during aerobic exercise: available ATP, CP, anaerobic glycolysis,
aerobic glycolysis, aerobic lipolysis
a
...
Fifteen seconds
ii
...
Anaerobic glycolysis: glucose  pyruvate
i
...
A little bit before building up lactic acid  moves into the blood
iii
...
One minute  shorts bursts of high intensity output
c
...
Provides about 95 percent of the ATP required for resting or moderately active muscles
ii
...
Burn through glycogen pretty quickly (red cells have a lot available)
1
...
Glucose metabolism is the primary route because it requires less O2, more efficient
1
...
Increased with aerobic training so more O2 can be supplied
v
...
Aerobic lipolysis: fatty acid  CO2 + H2O
i
...
Starts after a few minutes
iii
...
Glucose catabolism uses less O2
b
...
Amount of oxygen needed to compensate for ATP produced without oxygen during muscle contraction
ii
...
Leads to acidosis
iv
...
As in peak work (sprinting)
v
...
A lot of aerobic exercise: reduces oxygen debt because you can do more work before lactic acid begins
building up
vii
...
Fatigue in anaerobic working: buildup of lactic acid
d
...
Compare the terms: nerve and neuron
...
CNS: brain and spinal cord
i
...
Spinal cord faster than brain  shorter distance, fewer synapses
b
...
Neuron
i
...
Electrical signals that communication information
iii
...
Nerve: a bundle of axons in the PNS
i
...
NOT interneurons
2) Describe the structure and function of dendrites, axons, synaptic terminals
...
Cell body: cell’s life support center (soma)
i
...
CNS: localized collection of neuron cell bodies
iii
...
Dendrites: receive messages from other cells (extend from the cell body)
i
...
More space for more NT to find a receptor
c
...
Axon hillock
ii
...
Why both synaptic and action?
1
...
Action: does travel far
d
...
Node of Ranvier: gaps
e
...
Synaptic terminals: releasing NT
f
...
Stimulus
b
...
Sensory / afferent
i
...
Basically same thing as graded
1
...
All receptors are graded signals
iii
...
Interneuron: only in the CNS
i
...
Efferent / motor

23

f
...
Muscle of gland
ii
...
Voltage gated  rest of cell has action potential
g
...
Why is a reflex a negative feedback
loop?
4) What is myelin? How do the PNS glial cells called Schwann cells myelinate axons? Describe these glial cells in the
CNS: astrocytes and oligodendrocytes
...
Spinal cord
i
...
White matter: myelinated axons : highways traveling up and down the spinal cord
b
...
Mostly white material (myelinated axons)
c
...
Outnumber neurons (glial)
ii
...
Myelination sometimes not done until 18/ 20
1
...
Wrapping around one plasma membrane
1
...
Lipid
3
...
CNS
i
...
Not always myelinated
iii
...
Can myelinate multiple areas with multiple processes
2
...
Construct separate lipid layer
iv
...
Supporting cells for the neurons in the CNS
5) What does the blood-brain-barrier do? What creates this barrier? Describe how three factors can increased the
permeability of the BBB
...
BBB: physiological barrier that keeps many substances that circulate in the rest of the body from getting into the
CNS
i
...
As well as water and ions
b
...
Have to be very small or have special transporters
c
...
Some factors that raise BBB permeability: hyperglycemia, hypertension, hyperosmotic conditions (shrinks
cells), chronic inflammation (pressure)
6) How does diabetes and glucose affect the CNS?
a
...
With: goes up around a point (look at graphs)
Lecture 15
1) Describe the conditions on a resting neuron’s membrane: distribution of Na, K, Cl, and proteins, inside and
outside of the neuron, and charge distribution across the membrane
a
...
Will go in
Na+ and Clb
...
Will go out
K+ and proteins c
...
Leakage channels: K and Na

24

2)

3)
4)

5)

6)

i
...
Leaky channels: random
...
Na / K pump moves sodium outside / potassium inside
i
...
moving ions against the concentration gradient to restore membrane potential
iii
...
Pumps three sodium ions out for every two potassium ions pumped in
Why is a resting membrane said to be polarized? What is a typical resting membrane potential? What is the role
of Na K pumps in the membrane of neurons and myofibers?
a
...
-70: normal resting state
Where on a neuron do action potentials occur? What types of voltage-gated channels are found of axons? What
signals open these channels? Describes the events in the opening and closing of Na and K channels in an action
potential (depolarization vs
...
Why are action potentials non-decremental with distance?
Steps of the action potential
a
...
At its peak, the action potential approaches the
equilibrium potential for NA: about plus 40
...
Chemical messages from other neurons produce local potentials at synapses across the membrane of the
dendrites and soma
c
...
At the threshold of activation, voltage-gated Na ion channels in the membrane rapidly open and Na enters the
cell
e
...
As the action potential peaks, Na channels close and no more Na enters
g
...
K is forced out of the cell, decreasing the charge inside the cell
i
...
All voltage-gated ion channels are closed
k
...
The fact that the size of the action potential is independent to the size of the stimulus
b
...
Magnitude is always the same: strength does not change
Rate law
a
...
Firing rate: measured as the number of action potentials within a period of time
ii
...
Dendrite: collects electrical signals
c
...
Axon: passes electrical signals to dendrites of another cell or to an effector cell
e
...
Na voltage gated channels
i
...
Refractory period: no amount of electrical signal can open it back up
g
...
Simpler: open and closed position
ii
...
Depolarization: membrane potential moves closer to zero (more positive)
i
...
Reverse the polarity: positive charges move inside  opening of Na voltage gated channels
iii
...
Must reach threshold: -55 for an action potential and for voltage gated Na channels to open
i
...
Depolarize above threshold  sodium goes in  depolarization to +30
ii
...
Membrane voltage moves back towards -70 (more negative)
Refractory period: when an action potential is in progress, another cannot be initiated
i
...
Na/ K pump returns these ions to their normal concentration after synaptic or action potentials
7) Compare an action potential’s speed and efficiency on a non-myelinated vs myelinated axon
...
What types of neurons are not
myelinated? How does neuron diameter affect the speed of an action potential?
a
...
Positive feedback effect to target the next section
c
...
Charge rapidly moves to Nodes of Ranvier  sodium channels open
e
...
Unmyelinated: continuous
i
...
Myelination: faster (salutatory conduction)
i
...
Sheaths act as insulation to the charge
iii
...
Lipid: hydrophobic: depolarized region inside the cell: charges move rapidly past that hydrophobic zone
to the next charged area
h
...
Bigger/ longer signal with a higher stimulus (how many signals per second)
ii
...
Important: no such thing as a bigger action potential
...
What axons are not myelinated?
i
...
Big fibers: worth it
iii
...
Size issue: not everything has space
2
...
Prioritize
j
...
Myelinated, higher diameter, higher temperature  more rapid transmission
8) Why are synaptic potentials called “decremental” and “graded?” Where on a neuron do graded potentials occur?
Describe the sequence of events at a synaptic junction
...
Give an
example of an ion channel opening that could be depolarizing and one that could be hyperpolarizing
a
...
 Calcium moves in through voltage gated Ca channels
1
...
 synaptic vesicles fuse with presynaptic membrane
iii
...
 postsynaptic membrane
1
...
Action potential arrives at the terminal button
1
...
Synaptic vesicles binds to the inside of the presynaptic membranes
3
...
NT binds to the receptor
1
...
NA: goes inside, more positive
3
...
Cl: ligand gated, goes inside, more negative
vii
...
Each NT produces a specific postsynaptic potential
a
...


26

i
...
Inhibitory NTs bind to receptors that open K and / or Cl ion channels
i
...
Changes in the charge of the postsynaptic membrane
viii
...
Spatial summation and temporal summation
2
...
If the cell is depolarized to the threshold of excitation  an action potential fires
4
...
Removal of NT from the synapse terminates PSPs
1
...
Transporter molecules draw NT back into the cell
2
...
Enzyme in the synapse breaks down NT molecules
3
...
Ion channels open when NT binds  ion flows cause change in postsynaptic cell potential
c
...
Graded:
i
...
Depolarized: excited
1
...
EPSP: move towards threshold
iii
...
K leaving the cell or Cl entering the cell (cell becomes more negative)
2
...
Can be added onto each other  add together to get above threshold (summation)
1
...
Spatial: different locations
3
...
More action potentials  more NT
10) Explain how acidosis hyperpolarized neurons and how alkalosis depolarized neurons
...
Higher pH: can send more action potentials per minutes
b
...
g
...
5 means more action potentials than 7
...
If pH of blood plasma level drops, decrease firing rate of action potentials
d
...
Alkalosis (higher pH): depolarization
11) Describe the events on a motor end plate leading to skeletal muscle excitation
...
CNS  PNS  Sensory / Motor  Somatic  Autonomic  sympathetic / parasympathetic
b
...
Voluntary
ii
...
Somatic: always excitatory
c
...
Involuntary
ii
...
Dual intervention: dual control by parasympathetic and sympathetic

27

2) Describe the events at a somatic motor neuromuscular junction that le ad to an action potential traveling over the
sarcolemma of the skeletal muscle cell
...
How quickly is Ach broken down?
a
...
Calcium goes in, binds to wall, vesicle opens up (exocytosis)
c
...
Ach: binds to receptors on motor end plate and opens sodium channels
i
...
Acetylcholinesterase breaks down Ach and it is taken away
f
...
Why does the contraction last longer than the action potential?
i
...
Ach released at synaptic terminal diffuses across synaptic cleft and binds to receptor proteins, triggering
an action potential in muscle fiber
iii
...
Action potential triggers calcium release from SR
v
...
Cycles of myosin cross-bridge formation and breakdown, couples with ATP hydrolysis, slide thin
filament towards the center of the sarcomere
vii
...
Blockage of myosin binding sites is restored, contraction end, muscle fiber relaxes
3) What regions of the brain regulate the somatic motor and autonomic divisions of the nervous system? Is
autonomic signaling of an organ faster or slower than somatic motor signaling? Think about myelination or lack
of it on the motor axons
...
Somatic
i
...
Faster?
b
...
Hypothalamus: visceral senses
c
...
What visceral organs become more active in each situation, in general?
a
...
Faster
ii
...
Accelerates heart
2
...
Parasympathetic: Ach
i
...
Slow heartrate down
2
...
Less worried about speed (lightly myelinated  unmyelinated)
iii
...
Will sometimes have a lingering signal after
5) Describe the functions of the adrenal medulla’s release of epinephrine and norepinephrine for the autonomic
system?
a
...
Releases epinephrine and NE
ii
...
Short term stress response (adrenaline = NE)
i
...
Glycogen  glucose into blood
iii
...
Increases breathing rate
v
...
Changes in blood flow to improve alertness and lower digestive and kidney activity

28

6) What NT’s are used by the parasympathetic and sympathetic divisions at their target organs? Compare the
design of nicotinic and muscarinic receptors for acetylcholine
...
Sympathetic: uses Ach and releases NE
i
...
Ach: nicotinic
iii
...
Alpha and beta
2
...
Parasympathetic: Ach (cholinergic system)
i
...
Ach: muscarinic
iii
...
What determines action is specific kind of receptor
d
...
Quickest on and off
ii
...
Postsynaptic membrane:
1
...
All neuromuscular junctions
3
...
Depolarization  excitation
5
...
Muscarinic Ach receptors
i
...
Ach is always excitatory
iii
...
Slower (secondary messengers)
v
...
Hyperpolarized (K channels opened)  inhibition slower heart rate
vii
...
More from review
i
...
Sympathetic (NE) and Para (Ach)
2
...
Cardiac muscle: increased or decreased rate and force of contraction
4
...
Myelinated preganglionic neuron and unmyelinated postganglionic
ii
...
Ach: skeletal muscle contraction
2
...
Always excitatory
Lecture 17
1) Special senses
a
...
Shorter pathways to the brain
2) Where are the taste buds located on the tongue papillae? Compare supertasters and non-tasters; who has more
taste buds, what are the benefits of each?
a
...
Saliva is important to get it there
c
...
Each taste bud contains all types of cells
e
...
25 %
ii
...
Very sensitive to bitter, sugar; dislike generally (because they can detect tiny amounts)

29

f
...
25 %
ii
...
Poor sense of taste; like bitter foods
g
...
What other tastes have been suggested to have receptors in our mouth / tongue/ throat
a
...
Salty: sodium (osmotic)  second highest
c
...
Bitter: quinine (toxins)  lowest threshold  highest sensitivity (needs little to detect)
i
...
A lot of different categories of toxins, harder to recognize
e
...
Ranked by sensitivity ( amount if takes to detect): bitter, umami, sour, salt, sweet
How do taste receptors work?
a
...
Resulting depolarization opens voltage-gated Ca channels
c
...
Graded potential
e
...
Perception of H concentration  depolarization
f
...
Chemicals  into mucus  contact cilia  through epithelial cells and bone to the olfactory bulb
b
...
Each hair detects 1 of >1000 chemicals
d
...
Cilia detect odor: bind to specific receptors
i
...
First target: olfactory bulb
iii
...
Emotion / memory regions of the brain as well
Can olfactory neurons and taste receptor cells be replaced from stem cells, if older cells die?
Compare the human sense of smell to other animals; what has changed in the evolution of humans? How many
odorant receptors are there in humans? What is the functional meaning of olfactory variation between humans?
a
...
Humans have around 400
c
...
Predict a similar
comparison for taste perception with age and diabetes—is the pattern likely to be similar or different?
a
...
Type II  significant decrease
c
...
Smoking
What is the function of a vomeronasal system? What evidence supports and what refutes a functional VNO in
humans?
a
...
Olfactory region for pheromones in animals  front of roof of mouth
c
...
Closest we’ve come is synchrony in menstrual cycles

Lecture 18
1) Describe the three layers of the eye: neural, vascular, and fibrous
...
Neural
i
...
Fovea: center of visual field (highest visual acuity)
iii
...
Vascular  middle layer
i
...
Heavily pigmented with melanin so that its absorbs light well
ii
...
Fibrous  first layer
i
...
Cornea: transparent (well linearized fibers, parallel)
iii
...
Why do the
lens and cornea lack blood vessels?
a
...
Humors: aqueous and vitreous
3) Describe the accommodation in the shape of the lens for near or far vision
...
Sympathetic stimulation: low light and far vision
i
...
Pupil dilates
iii
...
Best focus on far objects
v
...
Ciliary muscle relax (flattens lens) , dilators contract (dilate pupl)
b
...
Excess light and near vision
ii
...
Reduces light excluding divergent light rays
iv
...
Constrictor (sphincter) muscles: close pupil
c
...
Grows throughout your lifetime
ii
...
Become filled with protein called crystalline
1
...
Age will have an impact: not replaced, just add to stack
iv
...
Radial
2
...
Lens flattened
4
...
Setting us up to see things further away
6
...
Parasympathetic
1
...
Ciliary muscles contracted (more convex)
3
...
Ligaments slacken
5
...
Age: accommodation decreases (especially 50 plus)
1
...
Near vision: big problem
3
...
Common age defects
b
...
More common in Caucasians and females
d
...
Smoking / smoke
f
...
How does the autonomic system control them?
What sensory and emotional stimuli can activate these sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons?
Compare the density and distribution of rods and cones across the retina
...
What is different in the retina if
someone is color-blind?
a
...
Light inverted  upside down on retina
i
...
Cones  one ganglion cell
2
...
Focused field of view: very small  eyes have to move to target
iii
...
Fovea: highest concentration of cones
1
...
Cones smaller, high density: SA / V ratio, more pixels
v
...
No light
i
...
Na channels are open and Na diffuses into the rod cell
iii
...
Opens Cl channels (goes in, more negative, hyperpolarized
iv
...
Light
i
...
Glutamate release stops
iii
...
Color blind
i
...
If missing a type, fill it up with other cones (dichromatic)
iii
...
Deuteranope: red and blue
v
...
What units measure these aspects of sound?
a
...
Distance between two ends of the curve crossing midpoint: wider = lower pitch
b
...
Distance between midline and peak of wave: bigger = louder
Trace the pathway of a sound as it travels through the structures of the ear: cochlea, pinna, malleus, stapes,
incus, tympanic membrane, external ear canal
...
Ear drum and ear ossicles: amplifiers
i
...
Auricle ear canal  tympanic membrane = external ear
c
...
Tympanic membrane  Malleus  incus  stapes  inner ear
d
...
Cochlea
ii
...
Explain “place coding” where
different regions of the cochlea detect different frequencies of sound
...


32

a
...
Place coding: how pitch is recognized
c
...
Narrow at the beginning and widens as you go up
ii
...
High frequencies (16) at the entrance, low frequencies at the end
d
...
Pressure bends it
ii
...
Membrane depolarize
iv
...
Synaptic vesicles fuse
vi
...
Louder?
i
...
Louder, hair cells will slam against stiffer above platform  deafness
10) What are some preventable risk factors for neural deafness? What parts of the hearing pathways may be
damaged with neural deafness?
a
...
Most dramatic in the > 10 kHz range
b
...
Gets stiff don’t flex as much
c
...
Hematocrit: measure of percent of red blood cells (erythrocytes)
...
Spinning a centrifuge
ii
...
Buffy coat
iv
...
Blood: connective tissue
i
...
RBC’s and WBC’s and platelets
ii
...
Plasma
c
...
Transportation
ii
...
Maintenance of homeostasis
d
...
More viscous than water
ii
...
4
iii
...
Where are albumins made?
a
...
Proteins: albumins, globulins, fibrinogen
b
...
Manufactured by the liver
ii
...
Hydrophobic pockets: able to transport lipids
2
...
Fat soluble vitamins (like E or A)

33

3)

4)

5)

6)

iv
...
Liver damage  jaundice
What are LDL and HDL called lipoproteins? What is the role of each? What is the effect of high LDL on the
cardiovascular system? How do statin drugs work
a
...
HDL: big (good)
i
...
Returning some of the lipid back to the liver
iii
...
Usually excreted in bile
v
...
LDL: small (bad)
i
...
Deliver lipids to tissues and blood vessels
iii
...
g
...
More LDL’s than HDL’s
v
...
Plaque builds up in your arteries  problem because these carry O2 rich blood to your heart,
etc
...
Cholesterol transport
i
...
Low risk: even benefit (taking stain drugs is beneficial for everybody)
iii
...
Create a protein that leads to an increase in the production of LDL receptors in the liver
v
...
Improves number of lipids in bloodstream
e
...
Describe the shape of a RBC
...
45 %: RBC  by far the most common
b
...
Primary function: pick up inhaled O2 from the blood and transport it to the body’s tissues, pick up carbon
dioxide waste and transport it to the lungs for exhalation
d
...
High SA / V
ii
...
Loaded with hemoglobin
f
...
Heme group: iron with O2 attached: O2 carrying cells
h
...
What are the functions of the heme region and of the globin proteins? Why
is iron a necessary nutrient for hemoglobin formation? Where does O2 attach? How many O2 molecules can one
hemoglobin molecule transport?
a
...
Four folded chains of a protein called globin
c
...
Why do these cells lose the nucleus and their mitochondria?
a
...
Mostly occurs in the red marrow
c
...
All blood cells come from this stem cell
d
...
“blast”: immature
ii
...
Ribosome synthesis
iv
...
Still can undergo further cell division
e
...
Ejects mitochondria and nucleus
1
...
Space for more hemoglobin
3
...
Larger SA / V
7) Describe the negative feedback loop that regulates the O2 content of blood
...
Low O2 (or oxygen carrying capacity is higher than your body requires at that time??)  kidneys  increased
erythropoietin (EPO) production  red bone marrow (EPO receptor and erythroid progenitor cells)  increased
erythrocyte production (RBCs)
b
...
Kidneys control EPO! Negative feedback loop
d
...
Prompts the
production of RBCs
i
...
New RBCs lifespan 3-4 months
f
...
Short term
ii
...
Anemia
i
...
Iron deficiency (liver)
iii
...
Low in protein
8) What does hematocrit measure? How is this information produced? How and why do hematocrits differ between
men and women, how do they change with age? Does estrogen and testosterone affect RBC production?
a
...
Women have similar EPO levels but lower hemoglobin levels than men
c
...
Higher risk of anemia in older men
i
...
Men: age related, a little lower / wider
iii
...
Testosterone: muscle mass, metabolism, and RBC productions
e
...
Lower hemoglobin
f
...
How does blood viscosity affect
blood flow and your risk of a heart attack?
a
...
More O2 to the tissues, extra aerobic capacity
b
...
Only lasts for a few weeks / months
d
...
As hematocrit increases, blood viscosity increases, ODI will decrease
f
...
Oxygen delivery index: as viscosity goes up, ODI goes down because blood is moving slower and slower
i
...
Macrophages in spleen, liver, bone marrow
b
...
Put into waste pathway and eliminated
c
...
Macrophages will come eat them there
ii
...
Macrophages chew: greenish (biliverdin)
iv
...
Lifecycle
i
...
RBC’s live up to 120 days in circulation
iii
...
Globin is broken down into amino acids, used in production of new RBC’s
v
...
Non-iron portion of heme is degraded into the waste product biliverdine and bilirubin
vii
...
Breakdown
i
...
Macrophages eat RBC’s and break it down  phagocytize it and spit out the parts
1
...
Iron: recycle or stored
1
...
Amino acids: recycled and reused
v
...
Kidney can also do a little
f
...
Clotting = hemostasis
i
...
Goals
i
...
Keep blood in a fluid state
iii
...
3 steps!
d
...
Reduce blood flow to the damaged area: faster contact with platelets and clotting factors
e
...
Release chemicals that make nearby platelets sticky, platelet plug forms
ii
...
Positive
f
...
Insoluble protein derived from fibrinogen
2) Describe the major steps in platelet development (including location, stem cell, and role of TPO of function of a
megakaryocyte)
...
How long do platelets survive in blood?
a
...
Fragment of the cytoplasm of a cell called a megakaryocyte
ii
...
Arms move, attachment points
iii
...
Remain only about ten days

36

b
...
Hemocytoblast  megakaryoblast  megakaryocytes
i
...
Edges of megakaryocyte break off to form cell fragments called platelets, enclosed within a bit of
plasma membrane
d
...
Glycoprotein hormone produced by the liver and kidneys
...
Kidneys: Low platelets: higher TPO
1
...
Infection: use a lot of platelets
1
...
Thrombocytosis: excess of platelets
i
...
Reduce TPO
iii
...
Thrombocytopenia: too few platelets
i
...
Blood may not clot properly
g
...
Once exception: inflammatory response
i
...
What are good dietary sources of Vitamin E?
a
...
Viscosity  not change
ii
...
Aspirin: blocks platelet activation
c
...
Why does this lead to an exponential
outcome? Know the role of factor X, calcium in conversion of prothrombin to thrombin
...
How long does a platelet plug form?
How do platelets help initiate the enzyme cascade that leads to formation of the clot?
a
...
Positive feedback: once one platelet has attached, release chemical cues that are going to attract other platelets
c
...
Release chemicals
ii
...
Pseudopodia form: high SA / V
d
...
Co-enzyme
e
...
Can use enzymes over and over again  exponential (10  100 etc
...
Factor X: convert prothrombin into active thrombin
i
...
Final enzyme needed to form a blood clot
2
...
Leads to an exponential increase in the final step
iii
...
Positive feedback
h
...
Hemophilia: genetic defect which prevents your body from clotting normally
i
...
Multiple kinds
iii
...
What foods are sources
of Vitamin K? What common drug blocks it?
a
...
Liver require the fat-soluble vitamin K to produce many of them
b
...
Usually Vitamin K cycles through loop of oxidized, reductase enzyme, reduced form of Vitamin K
d
...
Kale
ii
...
Some fruits
iv
...
Least abundant plasma protein: produce by the liver
b
...
Center piece will bind to the end of another
d
...
Covalent bonds form between molecules
i
...
Creates fibrin, essential for coagulation and making clots
g
...
Fibrin clot
ii
...
Restore normal blood flow as the vessel heals
7) What enzyme converts plasminogen into plasmin in a clot? What does plasmin do? When does fibrinolysis occur
normally, relative to clot formation? How does tPA work?
a
...
tPA: fairly slow
i
...
activates it to plasmin
iii
...
override a couple inhibitions so you do not break the clot too soon
v
...
injection of tPA might be used as a drug to break up an abnormal clot that caused a heart attack
Lecture 21
1) Describe four major themes that help explain how the immune system fights infections
...
Describe the structure of lymphatic lobules / nodules
...

a
...
Duplication: similar actions by different cells or chemicals
c
...
Risky
d
...
Lymphatic tissues
i
...
Drain body fluids and return them to the bloodstream
1
...
Interstitial fluid
3
...
Lymph: the term used to describe interstitial fluid once it has entered the lymphatic system
iii
...
Clusters of white blood cells
2
...
Many units of nodules / lobules
4
...
Lymphocytes develop and mature in the primary lymphoid organs, mount immune response from the
secondary lymphoid organs
1
...
Lymphoid follicles: formation of lymphocytes
b
...
Naïve lymphocyte: fully functional, but have yet to encounter an antigen to respond to
2) Where are your tonsils located? Why are tonsils part of the front-line of defense of the digestive and respiratory
systems? What can happen if tonsils swell up?
a
...
Tonsils: located along the inner surface of the pharynx
i
...
Nose and throat
c
...
Infection
ii
...
What is red and white pulp? What are four of the major
functions of the spleen? What are the risks from infection or sickle cell disease to a spleen? How does the removal
of the spleen affect a person’s heath?
a
...
Fragile: dark red
c
...
Dendritic: in tissues
ii
...
Stores blood for emergencies
i
...
Filters pathogens out of blood
f
...
Makes RBC’s in fetus
h
...
Lymphatic nodules: dense cluster of lymphocytes without a surrounding fibrous capsule
i
...
Sickle cell disease can lead to spleen damage
i
...
Abnormal type of hemoglobin that delivers less oxygen to tissues and causes RBC’s to assume a sick or
crescent shape
iii
...
If removed, higher risk of infection
4) What is lymph and where is it found? Describe the composition of lymph
...
Why are their walls so permeable? Why do lymph vessels contain one -way valves? Explain this
pathway: fluid leaks out of a blood capillary  extracellular fluid moves into a lymph capillary  lymph fluid
moves toward the heart (from any part of the body)
...
Open ended capillaries  larger and larger lymphatic vessels  empty into the bloodstream by a series of ducts
b
...
Blood plasma leaks out  interstitial fluid  excess into lymph
d
...
Platelets don’t leave
f
...
Moves towards the heart in the body
h
...
Fluid can get in, but it cannot get out
j
...
Bulk flow: high pressure  low pressure
1
...
Not diffusion
3
...
Compression stocking: pressure highest on the bottom of the foot
5
...
Overlapping epithelial cells
k
...
Lymphatic capillaries: vessels where interstitial fluid enters the lymphatic system to become lymph fluid
i
...
One cell layer thick layer of endothelial cells
iii
...
Collagen filaments: pull on endothelial cell flaps
m
...
E
...
more permeable than blood capillaries
ii
...
Helps infections stay local  moves much slower
iv
...
Empty into larger lymphatic vessels
o
...
Blood  interstitial  lymph
ii
...
Very permeable and slow because you want pathogens in here and kept here
iv
...
What is the benefit of having slow fluid flow? Define
edema and 2 common causes of it
...
Edema
i
...
Blockage or loss of lymphatic vessels (increased lymphatic pressure)
iii
...
Diffusion: epidermis has no blood vessels
a
...
Waste removal / nutrient delivery is all impeded
2
...
Compression stockings: lower compressing force at the knees than at the feet
6) What are the advantages of having lymph nodes filtering lymph? Describe the afferent and efferent vessels of a
lymph node
...
Afferent lymph vessels enter and efferent lymph vessels exit each node
b
...
Any bacteria that infects the interstitial fluid are taken up by the lymphatic capillaries and transported to a
regional lymph node
i
...
Dendritic cells and macrophages within this organ internalize and kill the pathogens (high WBC count)
e
...
Adaptive immune responses mediated by T and B cells
g
...
Explain why the thymus is large when we are young
...
Found in the space between the sternum and the aorta of the heart
b
...
Produces hormone thymosin (metabolic regulator of the T cells)
c
...
Peak size 10 -12
ii
...
Because most active in promoting specific immunity at that age

40

Lecture 22
1) Define pathogen
...
Widely scattered
b
...
Explain virulence
...
Easier entry to body or a cell
b
...
Can travel in the air and stay airborne
d
...
Thus one infection can be genetically more diverse and
harder for our immune system to fight
e
...
How much harm
ii
...
If you can easily get into a new host, you’re more likely to kill your host
3) Describe the arms race hypothesis in terms of the co-evolution of a pathogen and its host
...
Oscillation
b
...
Co-evolution with pathogens  immune system evolving over time
i
...
Survivors are resistant  variation on pathogen
iii
...
Could effect:
i
...
Avoid immune system
1
...
After surface proteins
iii
...
Virulence factors: proteins produced that weaken or impair host
...
Gene diversity effects who gets exposed
c
...
Pathogenicity: toxicity (develop clinical disease)
e
...
Case-fatality rate (die)
g
...
Vector: insect or animal transmits to a human
i
...
Transmission with high virulence is much higher than direct
iii
...
Malaria: protest transmitted by mosquitos
b
...
HIV and Tuberculosis the most common
d
...
Access to clean water can decrease the virulence
e
...
Pneumonia
ii
...
Malaria
iv
...
AIDS
vi
...

a
...
No nucleus or interior organelles
ii
...
Small
iv
...
No bilayer, maybe envelope
vi
...
All viruses are intracellular
b
...
Receptors bind to cell
ii
...
Viral DNA formed
iv
...
Viral proteins made
vi
...
Exit cell: budding or cell lysis
c
...
Sometimes viral DNA is left behind
e
...
Living
ii
...
Intracellular or extracellular
iv
...
Mitochondria, ribosomes
vi
...
Single strand of DNA (Haploid genome N  one copy of everything)
2
...
Reproduction: binary fission
1
...
Divide asexually
f
...
Single celled eukaryote
ii
...
Organelles like our cells: mitochondria, nucleus, Golgi, ER, ribosomes
iv
...
DNA and RNA (more genetic information, most complex genetic code)
v
...
Phospholipid bilayer
vii
...
Complex life cycle
7) Trace the steps in a virus life cycle: viral entry to cell, viral DNA or RNA enters nucleus, translation of viral
proteins, assembly of virus, bussing or lysis of cell
...
Compare the 3 lines of
immune defense, what happens to our immune response to pathogens if one line of defense fails?
a
...
Lacking innate immunity: number of microorganism goes up rapidly

42

i
...
Lacking adaptive immunity: more slowly, but duration of infection is long
i
...
Normal humans: both
e
...
Instantaneous
ii
...
Chemical: keratin, sebum (oil), sweat acid, lysosome, commensal bacteria on hands
2
...
Mucous: airway, gut
1
...
Physical: thick layer in mouth, cilia in airways
iv
...
Expulsion: coughing, sneezing, vomiting
f
...
Macrophages, NK, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes
ii
...
Rapid, but non specific
g
...
Cellular: cytotoxic (T-cells)
ii
...
Slower but more specific, controlled by lymphocytes
h
...
Arise in the bone marrow via various differentiation pathways from hematopoietic stem cells
ii
...
Phagocytic cells: ingest pathogens to destroy them
2
...
What event may trigger the release of interferon from
cells? Describe interferon’s effects
...
Interferon
i
...
Produced by almost any cell in our body
iii
...
The infecting virus replicates into new viruses
v
...
Interferons released by the virus-infected host cell bind to plasma membrane or nuclear membrane
receptors on uninfected neighboring host cells, inducing them to synthesize antiviral proteins
vii
...
ACP’s degrade viral mRNA and inhibit protein synthesis—interfering with viral replication
ix
...
Routinely leave the bloodstream: emigration of diapedesis
b
...
Positive chemotaxis: movement in response to chemicals
d
...
Production of all begins in the bone marrow!!!!!!
f
...
Describe the symptoms of
inflammation and what changes in the blood flow in an infection cause those symptoms
...
Describe the 2 major types of phagocytic cells
...
What happens if
pathogens invade them?

43

a
...
Bacteria and other pathogens enter wound
b
...
Platelets from blood released blood-clotting proteins at wound site
i
...
Most cells secrete factors that mediate dilation and constriction of blood vessels
...
Inflammatory response continues until wound is repaired
c
...
tissue injury: stimulates release of mast cells
1
...
increased vascular permeability  release of fluid
a
...
recruitment of phagocytes
a
...
chemotaxis  migration of white blood cells to injury
4
...
only if drastic enough
b
...
heat, redness, tenderness, swelling, pain
d
...
Mast cell: warning sign
i
...
Stronger the scent, track source of infection
e
...
Sucks in with a “lasso”
ii
...
Kill and degrade pathogens
iv
...
Most common WBC in the body
vi
...
Neutrophils secrete factors that kill and degrade pathogens
i
...
Larger than RBC’s
iii
...
Lysosome (breaking down cell walls) and defensins (proteins that bind to and puncture bacterial and
fungal plasma membranes)
g
...
Macrophages = monocytes (myeloid stem cells)
i
...
A little slower, numbers increase more slowly
iii
...
Macrophages and neutrophils secrete cytokines, which attract immune system cells to the site and
activate cells involved in tissue repair (positive feedback)
i
...
Neutrophils and macrophages removed pathogens by phagocytosis
k
...
Innate immune response summary
i
...
Fast acting, first line of defense
2
...
First line of defense!
3
...
Monocyte: circulating precursor cell  either macrophage or dendritic cell
ii
...
Perforin
5) Natural killer cells
...
Red bone marrow

44

b
...
Natural killer cells: circulating blood cell that contains cytotoxic granules in its extensive cytoplasm
i
...
Capable of recognizing cells that do not express self-proteins on their plasma membrane or that contain
foreign or abnormal markers
iii
...
Generalized, non-specific immunity
6) Where ae complement proteins made? Where are they found prior to activation? What signals activate
complement proteins? Describe how complement can kill bacteria and how it activates other parts of the immune
system
...
Complement proteins
i
...
Binds to cell membrane of the pathogen that activates it, labeling it for phagocytosis, acts as a
chemotactic agent to attract phagocytic cells, form damaging pores
ii
...
Made by liver, found in plasma
iv
...
Use perforin!!
2
...
Can insert themselves into the bilayer  lipid soluble
vi
...
Helps activate neutrophils
2
...
Neutrophil emigration and chemotaxis
4
...
Mast cell degranulation
6
...
Risks and benefits?
a
...
Inhibits bacterial growth
ii
...
Increased antibody production
iv
...
What are its risks?
i
...
Brain damage from high heat
iii
...
Dehydration
c
...
Body temperature lags behind brain “reset”
e
...
Pyrogen levels: decrease
g
...
Have to be fairly complex and unique to an individual
b
...
Large size and unique shapes
c
...
Six or fewer amino acid residues in a proteins, or one or two sugar molecules
d
...
NOT glycogen
f
...
Lysosomal action produces antigenic fragments

45

ii
...
Adaptive immune response
i
...
Antigens: small chemical groups
iii
...
What stem cell differentiates into lymphocytes? Where does
differentiation take place for T and B lymphocytes? Which lymphocytes provide cell-mediated immunity and
which provide humoral (antibody-mediated) immunity?
a
...
Large central nucleus surrounded by a thin layer of cytoplasm
b
...
Cell mediated immunity T cells (thymus)
ii
...
Both migrate to lymphoid organs
i
...
How do the chemicals perforin and
cytotoxin work? What cells make them?
a
...
MCH: cluster of genes that encode these antigen-presenting molecules
ii
...
Activated T cells multiply, differentiate, and enter blood
c
...
Cell-mediated
i
...
Helper T cells
i
...
Presentation of antigen starts it, but chemicals of helper T cells (interleukin, between WBC’s) tells the
killers to do more work, B cells to divide
iii
...
Positive feedback!
v
...
Does not target ALL B and T clones
1
...
Never want to turn on everything in your body  keep it specific
3
...
Killer cells  cell mediated immunity (attack on infected cells)
5
...
Cytotoxic (killer) T cells
i
...
Perforin makes holes in infected cells membrane and enzyme enters
iii
...
Different weapons! (more powerful)
v
...
Memory cell
i
...
Live for many years!!!!!
iii
...
T only to T
4) Describe how a particular B lymphocyte clone is selected for activation
...

a
...
B cell c responds to antigen by proliferating (diamond shape  unique)
c
...
Get very large

46

ii
...
Second time around: more memory, more plasma, faster and more
d
...
Plasma cells secrete antibodies into circulation, : B cell that has differentiated in response to antigen binding,
and gained the ability to secrete soluble antibodies
i
...
Migrate back to the bone marrow
iii
...
Antibody: any group of proteins that binds specifically to pathogen-associated molecules known as
antigens
v
...
Large amount of cytoplasm packed within the rough ER
vii
...
Humoral immunity
f
...
Extracellular antigen  B cell binds to the antigen for which it is specific  B cell differentiated into a
plasma cell (with help from helper T)  plasma cells proliferate and produce antibodies against the
antigens
5) What are antibodies? Describe the numerous functions of antibodies
...
Gamma globulin protein
i
...
Goes from T to Y when it locks onto a target, exposing binding sites
i
...
Antigen: one chemical on a pathogen or cancer cell
1
...
What they do:
i
...
Use Positive feedback!!!
iii
...
Macrophage, mast cell binding site enhanced phagocytosis by macrophages
d
...
Neutralization (blocks viral binding sites)
ii
...
Makes bacteria less mobile so it is easier for macrophages to attack them
iii
...
Leads to cell lysis!
6) Compare the primary and secondary immune responses for speed of response, total antibodies produced, and
duration of memory B and T cells afterwards
...
Weeks after first exposure to antigen A: primary immune response
i
...
Takes a while
b
...
Secondary immune response (very high specific antibody in blood)
i
...
Learned about it and better at attacking it
iii
...
New antigen, has not improved
d
...
Convert into even more memory and a lot more plasma B cells
e
...
Do the same thing
f
...
Decrease
g
...
Increase
h
...
Lag time: none
ii
...
Receptor specificity: low, interact with a range of molecules
iv
...
No memory
i
...
Lag time: days
ii
...
High receptor specificity: targets unique antigens
iv
...
Memory: amplified
Lecture 26
1) How do specific and non-specific immune systems communicated with each other to fight infections? (Positive
feedback loops)
...
T cell getting information from dendritic cells
i
...
Helper T cells  active B cells, activate killer T cells (+)
2
...
Suppressor  negative effect on killer T cells (-)
b
...
NK cells
ii
...
Complement system
c
...
Activation of T cells
1
...
Suppressor T cells inhibit: need to stop positive feedback loops eventually
3
...
Maturation and migration of cytotoxic T cells
5
...
Activation of B cells
1
...
Maturation of plasma cells and production of antibodies
3
...

a
...
Mast cells, neutrophils
ii
...
NK
iv
...
But die off quickly
b
...
Often a leader in terms of turning on the T cells
ii
...
Lasting a long time, eats more than anyone else
c
...
Critical to turning on the B cells
d
...
Take a long time to develop
ii
...
Antibody production: much longer to reach that peak

48

f
...
Ageing: immunodepression and infection risk
b
...
Lack of exercise: increase
d
...
Antigen exposure
i
...
Pathogens caused you to activated T and B cells that target something that is not the original infection,
but very similar
iii
...
Effector killer T cells: active, not many suppressor: keep attacking (big idea)
b
...
Cells from your parent end up inside your body at birth
ii
...
More women have it than men
c
...
Not exposed to diversity of pathogens
ii
...
Developing countries have lower rate of autoimmune disorders
d
...
High lymphocyte counts: viral infections as well as some types of cancer
ii
...
Describe 4 broad guidelines meant to
reduce the use of antibiotics
...
Antibiotics will not kill a viral infection
b
...
Block cell wall synthesis or translation of proteins
ii
...
Injure plasma membrane
iv
...
Resistance?
i
...
The organism can develop resistance
iii
...
Horizontal gene exchange
i
...
Horizontal: like someone being able to touch you
iii
...
Fastest way to spread a gene for antibiotic resistance across many species of bacteria
iv
...
Only inherit improved immune system through vertical
e
...
Overuse or incorrect use of antibiotics by patients
ii
...
Use of antimicrobials in home
1
...
Horizontal gene exchange and rapid mutation rates
v
...
Want narrow (targeting specific)!!!

49

1
...
artificially acquired (induced) immunity
...
Why is
active immunity better than passive? Compare the way immunity is produced in each: naturally acquired, active
vs
...
passive
...
Acquired immunity: produced by prior exposure or antibody production
i
...
Active immunity: produced by antibodies that develops in response to antigens (immune response)
...
Natural acquired active immunity: develops after exposure to antigens in environment
2
...
Passive immunity: produced by transfer of antibodies from another person
...
Short term
1
...
Induced passive immunity: gamma globulin injection
7) Compare the 3 major types of vaccines: attenuated, dead pathogen and aceullar: which can (in rare cases) cause
the disease, which has the fewest antigens? Can vaccines weaken your immune system? Do vaccines destroy the
beneficial microbes in or on our bodies? Are vaccines safer than the diseases they prevent? Do microbes evolve
resistance to vaccines?
a
...
Live, attenuated pathogen: oral polio in developing countries
i
...
Chickenpox, MMR
c
...
Salk polio, Hepatitis A or B
d
...
Meningitis
e
...
Why new flu vaccines?
i
...
Herd immunity
i
...
Organ transplants
iii
...
Immune-suppressants
v
...
MMR
i
...
Not causing autism
i
...
No significant difference between these results
Lecture 27
1) Why is the overall incidence of cancer decreasing in the US today? Compare the trends in the incidence rates for
prostate, lung, and colorectal cancer in men and breast, lung and colorectal cancer in women
...
How
has improved screening affected these numbers? Why can cancer screening be controversial?
a
...
Decrease in smoking
b
...
More people die from lung!!
ii
...
Many people die before it develops all the way
iv
...
Women: breast: still a slight increase
d
...
Tobacco use increased your risk of developing multiple kinds of cancer
e
...
Stage IV: spread the most
g
...
Mammogram: controversial
i
...
Worry about false diagnosis  sometimes they are not dangerous
iii
...
What effect does obesity (BMI > 30)
have on your relative risk of death from many cancers? How is BMI calculated?
a
...
Carcinogens
b
...
Pathogens
d
...
Physical inactivity
f
...
Occupational exposures
h
...
Reproductive factors
j
...
Environmental pollutants
l
...
Genetic: 5 -10 percent
n
...
Weight / height squared
Your risk of developing certain types of cancer has been linked to diabetes too
...

a
...
Adipose tissue
Explain the change in Tumor necrosis factor and IGF insulin-like growth factors associated with obesity
...
Fat cells: accumulate macrophages, inflammation
i
...
Inflammation: Tumor necrosis factor: thought it would wipe out of a tumor, but usually tumors grow bigger
i
...
Insulin resistance: high levels of IGF
i
...
Causing growth
d
...
Angiogenesis: blood vessel growth triggered
...
Anti-angiogenesis drugs
e
...

a
...
Deregulating cellular energetics
1
...
Avoiding immune destruction
b
...
Genome instability and mutation (something causes this)
1
...
Unstoppable growth: no contact inhibition
a
...
Eventually may avoid detection by killer T and NK cells
ii
...
Blood vessel growth
2
...
Which 2 types of WBC’s can target and
kill cancer cells, with perforin? What is a tumor-specific antigen? How do cancer cells evolve resistance to WBC
attacks?
a
...
Dendritic cells enter lymphatic tissue and mature on the way of the lymph node
c
...
Activated T cells leave node
e
...
As long as they express tumor specific antigens, our NK cells can attack them
f
...
Healthy cell and T cell: no binding or killing
ii
...
Cancerous cell: weak binding and killing
iv
...
You only want normal self-antigens!
vi
...
Trick: putting antigens back on
7) Compare the stages 0 to IV for colorectal cancer
...

a
...
Stage 1: tumor in the epithelial layers
c
...
Ignoring stop signals
d
...
Metastasis: cancerous cells invade blood
e
...
In organs throughout your body
ii
...
Chemo and radiation
i
...
Can regrow a tumor form those cells

Unit 3 Vocab
Name

Where it is Made /
Located

Function

EPO

Kidneys

Prompts production of RBC’s

Not able to make enough RBC’s

Anemia

TPO

Kidneys and Liver

Triggers development of megakaryocyte into platelets

Factor X

Liver (vitamin K)

Prothrombin into thrombin

Thrombin

Liver (vitamin K)

Fibrinogen into fibrin (stabilized meshwork)
...
Turned on by dendritic cells

53

Helper T

Release cytokines, activate B, help T (+)

Killer T

Perforin to drill holes and promote apoptosis

Plasma B cells

Secrete antibodies

Antibodies

Tumor Necrosis
Factor

Adipose tissue

Gamma globulin proteins
...
Turn on
complement system, enhance macrophages and mast
cells, inactivate antigen by neutralization and
agglutination
Sustained inflammatory signaling

High levels of IGF

Adipose tissue

Insulin resistance, associated with cancer

Hypoxia (low in
blood vessels)

Adipose tissue

Leads to angiogenesis: blood vessel growth

Hallmarks

Grow without go, avoid immune destruction

Enabling

Cell immortality / unstoppable growth, tumorpromoting inflammation

Unit 4
Lecture 29
1) Compare the pathways of blood in the pulmonary vs systemic circuit
...
Which vessels and heart chambers contains oxygenated blood?
a
...
Left side and right side: one atrium and one ventricle
ii
...
Smaller
2
...
Low chambers: right and left ventricles
1
...
Primary pumping chambers of the heart
3
...
Arteries: vessels that exist the heart
b
...
Systemic circuit: transports oxygenated blood to virtually all of the tissues of the body and returns deoxygenated
blood and carbon dioxide to the heart to be sent back to the pulmonary circulation
i
...
Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk, which leads towards the lungs and splits
into the left and right pulmonary arteries
i
...
carbon dioxide exits the blood and oxygen enters
e
...
 left ventricle  aorta
ii
...
Capillaries ultimately unite and flow into two major systemic veins:
i
...
Big veins coming back from head and trunk
g
...
Aorta: really big artery exiting out of the heart
i
...
Ventricles should not share blood
ii
...
Blood flow from right atrium to right ventricle
2
...
Low in oxygen, high in CO2
b
...
Blood high in O2 and low in CO2 is returned to the left atrium
4
...
Systemic circuit  right atrium repeated

j
...
What is the function of each type of
chamber? Why is the heart a double pump? Explain why the left ventricle is stronger than the right?
a
...
superior and inferior vena cava empty into the right atrium
ii
...
right ventricle
i
...
contracts  ejects blood into the left and right pulmonary arteries that carry it to each lung
c
...
nearly continuous flow
d
...
In order to overcome the high resistance required to pump blood into the long systemic circuit, the left
ventricle must generate a great amount of pressure
ii
...
Right ventricle: pulmonary circuit is much shorter and provides less resistance
3) Describe the tissue of the heart valves
...
Fibrous skeleton blocks atrial cells from contact with ventricular cells
i
...
We do not want atrial to ventricular connection
iii
...
Heart valves: thin, flexible, smooth
i
...
Strings: hold the valve closed
iii
...
Smooth endothelium
v
...
Valve: specialized structure that ensures one-way flow of blood
1
...
Right AV valve: right atrium and right ventricle
b
...
Semilunar valves: valves that lead to the pulmonary trunk and aorta
a
...
No muscles / cords
b
...
Prevents backflow from the aorta
c
...
AV vales open
ii
...
Ventricular systole
i
...
Due to backflow
ii
...
Are cardiac muscle cells red
or white fibers in design?
a
...
Twitch type contractions: long refractory periods followed by brief relaxation periods
c
...
Every skeletal muscle is sheathed with collagen to stop spread of signal: not needed here
e
...
Heart contains rich supply of elastic fibers
g
...
Intercalated discs: high SA
i
...
More gap junctions per contact: folding
iii
...
Helps support the synchronized contraction of the muscle
v
...
SR: small
i
...
Shorter with small diameters
ii
...
Less calcium  slower onset of contraction

56

iii
...
Sarcomeres and myofibrils
ii
...
Nucleus
i
...
NE
i
...
Works on both:
iii
...
Diffuses in
iv
...
SR: open up channel for calcium there too
vi
...
Calcium pumped back into the SR
viii
...
Both extracellular and SR Ca are necessary for strength because SR is small
2
...
Removes inhibition that prevents the heads of the myosin molecules from forming cross bridges
5) What is the function of gap junctions? What is the benefit of the high surface are at an intercalated disc? What
are the 2 major functions of the fibrous skeleton of the heart?
a
...
Huge channels, giant proteins
c
...
Only need one motor unit (stretching / contracting to vary force)
e
...
Help to synchronize contractions
g
...
If one cell turns on, all the cells turn on
6) Why do cardiac cells depend more on the diffusion of extracellular calcium into the cell than skeletal muscle
cells? What role does NE play in releasing calcium into a cardiac muscle cell?
j
...
Link these events to the electrical excitation pathways
...
How does the heart pump blood
b
...
Diastole
i
...
Blood is flowing into the right atrium from the superior and inferior vena cava
iii
...
AV valves: open
v
...
Ventricular diastole: filling, relaxation
i
...
Both atria and ventricles are relaxed
iii
...
Blood moves passively from atria into the ventricles
v
...
Atrial pressure > ventricular pressure
vii
...
Semilunar valves closed
e
...
Contraction of the atria following depolarization

57

ii
...
AV valves are pushed open when the BP in the atria is greater than BP in the ventricles
iv
...
Semilunar valves are closed
f
...
Follow depolarization of the ventricles
ii
...
Pressure rises in ventricles  blood into pulmonary trunk and aorta
iv
...
Ventricles contract to eject blood into the pulmonary trunk and aorta
vi
...
Ventricle pressure > arterial pressure
viii
...
In other words, when BP in the ventricles is greater than BP in the atria, the AV valves will began to
close
x
...
Due to backflow  pushing to close AV and open semilunar
2
...
Semilunar valves open
g
...
Repolarization
ii
...
In exercise: improved venous return
iv
...
Semilunar valves closed to prevent backflow into the heart
vi
...
Timing
i
...
Ventricular systole: long
iii
...
Ventricles: stronger than atria
v
...
Aria: thin and weaker
i
...
Diastole: relaxed, filling with blood
2) Describe the 2 differences between conduction cells and normal cardiac muscle cells
a
...
Conductingcells:1 %
i
...
Larger diameter cells  faster electrical signal
iii
...
Lost their contractile ability and only go through electrical signaling
c
...
AV node
e
...

Why is the SA node the primary pacemaker? What does that AV node do if the SA node is damaged? What is the
benefit of the long delay of the electrical signal at the SA node?
a
...
Beating without neural input
ii
...
Fastest
iv
...
50 milliseconds
c
...
The impulse pauses at the AV node so ventricles have time to fill
ii
...
Critical to heart function
iv
...
The AV bundle connects the atria to the ventricles
i
...
Left bundle branch: much larger
iii
...
The Purkinje fibers stimulates the contractile cells of both ventricles, starting at apex and moving superiorly
i
...
“squeezing a toothpaste from the bottom”
iii
...
What causes
spontaneous depolarization of the SA node? Rank the speed of depolarization of these: SA node, AV node,
Purkinje fibers
...
SA node: automatically depolarized (conductive)
i
...
Spontaneous depolarization: slow influx of sodium ions
iii
...
Highest rate of depolarization : pacemaker
v
...
Threshold: rapid calcium channels open
vii
...
Never resting
b
...
Resting potential: - 90 (lowest resting membrane potential  slowest)
ii
...
Peak: slow calcium channels open (close to plus 30)
1
...
Plateau  repolarization
3
...
Potassium channels open up and close  repolarization
5) Describe how the autonomic nervous system regulates heart rate? Compare their innervation of the heart as well
as the actions of their NT’s
...

a
...
Overlap of systems: both can still be on
i
...
Intrinsic rate: 100 – 110
c
...
Targeting ventricle: changing muscle strength
ii
...
NE: depolarizing
1
...
And reduced repolarization
iv
...
Increases heart rate and force of contraction
vi
...
4 seconds
vii
...
Increasing respiration rate
d
...
Ach: hyperpolarizing
1
...
Closing Ca channel and opening up K channel
iii
...
Slows HR
v
...
4 seconds

59

6) Define stroke volume, SV, heart rate, HR, and cardiac output, CO
...
How does tachycardia lower SV?
a
...
CO = HR x SV
i
...
SV: ml ejected / min (amount of blood pumped by each ventricles)
c
...
Increased stroke volume
d
...
Increased heart rate fsk
e
...
Tachycardia: condition in which resting rate is above 100 bpm
i
...
Not pumping very much blood
iii
...
Exercise
i
...
Regular exercise will increase your resting SV
1
...
SV starts high but gradually decrease
3
...
Explain this using the Frank -Starling
law of the heart
...
Explain how the sympathetic system affects the contractile force of the heart
a
...
The greater the stretch (within limits) the more powerful the contraction is, which in turn increases SV
ii
...
Heart increase force with diastolic volume because more cross-bridges form
b
...
Filled with blood: sarcomeres get stretched out  optimal range
i
...
Normal range: lower
d
...
Do not go beyond descending limb
i
...
Sympathetic
i
...
Triggers the releases of NE
iii
...
Parasympathetic
i
...
Hyperpolarizes  inhibits contraction
iii
...
Exercise: bigger diameter, more cross bridges
Lecture 31
1) What are the systemic and pulmonary circuits? Describe the tissue and diameter differences between arteries,
arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins
...
Artery: carries blood away from the heart
i
...
Arterioles
1
...
Slowing down blood flow and causing a drop in blood pressure
iii
...
Supplies blood to the tissues themselves

60

2
...
Leaky walls
4
...
Arteries: thicker walls than veins
i
...
Elastic and stretching
iii
...
Closer to the heart: thicker walls
c
...
Determines now much blood you can hold
ii
...
Veins: withstand a much lower pressure
i
...
walls of both: collagenous and elastic fibers
f
...
Venule
1
...
Veins: conducts blood towards the heart
1
...
Systemic: provide blood rich O2 to the body’s tissues
i
...
Pulmonary: arteries carry blood low in O2 exclusively to the lungs for gas exchange
i
...
Squeezing blood out: artery needs to stretch
i
...
More elastic: can more easily pump blood out
1
...
Systole
i
...
Diastole
i
...
Not pumping out here
iii
...
Can be stiffened up as you get older
d
...
Resistance vessels due to small lumen
ii
...
Dilating many arterioles will decrease BP in the arteries
iii
...
Most likely to rupture if pressure is too high
iv
...
Pre-capillary sphincter: control capillary flow
i
...
Normally closed
iii
...
Increased O2  contraction of precapillary sphincters
f
...
Open circles: steady state flows at new perfusion pressure
h
...
Negative feedback loop keeps blood flow relatively stable
i
...
Response without neural input!
iii
...
Tolerate wide variety of changes
v
...
Increased stretch of arteriolar smooth muscle
2
...
Increased resistance
4
...
Low flow (low pressure)
1
...
Mass movement of fluids in and out of capillary beds requires a transport mechanism far more efficient than
diffusion
i
...
Movement of fluid from an area of high pressure in the tissues to an area of low pressure in the
capillaries is reabsorption
b
...
Force exerted by a fluid due to gravitational pull, usually against the wall of the container in which it is
located
ii
...
Primary force driving fluid transport between the capillaries and tissues
iv
...
Pressure exerted by blood against the walls of the blood vessels
2
...
Forces plasma and nutrients out of the capillaries and into surrounding tissues
v
...
Even across the length of a capillary
2
...
Osmotic pressure (stays the same)
i
...
More solutes, higher osmotic pressure (high solutes, high osmotic pressure, water wants to go there!)
iii
...
In the body, water moves by osmosis from plasma to the IF (and reverse)
v
...
Water wants to go in
vii
...
Blood: high in plasma proteins
ix
...
How do these differences produce capillary exchange? What happens to the fluid that isn’t reabsorbed
into the capillary? Calculate filtration and reabsorption from graphical data
...
Fluid
i
...
K
ii
...
Selectively permeable membrane
2
...
85 percent of filtered fluid is reabsorbed
c
...
Blood enters capillary form arteriole
e
...
Blood cells cannot cross

62

g
...
Pressures
i
...
Filtration: fluid generally moves out of the capillary and into the interstitial fluid
ii
...
Net pressure that drives reabsorption: movement from interstitial fluid back into the capillaries
2
...
Plasma proteins!
a
...
Net pressure: outflow – inflow
i
...
Numbers don’t match  excess fluid into lymph
iii
...
Low osmolality  not enough proteins
a
...
+ 15  hypertension
3
...
Push more fluid out, harder to get back in
b
...
Outflow / intake
iv
...
Sucking interstitial spaces dry
2
...

What is the function of 1-way valves in veins? Describe varicose veins
...
One way valves prevent backflow
b
...
Venous reserve
ii
...
Due to their high capacitance; capacity to distend readily to store a high volume of blood, even at a low
pressure (large lumens and relatively thin walls)
iv
...
How will increasing venous return affect SV and CO?
i
...
Increased end-diastolic volume (volume in heart before it begins contraction)
ii
...
Increased contractility
iii
...
 all lead to increased stroke volume
d
...
Skeletal muscle pump: pressure within the veins increased by contraction of the surrounding skeletal
muscle
1
...
Leg muscle contract: exert pressure: blood flows upward
3
...
Respiratory pump: aids blood flow through the veins of the thorax and abdomen
iii
...
Pressure relationships
i
...
From high pressure to low pressure

63

f
...
Any activity that increases the flow of blood through the veins will increase venous return to the heart
g
...
Pregnancy

Lecture 32
1) Explain the gradient in blood pressure from the aorta to the vena cava in the systemic circuit
...

a
...
Ventricular BP must be > Diastolic BP to open semilunar valves
c
...
Blood pressure: force exerted by blood upon the walls of the blood vessels of the chambers of the heart
e
...
Systole: high (artery isn’t dilating)
g
...
Systolic pressure: arterial pressure resulting from the ejection of blood during ventricular contraction, or
systole
ii
...
Low point of pressure and volume
iii
...
Heart (25 / 0) higher pressure than arteries (24 / 9)  arterioles  capillaries  venules  veins
i
...
Blood pressure = blood flow / radius
k
...
If flow is the same on the R and L sides of the heart, what do the pulmonary pressures suggest about the
pulmonary vessels?
i
...
Into lungs: bigger radius
2
...
Best way to pump more blood: increase artery radius
4
...
Autoregulation
1
...
Artery collapse
b
...
Increased: force mediate dilation
a
...
Vasogenic edema
2) Why is cardiac output equal to blood flow? What cause resistance to blood flow? Describe how viscosity, radius
of a vessel and its smoothness effect blood flow
...

a
...
CO = HR x SV
3) What are baroreceptors? Where are they located? How does their firing rate change as the sensory input
changes? How does hypertension affect their responses? Follow or diagram the steps in the negative feedback
loop if a) blood HP is above normal and b) blood HP is below normal
...

a
...
Aortic sinus, carotid bodies, vena cava, pulmonary vessels, right side of the heart
ii
...
Send impulses to the cardiovascular center to regulate blood pressure
iv
...
When blood pressure increased, baroreceptors are stretched more tightly and initiate action potentials at
a higher rate

64

Receives input  homeostasis
Measures change in blood pressure
Increased physical activity  increased firing rate
Stretch receptors
Firing rates represent blood pressure, level of physical activity, and relative distribution of blood
Maintain cardiac homeostasis
1
...
Blood pressure too low  decrease  sympathetic, CO increases (SV and HR increase)
b
...
Nervous control: centralized within two paired cardiovascular centers of the medulla
ii
...
Parasympathetic
i
...
SA node and AV node
d
...
Cardio-accelerator
ii
...
Targets arteries and veins (para cannot)
iv
...
Under extremes: this system fails
i
...
Very responsive, very sensitive
iii
...
Chronic hypertension:
i
...
Too much abnormal input: readjusting to new environment
iii
...
Kidney disease or heart failure
4) Why does systolic blood pressure increase, but diastolic pressure remain stable with exercise? How can diastolic
BP be nearly constant while blood flow increase with exercise?
a
...
Increased sympathetic
1
...
Increased contractility
3
...
Decrease para
iii
...
Exercise
i
...
Increased skeletal muscle pump
iii
...
Increased venous return
v
...
 increased stroke volume
c
...
Raise blood pressure back to normal
e
...
Diastolic BP: doesn’t
i
...
Even if output is raise (huge volume), its moving more rapidly  back to diastolic value
iii
...
Resistance: decreases (vessels getting bigger) in order to keep it stable
v
...
Increased SA / V when small
vi
...

viii
...

x
...


65

5) Why does blood flow increase to the heart, skin, and skeletal muscles during exercise? Why does blood flow to the
brain remain constant during exercise? Explain why many visceral organs receive less blood flow during
exercise?
a
...
Friction
b
...
Exponential
ii
...
Length
d
...
Raised by percent of RBC’s, dehydration, changing albumins
e
...
Viscosity and length: opposing (resistance  slower)
g
...
Five variables effect blood flow and blood pressure
i
...
Increased cardiac output: elevated blood pressure and blood flow (sympathetic stimulation, Ne,
increased calcium)
2
...
Compliance
1
...
Disease  stiffening  resistance to blood flow is increased
iii
...
Blood volume decreases  pressure and flow decrease
iv
...
Viscosity increase  increase resistance and decrease flow
a
...
RBC’s problems
v
...
Longer the vessel  greater resistance and lower the flow
2
...
Decrease diameter: increased resistance, decreased flow
vi
...
Increase pressure in the arteries: blood flow will decrease
2
...
Exercise
i
...
More to the heart, skin, and skeletal muscle
iii
...
Maximal exercise, athlete: moving 50 liters / min through your heart
v
...
Dilating blood vessels
vii
...
Resting HR goes down: stronger heart
b
...
No change in HR: upper limit
d
...

a
...
As you get older, healthier population of survivors
c
...
Smoking: more of a risk even in women

66

8) Describe the progression leading to severe atherosclerosis
...
At what level of blockage does blood flow dramatically decrease?
a
...
T2D: hyperglycemia and insulin resistance
c
...
Macrophage
1
...
Lipid accumulation
3
...
Smooth muscle
1
...
Increase smooth muscle cells
iii
...
Leads to atherosclerosis
i
...
Macrophages eat LDL
iii
...
Smooth muscle  foam cells
v
...
Fibrous cap forms
vii
...
Inflammatory chemicals digest cap over plaque
ix
...
When does blood flow decrease dramatically?
i
...
About 80 % blocked: decreases dramatically
iii
...
Pulmonary ventilation
i
...
Bulk flow
1
...
External respiration
i
...
Exchange of gases with the external environment
1
...
O2 diffuses across the membrane from alveolus to capillary, whereas CO2 diffuses out of the
capillary into the alveolus
iii
...
Diffusion
c
...
Oxygenated blood to systemic circuit
ii
...
Pressure
2
...
Internal respiration
i
...
Happening in every tissue
iii
...
Diffusion
1
...
Describe the nasal conchae
...
Nasal cavity
i
...
Increase surface area of the nasal cavity and disrupt the flow of air as it enter the nose
ii
...
Use nasal cavity as big filter
1
...
Mucus to trap pathogens
3
...
Inspiration: incoming air is warmed and humidified, cooling the nose
b
...
Diffusion occurs better at warmer temperature: need to warm up for lungs
d
...
Lined with respiratory epithelium: ciliated columnar epithelium
1
...
Cold air: slows movement
b
...
Join air / food transport
ii
...
Stratified squamous: protection
c
...
Entering point into pipes
ii
...
Cartilage
iv
...
Trachea
i
...
Bronchi
i
...
Bronchioles
i
...
Cuboid at the bottom (no mucus)
g
...
Gas exchange: simple squamous
3) Compare the diameters and design of the trachea and bronchi
...
Trachea
i
...
Ciliated columnar epithelium
iii
...
Maintain passageway
v
...
Trachea: columnar cells
b
...
Smaller than trachea
ii
...

a
...
Some cilia none
b
...
Alveoli: high total surface area created by numerous small alveoli
i
...
Vital!
iii
...
What factors increased mucous
production or decrease mucous production? What inhibits or kills the ciliated cells?
a
...
“mucous escalator”
ii
...
Limited ability to do repair
iv
...
Smoking: constrict bronchioles
vi
...
Stratified squamous: pharynx, protective
viii
...
Gets in the way of gas exchange
6) What are the molecules called surfactants? What role do they play in expansion of the alveoli? What might
happen to a premature baby’s lungs if surfactant is absent?
a
...
Hydrophobic fatty acids  decrease the surface tensions of the water
c
...
Keeps water from pooling together, shrinking alveolus surface
i
...
Premature babies: can’t make surfactant
i
...
Why do the cells need to be thin and squamous? Describe the
functions of macrophages and septal cells in the alveoli
...
Alveoli and capillary walls are thin, squamous (flat) cells
i
...
Smooth muscle, connective tissue
iii
...
Elastic walls: allow it to stretch, increasing SA
b
...
Have to have fluid to stay alive: water, not mucous
i
...
Septal cells: make surfactant
8) Explain the damage caused by the changes in the bronchi and bronchioles with chronic asthma
...
What are some major risk factors for asthma?
a
...
Wall inflamed and thickened (adding smooth muscle)
ii
...
Tightened smooth muscles
iv
...
Airway diameter lower
b
...
Increased mucous production
c
...
Sensitization
1
...
Overproduction of IgE
ii
...
IgE excites mast cells (non-pathogenic)
a
...
Leukotrienes
2
...
What factors are associated with asthma?
i
...
Smoking by parents
iii
...
Dampness/ mold

69

v
...

a
...
As volume increases, pressure decreases
c
...
Inversely related
d
...
Atmospheric pressure: amount of force exerted by gases in the air surrounding any given surface
i
...
Why is air pressure higher at sea level?
i
...
higher at 0, molecules more tightly packed together
iii
...
high elevation = could be 600
2) Air flow
...
Air flow = (P atmosphere – P alveoli) / Resistance
b
...
Increase volume  decrease pressure
ii
...
Rib cage expands
c
...
Diaphragm relaxes (moves up)
ii
...
Rib cage gets smaller
3) Calculate direction and relative volume of air flow
...
Know muscles
...
Inhale = inspire
i
...
Thoracic cavity volume increases
iii
...
Intrapulmonary pressure drops
v
...
If P (atmosphere) = 700, P (alveoli) of 695 will cause biggest inhalation
vii
...
Sternocleidomastoids
ix
...
External intercostals
1
...
Diaphragm: quite inspiration, just these need to contract
b
...
inspiratory muscles relax
ii
...
elastic lungs recoil passively
iv
...
air glows out of the lungs down its pressure gradients (pressure within the lungs becomes greater than
the atmospheric pressure)
vi
...
abdominal muscles
viii
...
look at graph
i
...
rise: exhalation
iii
...
How does asthma alter peak flow? How and why does peak flow change
with age, sex, or exercise
...
peak flow
i
...
asthma: airway diameters going down, very high resistance
iii
...
bigger diameter tracheas
iv
...
age: muscle weakness in older adults
5) Vital capacity
...

a
...
Good measurement of aerobic abilities
b
...
Volume of air inspired or expired in a single breath during regular breathing
c
...
ERV: expiratory reserve volume, amount you can forcefully exhale
ii
...
Fresh air
i
...
Gas values: mixing old and fresh air
iii
...
Volume / depth both matter
v
...
Residual volume
i
...
Prevents alveoli from collapsing
iii
...
More tidal volume: more work (cuts down on ERV and IRV)
f
...
Dead space: air that is present in the airway that never reaches the alveoli and therefore never participates in gas
exchange
h
...

a
...
Exercise
i
...
Respiration rate: plateaus
iii
...
Tidal volume x respiration rate = liters of air / min
Lecture 35
1) Write the equation for respiratory minute volume and be able to calculate it if given simple numbers to use
...
RMV = RR x TV
i
...
Same as cardiac output
iii
...
Large breath volume and RR: low
b
...
Shallow breaths: stale air being shoved back and forth
ii
...
Better removal of CO2
2
...
What would a graph of PO look like if the X axis is
elevation? Explain why O2 and CO2 partial pressures differ between atmosphere and air entering alveoli
...
Total air pressure = PN2 + PO2 + PCO2 + PH2O + other gases
b
...
CO2: 0
...
If 808 atmospheric pressure, partial pressure of O2 will be 170
ii
...
Lowest, atmosphere?
d
...
Partial pressure of O2 decreases
ii
...
Lower partial pressure of O2  smaller difference in partial pressures between the alveoli and the blood
 less oxygen crosses the respiratory membrane  fewer O2 molecules are bound by hemoglobin
3) Describe the steps in the negative feedback loops to respond to hypoventilation and lowers PO2 and raises PCO2
...
Hyperventilation 
i
...
Arterial blood
1
...
Chemoreceptors
iv
...
Decreased ventilation
b
...
Increased CO2, increased H, decreased O2
ii
...
H20: 100
i
...
Exponential curves: start slowly and build up
d
...
Slow down
ii
...
Too high: coma, death
iv
...
Why does RMV eventually decrease at very high levels of
PCO2, or at very low pH?
a
...
Responds more to CO2
ii
...
Raise P CO2 from 40 to 50
b
...
RMV increases as CO2 increases (40: normal resting)
i
...
A small increases in CO2 will result in the biggest increase in RMV
5) Describe the negative feedback homeostasis regulation of pH
...
Decreased pH, increased acidity
i
...
4
ii
...
Higher pH = parasympathetic
iv
...
Increased ventilation
vi
...
Increased plasma pH
b
...
Where do O2 molecules attach? How many O2 can be transported
by 1 hemoglobin?
a
...
O2 binds to heme
b
...
Binds to globin only if O2 has already popped off (25%)
ii
...
CO2 offloads back at the lungs  enhances O2 pick up
d
...
Why is it useful to have a non-linear relationship between the
PO2 and saturation of hemoglobin?
a
...
Losing saturation only matters once you reach 60 percent
c
...
Still only gave up about one O2
ii
...
RBC with 75 percent O2 saturation of hemoglobin
i
...
Start with PO2, go up and see saturation
f
...
Where does each event take
place? What does equilibrium mean in this situation? Predict partial pressure for O2 or CO2 at the end of the
either of these respiration events, if you are given the starting values
...
Internal respiration: tissues
i
...
PO2: 104
2
...
Inside tissues
1
...
PCO2 < 45
iii
...
PO2: 40
2
...
Diffusion: gases in blood reach equilibrium with tissue’s values
i
...
PO2 60
2
...
3
ii
...
PO2 120
2
...
Mixing what was in the trachea and nasal cavity with what was in the lungs
c
...
Blood entering alveolar capillaries from pulmonary arteries:
1
...
PCO2: 45
ii
...
PO2: 104
2
...
Fast: done in first third of capillary
i
...
Compare the respiratory damage and
symptoms of chronic bronchitis and emphysema
...
Smoking: faster decline in lung volume
i
...
Always a benefit to quitting smoking!
c
...
Nicotine as a direct carcinogen
i
...
How does emphysema contribute to right
ventricle failure?
a
...
Continual bronchial irritation and inflammation
ii
...
Chronic bronchitis
i
...
Chronic productive cough
iii
...
Air tubes narrow as a result of swollen tissues and excessive mucus production
c
...
Destruction of alveolar walls
ii
...
Inflammatory response
iv
...
Air trapping
vi
...
Alveoli fuse into large air space  can’t get air out (lower EFV)
1
...
Building up CO2
d
...
Airway obstruction or air trapping
ii
...
Frequent infections
iv
...
Hypoxemia
vi
...
Impeded blood flow through the lungs  blood left in RV  stretch  RV failure  heart failure
viii
...
resistance at the wall is greater than the resistance between particles at center
b
...
increasing radius: increasing flow rate
c
...
normal aorta: larger radius (increase flow rate)
e
...
parasympathetic: AcH: pressure difference: decrease: flow rate decreases
g
...
EPO: viscosity increased: decrease flow rate
i
...
Hyper tension: blood pressure is too high: pressure increased: flow rate increases
k
...
CO= HR x SV
b
...
Air flow rate= pressure difference x radius
d
...
Blood pressure = systolic and diastolic?

74

Atmospheric pressure – alveolar pressure / resistance to air flow (which is radius)
i
...
Alv > atm = exhale
Artery
Arteriole
Capillary Venule
Inside diameter
Big
Smaller
Smallest
Bigger
Smooth muscle (sympathetic
Yes
A little
None
Some
only in blood vessels, airway
both)
Elastic fibers
Yes
Barely
No
No
Endothelium
Yes (thin)
Yes
Yes
Yes
f
...
Higher
 lower
OP = constant pressure produced by
circulating albumins
...

CO = Blood flow
The force of the heart increases
with filling (greater the stretch,
more powerful the contraction)
Excess fluid goes into the lymph

Increasing radius: largest
increased in blood flow
Viscosity and length: decrease
flow
P and V are inversely related
Temperature: more pressure
As elevation increased, air
pressure decreases
Inhalation: in down pressure
gradient

Vein
Big
Some

No
Yes

75

Expiration: out down pressure
gradient
Vital capacity = TV
+ ERV + IRV
Total lung capacity
= TV + ERV + IRV
+ RV
RMV = RR x TV

ERV = amount you can forcefully exhale
IRV = deep inhalation
TV= volume of air expired or inspired in a
single breath
RV = residual volume, air left in the lungs
after you exhale as much as possible
RMV = respiratory minute volume
RR = respiration rate
TV = tidal volume

Inside diameter
Smooth muscle (sympathetic
only in blood vessels, airway
both)
Elastic fibers
Endothelium

Will never be exhaled

Same as cardiac output
Deep breath: more fresh air, less
CO2

Artery
Big
Yes

Arteriole
Smaller
A little

Capillary
Smallest
None

Venule
Bigger
Some

Vein
Big
Some

Yes
Yes (thin)

Barely
Yes

No
Yes

No
Yes

No
Yes

Final Unit
Lecture 37
1) Where are your kidneys? What keeps the kidneys in place and helps protect them from mechanical injury? Why
are the kidneys of starving individuals at risk of moving lower in the visceral cavity? List the parts of the urinary
system in order
...
Behind the rib cage
b
...
Fat around them as a cushion
d
...
Kidneys still work
ii
...
That will shut down the kidney
1
...
Bladder
2) List 5 major functions of the kidneys
...
Removing toxic nitrogenous wastes
b
...
Regulate plasma pH
d
...
Produced EPO and TPO to regulate blood cell production
f
...
Ammonia
1
...
Protein catabolism
3
...
Smallest
ii
...
Water soluble
2
...
Most common
iii
...
Largest, not water soluble

76

a
...
Nucleic acid catabolism
3
...
One group of waste products, come from catabolism
3) What are 3 major contributors to the formation of kidney stones? Describe the potential consequences of kidney
stones
...
Genetic: metabolic problem
i
...
Uric acid
iii
...
Geography
i
...
Warm, dry climates
iii
...
Bloody urine  tearing from sharp crystals
c
...
High sodium, animal protein
...
May not matter, if not genetic
d
...
Excess vitamin A and D calcium in urine
ii
...
Form
i
...
Can form within a nephron
iii
...
Movement through tubes that causes pain
v
...
Increases capsule HP hugely
2
...
Why is it necessary for smooth muscle
tissue to be so stretchable? Describe the design and function of their transitional epithelium
...
Ureters: muscular tubes
i
...
Other colors: layers of smooth muscle
1
...
Bladder has more smooth muscle than the ureter, but is only controlled by the parasympathetic
system
b
...
Squeeze at top and squeeze rhythmically all the way down: peristalsis
ii
...
Internal urethral sphincter
i
...
Closed during arousal and ejaculation
d
...
Outside of the urethra
ii
...
Parasympathetic (rest and digest)  pee
i
...
innervation to the bladder wall
iii
...
but constricts the bladder wall
v
...
as the bladder fills, release of Ne from the sympathetic system keeps the bladder relaxed and the internal
sphincter closed
g
...
Transitional epithelium

77

i
...
Trap pathogens, anti-microbial barrier
2
...
Big layer of cells: stratified
iii
...
The superficial cells are cuboidal with a dome-shaped surface
iv
...
The volume of urine has stretched the lining to such a degree that the epithelium appears
flattened, and more like a stratified squamous
5) How does a long entry through the bladder create a 1-way valve that prevents backflow (reflux) of urine into the
ureters? How might reflux damage both the ureters and the kidneys in children?
a
...
Urine going the wrong way
b
...
Stretch should close off entrance
ii
...
May lead to damage of the kidney
6) What are the internal and external urethral sphincters? Which sphincter is composed of skeletal muscle? Which
sphincter is composed of smooth muscle?
a
...
Everything else: autonomic system control
c
...
Men: prostate surgery
e
...
Urethra open, sphincter muscle relaxed
7) Describe the pattern of autonomic control over the urinary bladder and internal urethral sphincter leading to
urination
...
Urinary bladder fills, stretching bladder wall
b
...
Parasympathetic: release urine (decreased sympathetic)
1
...
Decreased motor nerve activity: external urethral sphincter opens
ii
...
1-2 million nephrons in each kidney
b
...
Outer: renal cortex
ii
...
Renal papilla
1
...
Just a container
2) Follow the path of blood flow into and around the nephrons
...

a
...
Renal corpsule
ii
...
Loop of Henle  Medulla
i
...
Peritubular capillaries: carrying blood in the opposite direction

78

4)

5)

6)

7)

b
...
As you go down: hyperosmotic: water tends to leave
ii
...
Renal pyramids
c
...
Iso-osmotic
d
...
Variably impermeable to water
ii
...
Take away ADH: no special channels (aquaporin)
1
...
Longer loop: more exchange, even higher osmolality
f
...
Dialysis: uses diffusion to move waste products
i
...
Down concentration gradient
Compare the relative size of the afferent and efferent arterioles on either side of the glomerulus
...
Afferent: going into the glomerulus
b
...
Interesting: arteriole  capillary  arteriole
i
...
Peritubular capillaries: surrounding the loop of Henle
e
...
What
substances in plasma filte r into the nephron and what substances do not, normally?
a
...
Filtration rate: 51 / min
ii
...
Very leaky: easier to go between the cells
iii
...
Window pane: thinner than thickness of house wall
2
...
Cheap (pressure gradient)
Compare the terms hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
...
how solutes filter:
i
...
proteins: filtrate < plasma concentration
iii
...
afferent: wider
v
...
(GC HP + capsule OP) – (capsule HP + GC OP)
2
...
Key indicator of disease if not 0
3
...
Blood has proteins
i
...
Lots of protein: water moves in
alter glomerular filtration rates
a
...
Increased NFP (pressure) increases GFR
1
...
Too high: damages walls
b
...
Renal blood flow (ml / min)  increase pressure
b
...
excess plasma proteins (dehydrated): lowers GFR
d
...
high blood HP (hypertension): increase GFR
f
...
hydrostatic pressure
i
...
staying the same through the glomerulus
iii
...
veins are always lower than capillaries
h
...
due to larger diameter of afferent arteriole
i
...
renal corpuscle
i
...
glomerulus
b
...
renal tubule segments
i
...
increase reabsorption
2
...
all protein reabsorption
4
...
very folded, lots of mitochondria
9) transcellular vs paraceullular routes
a
...
transcellular: through the cell
1
...
rate limited
iii
...
passive
i
...
Lipid soluble substance
iii
...
Various ions and urea
2
...
T max
...
Healthy adult filtered glucose < T max
b
...
Transport rate at saturation
1
...
Renal threshold: plasma concentration at which saturation occurs
d
...
300, and T max is 250: lose 50, 250 got reabsorbed
f
...
Not very high in water: bones, fat
b
...
Regulates body temperature
d
...
Protects organs and tissues
f
...
Flushes out waste produces
h
...
Carries nutrients and oxygens to cells
Water balance
a
...
Easiest to regulate in: drinking fluids
i
...
Food
iii
...
Easiest to regulate out: urine production
i
...
Sweat
iii
...
Digestive system  bloodstream  tissue with filtration  lymph  bloodstream
b
...
Moves freely between all body compartments by moving down water concentration gradient
Consequences of water imbalance
a
...
Infants: high SA / V, nephrons can’t concentrate urine until 2 months old
ii
...
Hyperhydration (overhydration)
i
...
Water into bloodstream  interstitial spaces  cells (water intoxication)
iii
...
Hyponatremia (low Na in blood)  symptom of over hydration
i
...
1-5 % is serious
1
...
Swollen hands and feet
3
...
Cerebral edema
5
...
Hypohydration (dehydration)
i
...
Acute
i
...
Impair thermoregulation
iii
...
Delirium, heat stroke, coma
v
...
Chronic
i
...
Kidney disease, kidney stones
g
...
Dehydrated: overnight fluid restriction and no fluid intake during prolonged individuals
1
...
Higher temperature  hydrated group is sweating better
ii
...
Double blind: no difference in performance
Do changes in blood volume affect kidney function? How do arterioles auto-regulate glomerular BP?
a
...
Want to be in autoregulatory zone (no neural input) 100- 200
c
...
Decreased GFR, decreased RBF

81

6)

7)

8)

9)

ii
...
Afferent: dilated
i
...
Low pressure: dilate afferent, constrict efferent
iii
...
Efferent: constricted
i
...
Efferent: dilated
i
...
Afferent: smaller as pressure goes up (high BP)
h
...
GFR: glomerular filtration rate
j
...
Dehydrated: BP goes down
l
...
Flowing in the opposite direction
b
...
Ascending loop is impermeable to water
d
...
Henle moves water out on the way down (capillary takes it up)
f
...
Collecting duct: what you control
ADH
a
...
Plugging more channels into the same surface so more water can leak out
c
...
Urine more concentrated: darker
d
...
Diuretics: coffee, water
Reabsorption of water, sodium, and glucose
a
...
Sodium: bump up at Loop, reabsorbing more
c
...
If no ADH, not reabsorbed
ii
...
Obligatory water reabsorption: 80 %
Systemic blood pressure
a
...
Low blood pressure
i
...
Afferent: smaller as pressure goes up (high BP)
d
...
Short term fix before hormonal pathways: intrinsic
ii
...
Decreased GFR
i
...
Targets juxta complex of kidneys
iii
...
Increased GFR
f
...
Juxtaglomerular in kidney
i
...
Kidney also releases EPO
2
...
Vasoconstriction of systemic arterioles

82

ii
...
Increased Sodium reabsorption by kidney
2
...
Increased BP
4
...
Inhibits baroreceptors in blood vessels of systemic circulation
i
...
Losing blood / low HP: sympathetic stimulation for a fast, temporary increase
2
...
ADH
i
...
Collecting ducts of kidneys
iii
...
Increased stretch of atria of heart due to increased BP
i
...
Causes increased in urination
2
...
Hypothalamus and posterior
1
...
Decreased Na and H20 reabsorption
a
...
Decreased blood volume
iii
...
Less aldosterone
Lecture 40
1) How are substances secreted into nephrons?
a
...
Removed more of filtered substances (H, HCO)
ii
...
Secretion of wastes into nephron
iv
...
Active transport
2) Normal homeostatic responses to excess acid? (acidosis)
a
...
Chronic acidosis can inhibit CNS, muscles
i
...
0 can be fatal
c
...
breathing
i
...
other buffer systems absorb H
f
...
secrete more H into urine
ii
...
goal: regulation of blood pH
3) Acidosis
a
...
Low pH (less than 7
...
Muscle weakness, fatigue
iii
...
First response
i
...
Second responders
i
...
Breathe more deeply and faster to decrease CO
ii
...
Faster
d
...
Kidneys kick in
ii
...
Secrete H into nephron from blood
Alkalosis
a
...
Greater than 7
...
Twitchy muscle
d
...
Secrete bicarbonate, reabsorb H
f
...
Chronic alkalosis can caused muscle tetany, seizures
i
...
0 can be fatal
b
...
breathing
i
...
slow and shallow
d
...
kidneys
i
...
reabsorb H
Why is diabetes mellitus the leading cause of chronic kidney disease?
a
...
Risk factor for fat build up: atherosclerosis
b
...
Low GFR: risk increases
d
...
Increases: risk increases
e
...
Hypertension
b
...
Heart failure
d
...
Put new kidney very low in abdominal cavity
b
...
Better from a living donor

Lecture 41
1) Trace the path of sperm as it exits the body
a
...
Ducts: sperm exits body
c
...
External genitalia: protect and transfer sperm
2) Function of the scrotum
...
Temperature difference
i
...
Artery: goes in carrying warm blood
iii
...
Cremaster: close, warmer ( causes the testes to move up against the body wall)

84

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

i
...
Dartos: slower
d
...
Drops sperm production
b
...
17 % of males age 13-25 years have this
b
...
Countercurrent exchange is impaired: heat retention devices
d
...
BOTH might require surgery because both affect fertility
f
...
High SA / V
b
...
Between tubes
ii
...
Seminiferous tubule wall
i
...
Much bigger than the spermatocytes
iii
...
Forms flagellum
d
...
Spermatogonium
i
...
Division 1
ii
...
Spermatids
iii
...
Getting smaller
1
...
Meiosis occurs form puberty to death
Why blood-testis barrier?
a
...
Tight barrier formed from nurse cells
c
...
Nucleus containing chromosomes
e
...
Cilia: microtubules
Variable helps predict pregnancy?
a
...
Once you reach a certain number of sperm, plateaus
ii
...
MAI (multiple anomalies index)
i
...
Obesity and smoking
i
...
Impacted sperm production
Functions of the epididymis?
a
...
Become motile (flagellum is active)
ii
...
Able to fertilize egg
iv
...
Vas deferens
i
...
Propulsive force: thick wall
c
...
Ejects
d
...
Glands
i
...
Mucus into urethra prior to ejaculation
a
...
Neutralizes pH
ii
...
Alkaline
f
...
Enlarges with age
ii
...
Diabetics
2
...
Family history
iii
...
Hard to ejaculate
9) Vascular sinuses
a
...
Don’t mix urine and sperm
b
...

11) How does visceral obesity alter sex hormones in men?
a
...
erectile dysfunction
ii
...
higher aromatase from fat cells higher estradiol  lower testosterone
iv
...
higher leptin  lower sperm counts
1
...
Gonads: ovaries
b
...
Passageway to move the eggs
ii
...
Uterus
iv
...
Vagina
c
...
Secrete either into labial folds or vaginal tract
ii
...
External genitalia
i
...
Follicle: egg with surrounding nurse cells
i
...
Hundreds of nurse cells to take care of one egg
iii
...
Protect egg from mother’s immune system and helping it grow
v
...
Corpus luteum: made of old nurse cells

86

1
...
After ovulation
vii
...
Menstruation
3) What is PCOS?
a
...
Strong genetic component
c
...
Ovulation fails, cysts form in ovary  infertility
e
...
Young age
i
...
Hirsutism
iii
...
Sexual health
v
...
Older age
i
...
Quality of life
iii
...
Cardiovascular disease
v
...
2 cell division: four tiny cells for sperm (four spermatids  four sperm cells)
i
...
Homologs pair and cross-over occurs
i
...
Haploid: 23 chromosomes
iii
...
Females: uneven distribution of cytoplasm
i
...
One egg instead of multiple (big egg): higher probability of survival
1
...
All organelles come from this
iii
...
Centrosomes: produced microfilaments, made of microtubules

d
...
eggs: formed before you were born
i
...
begin to die off or disappear rapidly before birth
b
...
as well as loss of eggs overall
7) Design and function of the Fallopian tubes?
a
...
On target to catch egg when it’s released: not connected
c
...
Should travel down to each the uterus
e
...
In the fallopian tube
f
...
Openings: just barely wide enough for the egg itself
h
...
Fallopian tubes
j
...
In addition to smooth muscle
k
...
Ciliated cells
i
...
Need a small passageway so cilia is on either side
m
...
Protecting out from keeping stuff out
ii
...
Endometrium and myometrium
i
...
Uterine glands: nutrition for embryo
2
...
Comes off during menstruation
b
...
Shut down with negative feedback: cause it to collapse
3
...
Bottom
ii
...
Smooth muscle
i
...
Stretching
iii
...
Stratum functionalis grows, glands activate, and then layer regresses
b
...
Menstrual phase days1-5
d
...
Secretory phase days 15-28
i
...
Basal layer growing
g
...
Sex: before ovulation
ii
...
Maximize change of getting pregnant by having intercourse just before or at ovulation because the egg
is short lived and cervical mucous is thinner at that time
iv
...
After ovulation
2
...
Why menstruate?
i
...
30 -40 percent of women with this have decreased fertility
b
...
Genetic factors, inflammation
11) Compare the functions of the epithelial cells in the alveoli and myoepithelial cells
a
...
Breast cancer risk goes way down if you get pregnant and nurse a child
c
...
Has contractile unit
e
...
unavoidable
i
...
genes
1
...
high penetrance: VRCA1 or VRCA2
a
...
runs in the family
iii
...
modifiable
i
...
late menopause
iii
...
alcohol
2
...
no or late first pregnancy
c
...
Remove ovaries
ii
...
Gonadostat: sensitivity to negative feedback
i
...
Rise in hormones: get shut off
iii
...
Is puberty earlier than in the past?
1
...
Increased leptin during childhood
a
...

a
...
Gonads (testes, ovaries): testosterone or estrogen
ii
...
Male
a
...
Facial hair grows, as well as other body hair
2
...
Breasts
b
...
Pubic hair
3) Which hormones are derived from cholesterol
a
...
Progestins
ii
...
Androgens
a
...
Aromatase: converts testosterone into estrogen
c
...
Aromatase inhibitors: a class of breast cancer chemotherapy
i
...
Breast cancers: estrogen negative
1
...
Estrogens
4) Explain the male sex hormone pathway
a
...
Anterior pituitary: increased FSH and LH
1
...
Increased plasma testosterone
2
...
Negative feedback on FSH
b
...
Declining FSH shuts down the negative feedback
c
...
Does it decline with age?
1
...
Sperm production: not really
5) Female sex hormone pathway
a
...
Anterior pituitary: increase FSH and increase LH
1
...
Enzymatic modification of androgens
3
...
FSH: increased activation of nurse cells
a
...
 Oogenesis and follicular development
c
...
Ovulation and late follicular phase (day 14 spike)
i
...
Anterior pituitary: increased LH and FSH secretion
iii
...
Positive feedback between increased estrogen, LH, FSH, and GnRH
c
...
GnRH  FSH and LH
1
...
Increased progesterone
3
...
Increased plasma estrogen and plasma progesterone
5
...
Effect of estrogen and progesterone:
i
...
Regrowth
iii
...
Combination of negative and positive feedback  cycles
6) LH
a
...
FSH and LH
b
...
FSH stimulate some secondary follicles to develop
ii
...
Secrete estrogens
1
...
This inhibition gradually decreases as estrogen levels climb
c
...
GnRH and elevated estrogen levels stimulates LH secretion

90

1
...
The luteal phase begins at ovulation
3
...
After ovulation, progesterone levels rise and estrogen levels fall
...
If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum will degenerate after 12 days
6
...
Childhood: LH and FSH low
b
...
Monthly fluctuations but a little higher in adulthood
d
...
Increase in LH and FSH (without negative feedback)
ii
...
GnRH: up (negative feedback from estrogen)
e
...
Decrease in age: slower decline
ii
...
6 fertile days: 5 before ovulation and 1 day after
b
...
Sperm liver longer
ii
...
Egg travels slowly to the fallopian tube
c
...
Sperm 28-48 hours
ii
...
Sperm swimming upstream
b
...
Maybe a couple 100
i
...
Lose half the sperm in the vagina
3) Meiosis
a
...
DNA fuse to form a diploid zygote
c
...
Arrest stopped on metaphase II
ii
...
Paternal and maternal DNA need to fuse into 1 nucleus
d
...
Mitotic spindles: centrosome
i
...
Older women: errors in forming the mitotic spindle
4) Cells
a
...
First cleavage division (polar bodies)
ii
...
Day six: arriving in the uterus
c
...
Trophoblast has to attach to the endometrium: eating their way in
i
...
Receive nutrients from lipids, nutrients to the inner cells mass (embryo)

91

5)

6)

7)

8)

iii
...
Protection against mom’s immune system
v
...
Bigger usually better
Chorionic villi
a
...
High surface area
c
...
Circulation of maternal blood over the surface
e
...
You don’t want to exchange blood: immune system rejection
g
...
Fetal: higher affinity for O2: take O2 from the mothers blood supply
i
...
Diffusion / actively transport nutrients
Ectopic pregnancy
a
...
Didn’t reach uterus
i
...
Cervix: dilating the cervix
iii
...
Ovarian
v
...
Bleeding
vii
...
Risk factors
i
...
Chlamydia
iii
...
IVF
1
...
Inflammation of fallopian tubes
vi
...
HCG: has to come from early mass of embryonic cells
...
Keeps the endometrium from shutting itself down
ii
...
Coming from the baby
iv
...
Sustain corpus luteum
c
...
High: multiple births, down’s syndrome, pregnancy toxemia
e
...
If it contracts, early labor
f
...
Levels grow higher as pregnancy progresses
ii
...
Over duration of pregnancy, a women’s production of estrogen declines while the production of this
hormone from the placenta increases
What hormonal events trigger birth?
a
...
Oxytocin
i
...
Cyclic output in days prior to birth—triggers false labor contractions
iii
...
Stimulates placenta to release prostaglandins
1
...
Positive feedback  more prostaglandins and oxytocin
3
...
Uterine contractions are the positive feedback!
v
...
Helps the baby be born faster
9) Compare milk production vs milk ejection pathways
a
...
Hypothalamus release prolactin releasing factors to portal circulation
1
...
Prolactin targets glands of breasts
3
...
Really kicks in when the breast is empty
ii
...
Oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary and stimulated myoepithelial cells of breasts to
contract
2
...
Let down reflect
a
...
Short term
i
...
Colostrum: first few days
1
...
Benefits to mom
1
...
Bonding
Lecture 45
1) Explain the pathology of the bacteria, chlamydia
a
...
Trigger endocytosis, feed on cytoplasm
c
...
Invade new cell  apoptosis
e
...
Intracellular: hard to treat
g
...
Pelvic inflammatory disease
i
...
Most common bacterial STI in the world
b
...
Everybody used condoms because of risk of HIV
ii
...
12 – 20, male, most likely to have an STI
3) How does chlamydia infection vary with socioeconomics?
a
...
Employment
c
...
Area deprivation
4) HPV
a
...
Genital warts
c
...
HPV integrates into cell DNA
e
...
Can cause cancer long term

93

5) Cancer
a
...
As well as oropharynx (male)
c
...
HPV 16 and HPV 18 70 % of cervical cancers
6) HPV vaccine delivery to developing countries
a
...
ABC
i
...
Be faithful
iii
...
Blood vessel damage
b
...
Hypertension
d
...
Edema
ii
...
Acidosis of plasma
iv
...
Breast cancer risk increased with increasing duration of use, but the trend was not significant
...
1 percent increase
b
...
Cardiovascular risk (VTE)
d
...
Collecting duct: water reabsorption using ADH: facultative
b
...
Tubule
i
...
Reabsorption
2
...
Microvilli : high SA / V
ii
...
Dehydration, NA deficiency, or hemorrhage
i
...
Decrease in blood pressure
a
...
Increased renin
ii
...
Increased angiotensin
iv
...
Inhibitor lowers blood HP
b
...
Increased aldosterone
ii
...
Increased blood volume
iv
...
 vasoconstriction of arteries
i
...
Intrinsic
i
...
Regulate BP in the kidney
b
...
Go beyond the kidney
ii
...
Long list of hormones
1
...
Sense Na and BP
2
...
Angiotensin
i
...
Leads to 
b
...
Adrenal gland
ii
...
ADH
i
...
ANP: shut off everything
c
...
High BP into afferent
1
...
Glomerulus HP: can’t get too high, or it blows out of the capillaries
3
...
GFR: want to keep it constant
6) Thirst
a
...
Receptors in hypothalamus
ii
...
Dry mouth
2
...
Sensation of thirst
b
...
ADH
i
...
Targets collecting ducts of kidneys
iii
...
Transcellular: through the cell
i
...
Aquaporin in a vesicle
iii
...
Not a transporter, signal for channel
1
...
Channel: not
8) Label
a
...
Male
i
...
Urethra goes through
9) Parts
a
...
Leydig: makes testosterone
(GC HP + Capsule OP) –
(Capsule HP + GC OP)

Normal Capsule OP = 0

Net filtration pressure = outward
pressure – inward pressure

95

Decrease in systemic blood
pressure  Decrease in GFR

Juxtaglomerular complex of
kidneys
Angiotensin I

Angiotensin inhibitor
Increased aldosterone secretion
by adrenal cortex

Decreased stretch of smooth
muscle in arterioles / decreased
filtrate flow and decreased NaCl
in ascending limb of loop
Starts cascade by releasing renin
in response to decrease in blood
pressure
Excite sympathetic stimulation:
vasoconstrict
Targets all below
Angiotensinogen: liver
Used in hypertensions

ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)

Trigger by increased stretch of
atria due to increase BP

ADH

Facultative
Obligatory: everywhere else
Posterior pituitary
Triggered by thirst receptors
Transcellular

Hormones
Androgens
Aromatase

Pregnancy
HCG

Prostaglandins

Relaxin
Milk
Prolactin

Catalyzes cascade resulting in
formation of 
GOAL: increase BP
Formation of 

Lowered blood pressure
Increased Na reabsorption
(proximal tubule), increased
blood volume, increased blood
pressure
Shuts off ADH, angiotensin,
aldosterone  lower blood
pressure by decreasing fluid
volume (vasodilation and fluid
loss)
GOAL: decrease BP
Creates more aquaporin channels
in the collecting ducts 
increases H20 reabsorption

Testosterone
Aromatase inhibitors: breast
cancer treatment

Derived from cholesterol
Converts testosterone into
estradiol

Necessary: coming from baby

Targets ovary: keep producing
estrogen and progesterone from
corpus lutuem (few months) 
then from placenta
Keep myometrium relaxed
Stimulate mammary gland
growth during pregnancy

Progesterone and relaxin
Progesterone and estrogen

Birth
Oxytocin

Vasodilation of different
arterioles, increased GFR

From fetus and mother’s pituitary

Stimulates uterus to contract
Stimulates placenta to release 
Positive feedback on everything Stimulates more vigorous
 help the baby be born faster contractions of uterus
Babies head pushes on cervix
Softens the cervix

Stimulation of mechanoreceptors
in nipples sends impulses to
hypothalamus

Prolactin release factors 
anterior pituitary secrets prolactin
to blood  alveolar epithelial
cells increased milk production
(when breast is empty)

96

Oxytocin

Hypothalamus sends impulses to
posterior pituitary

Stimulates myoepithelial cells to
contract  Let down reflex:
kicks in during actual nursing

Female Hormones
GnRH

Hypothalamus

FSH and LH

Anterior pituitary

FSH

Negative feedback

LH (follicular phase)

Negative feedback

LH

*Except during ovulation
(positive)
Massive surge in LH triggers
ovulation, corpus luteum
Follicle: egg with surrounding
nurse cells

After loss of sensitivity in
gonadostat
Ovaries  estrogen  secondary
sex characteristics
Increased inhibition secretion 
increased oogenesis and
follicular development
Aromatase  increased
estrogens
Estrogen secretion leads to
increased LH and increased
GnRH

Nurse Cells

Corpus luteum

*post ovulation
Negative feedback
Made of old nurse cells
After ovulation
Degenerates after 12 days if
pregnancy does not occur

Males Hormones
Gonadostat

GnRH
FSH and LH

Hypothalamus
Anterior pituitary

FSH  sertoli cells

Negative feedback

Sertoli Cells

Seminiferous tubule wall

Interstitial Space
LH  leydig cells

Between seminiferous tubules
Negative feedback

Vocab
Cryptorchidism

Varicocele

*both affect fertility  might
require surgery

Acrosome

Sperm covered in defensins

Multiple Anomalies Index

Egg is bigger than one nurse cell
 hundreds of nurse cells to take
care of one egg
Estrogen / progesterone: growth
of endometrium, increased blood
to uterus

Puberty: declines in sensitivity,
hormones like GnRH can start to
rise
Leads to 
Testes  testosterone 
secondary sex characteristics
Increased inhibin and increased
spermatogenesis
Helps with sperm production
Much bigger than spermatocytes
(take care of multiple)
Makes testosterone
Increased testosterone
Testes don’t migrate into the
scrotum  drops sperm
production
Veins become enlarged in
scrotum  heat exchange is
impaired
Digestive enzyme helps sperm
penetrate

Better than sperm count to
predict pregnancy

Epididymis
Scrotum

Sperm maturation / storage
Temperature

97

Vas Deferens
Glands

Bulbourethral

Vestibular Glands
PCOS

Most common endocrine disorder

Meiotic Spindle

Pulls apart chromosomes

Fallopian Tubes

Cilla move egg
Microvilli provide nutrients

Cervix
Endometrium

Smooth muscle in uterus (in
addition to myometrium)
Changes in monthly cycle

Endometriosis
Trophoblast

Ectopic pregnancy

Most common cause of maternal
morality

Chlamydia

Bacteria
Intracellular

Pelvic Inflammatory Disease
HPV

Virus

Smooth muscle  thick wall
gives propulsive force
Mucus: lubrication, neutralize
vaginal acids
Secrete lubrication for females
Ovary produces excess androgen
 infertility
Made of centrosomes  made of
microtubules
Chemosensors to catch egg
WHERE FERTILIZAITON
HAPPENS
Keeps embryo in
Stratum functionalis: comes off
during menstruation / maintained
by estrogen / progesterone
Stratum basalis
Tissue outside the uterus 
decreased fertility
Attaches and eats the uterine
endometrium  nutrients to
inner cell mass / embryo /
protection against immune
system / make placenta
Egg is fertilized and stuck
somewhere besides the uterus
(fallopian tubes)
Feeds on cytoplasm  evades
lysosome  apoptosis
Damage to uterus  can lose
fertility
Genital warts  integrates into
cell DNA  can cause cancer
long term



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