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Cardiff School of Sport

DISSERTATION ASSESSMENT PROFORMA:
Empirical 1
Student name:

Ryan Lee

Programme:

20059914

Sport and Exercise Science

Dissertation title:

The effect of pre-performance self-generated Happiness and Anxiety on
sprinting performance

Supervisor:

Comments

Student ID:

Dr
...

Abstract to include: A concise summary of the empirical study undertaken
...
e
...

Methods and Research Design (15%)
To include: details of the research design and justification for the methods applied; participant details;
comprehensive replicable protocol
...

Discussion and Conclusions (30%) 2
To include: collation of information and ideas and evaluation of those ideas relative to the extant
literature/concept/theory and research question/problem; adoption of a personal position on the study by linking
and combining different elements of the data reported; discussion of the real-life impact of your research
findings for coaches and/or practitioners (i
...
practical implications); discussion of the limitations and a critical
reflection of the approach/process adopted; and indication of potential improvements and future developments
building on the study; and a conclusion which summarises the relationship between the research question and
the major findings
...
The descriptors associated with
both quantitative and qualitative dissertations should be referred to by both students and markers
...
The mark distribution and criteria across these
two sections should be aggregated in those circumstances
...
I further certify that the work was either
deemed to not need ethical approval or was entirely within the ethical approval granted
under the code entered below
...

I have received dissertation verification information from this student
...























Table of contents
Acknowledgements
Abstract

i
ii

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1
...
2
Theoretical Background
1
...
4
Study Expectations
1
...
1 Study Implications
1
...
2 Study Aims

1
2
3
4
4
5
5

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2
...
2
Cognitive Theories
2
...
1 Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory
2
...
2 Fredrickson’s’ Broaden-and-Build Theory
2
...
3 Theories Combined
2
...
5
Anxiety
2
...
1 Development of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2
2
...
2 Critique of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2
2
...
3 Self-Generation of Anxiety: Influence on Sporting Performance
2
...
6
...
6
...
7
Rationale
2
...
1 Previous Literature: Limitations
2
...
2 Furthering Previous Literature
2
...
8
...
9
Hypotheses
2
...
1 Hypotheses Review

6
7
7
8
9
10
10
10
11
11
12
13
13
13
14
14
15
16
16
16
17

CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3
...
1
...
2
Pilot Test
3
...
4
Test Procedure
3
...
6
Measures
3
...
1 Performance
3
...
2 Heart Rate (beats⋅min-1)
3
...
3 Emotion Induction Length
3
...
4 Manipulation Check

18
19
19
19
20
20
22
22
22
22
22
23

3
...
5
3
...
1
Data Analysis
4
...
2
...
2
...
3
Performance: Sprint Time
4
...
5
Heart Rate Fluctuation (beats⋅min-1)
4
...
1
Introduction
5
...
1 Study Aims
5
...
2 Hypotheses
5
...
3
Anxiety Perception
5
...
5
Emotion Induction Length
5
...
6
...
6
...
6
...
7
Theoretical Implications
5
...
8
...
8
...
9
Study Strengths and Limitations
5
...
1 Strengths
5
...
2 Limitations
5
...


Pre-sprint Manipulation scores

25

Table 2
...


Recorded Sprint Time, Emotion Induction Length and
Heart Rate Fluctuation

28

List of Figures
Figure 1
...
Tjerk Moll of Cardiff
Metropolitan University, who continually offered support, advice and encouragement
throughout the entirety of the dissertation process
...
Conclusively, I would like to
thank my family and loved ones for their endless inspiring support
...
Building upon previous research, this study
subsequently attempted to provide a clear understanding of how emotions are
elicited and their facilitative and/or debilitative influence on sprint performance
...
8 currently competing
sprint athletes, 4 of whom were elite athletes and members of a National squad,
completed the research
...
1ft), which has been classified as the first phase of an
athlete’s sprint (Gaudet, 2014), in three separate emotion conditions (happiness,
anxiety and emotion-neutral)
...
The results revealed a significant difference
between the happiness and emotion-neutral condition F (2, 14) = 5
...
05
...
This study also revealed that heart rate fluctuation
(beats⋅min-1) can be an indicator of behaviour change F (1
...
11) = 41
...
001, which supports previous literature (Sanderson & Reilly, 1983; Martens et al
...
It was reported that an increase in heart rate response is an indicator of
induced anxiety, and a decrease in heart rate response is an indicator of induced
happiness
...
It would be recommended that
future research focuses on specific controlled recall scenarios, which would allow



ii

athletes to recall a positive experience that consistently works
...




iii











CHAPTER I:
INTRODUCTION














1

1
...
I came to this Olympics to win
three gold medals, to prove myself again as one of the greats” (Bolt, 2016)
...

Arguably, during the race Usain Bolt did not deliver a great technical performance,
but he emotionally expressed an immense amount of positivity in his pre-race
routine
...
Within the sport
of Athletics, many people will remember back to the summer of 2015, where Usain
Bolt raced against Justin Gatlin in the 100m IAAF World final in Beijing
...
79 seconds
...
Usain Bolt finished in a time of 9
...
This is an example within
sport where a split-second can make all the difference
...

Emotion can play a pivotal role in sport by influencing performance in multiple
ways
...
Before this research
can highlight the importance of emotion in sport, more specifically the influence of
self-generated emotion on performance, it is necessary to provide a universal
definition of what exactly emotion is
...
2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Deci (1980, p
...
In a study analysing these responses,
Lench, Flores and Bench (2011) investigated a range of emotion elicitation
techniques including: film, pictures, music, velten (repeated meaningful statements),
imagination, reading text, real-life manipulations and autobiographical recall
...
This elicitation technique is attractive to researchers due to its
simplistic, readily available nature, and that film can be standardised across all
participants (Kring & Gordon, 1998; Rottenberg, Ray & Gross, 2007)
...
g
...
Gross and Levenson (1995) revealed that velten elicitation was the the
most effective way to induce both positive and negative emotions
...
It was reported by Kenealy (1986) that a
major disadvantage of using velten as an elicitation technique is that it creates
standardised sentences, subsequently, acquiring the capability of eliciting feelings
within a specific scenario rather than an individual evoked emotion (Västfjäll, 2001)
...

Self-generation permits an individual to draw on their experience when eliciting a
specific emotion, allowing for a more detailed and intricate induction process
...
, 2011)
...
3 RECENT SPORTING STUDY
In a recent investigation by Rathschlag and Memmert (2014), the effect of selfgenerated emotion on sprint performance was analysed, explicitly happiness and
anxiety
...
The pre-performance induction process involved self-generating
an emotion from a past-experience where that emotion was significant
...
A Likert Scale
was used to verify manipulation of the emotions, with scores reported between 1 to 9
given by each participant on felt happiness, anxiety, arousal (unpleasantness) and
hedonic tone (pleasantness)
...
The 28 individuals engaged in this emotion induction for one
minute prior to sprinting a distance of 40 metres
...
The CMR theory suggests that a
happy emotion has the capability to facilitate a subsequent action
...
e
...
Further, their results supported their
hypothesis, which was reflected in sprint times being significantly improved when
happiness was induced pre-sprint in comparison to anxiety and no emotion
...
4 STUDY EXPECTATIONS
Given the previous emotion research specifically investigating happiness and anxiety
in sport (Kavanagh & Hausfeld, 1986; Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005; Rathschlag &
Memmert, 2014), this study hypothesises that sprinters who self-generate happiness
prior to performance will perform better than when they self-generate anxiety or an
emotion-neutral condition prior to performance
...
All athletes in this study have competed at
their respective level within the past 12 months and currently training for competition
...
If this study is to be successful, the results
will need to be accurate to be applied in a real-life sporting context
...
4
...
By mentally
preparing their athletes prior to training repetitions, athletes will be able to get the
most out of training, subsequently, improving competition performance
...

1
...
2 Study Aims
It is unclear what precisely happens within an athlete’s mind moments before
sporting performance
...
It has been suggested by Lazarus (2000a), that emotions are
the reason we act in certain way
...
A secondary aim of this investigation, which hopes to build upon
current literature (Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Jones et al
...
The following chapter
has been designed to evaluate the current literature on emotion in sport, and how
research can be further developed
...
1 INTRODUCTION TO EMOTION
Before any investigation into specific emotions can commence, a clarification of
emotion is needed
...
Deci
(1980, p
...
It involves change in the viscera and musculature of the person, is
experienced subjectively in characteristic ways, is expressed through such means as
facial chances and action tendencies, and may mediate and energize subsequent
behaviours”
...
Lazarus stated emotion is ‘’an organised
psychophysiological reaction to ongoing relationships with the environment, most
often interpersonal or social
...
230)
...
It has been
suggested by James (1994) that current cognitive theories are reliable and well
suited to capture the significance of a particular emotion
...
2 COGNITIVE THEORIES
It is important that a theory analysing emotion offers a specific and detailed account
of how an emotion is triggered, and to accurately predict a forthcoming action
...
819) stated that emotions are varied, and can effect an upcoming
action
...
824)
...




7

2
...
1 Cognitive-Motivational-Relational (CMR) Theory
It was expressed by Lazarus (1999a) that in order to accurately appreciate the
appraisal process, stress and emotion need to be considered in unison
...
Lazarus argued that separation of stress
and emotion was illogical due to an emotion arising from appraisal (Lazarus, 1999a,
2000b)
...
CMR theory is a framework that
can help provide reasoning as to how an emotion is perceived and how this emotion
attains the ability to influence a forthcoming action
...
The
CMR theory consists of three main aspects: cognition, motivation and relation
...

281-300)
...

‘Motivation’ allows an individual to perceive a situation as either harm or benefit
(Lazarus, 1991a), and ‘relational’ refers to emotions being related to the individual
within a set environment, and whether the individual perceives the environment to be
beneficial or detrimental (Lazarus, 1991a)
...
Category 1: harm, losses and threat
...
Emotions in this category are
labelled as negative and include anxiety, guilt, shame, fear, sadness, envy, disgust
and jealousy (Lazarus, 1991a)
...
In this category, the cognitive
motivational process is parallel to the process of negative emotions, but based on
benefits rather than threat (Lazarus, 1991a)
...
The CMR theory proposes that every
emotion is guided by a ‘core relational theme’ (CRT)
...
It has been indicated by Lazarus (2000b, p
...
A response to a CRT is called
an “action tendency” (Lazarus, 2000b, p
...
The action tendency for anxiety is
“avoidance or escape” and for happiness it is “approach” (Lazarus, 2000b, p
...



8

The CMR theory suggests that if a physical task is related to an emotions action
tendency, the following action is prone to be enhanced
...
A final proposition of the CMR theory is that an individuals coping ability is
linked directly to whether an emotion is perceived as threatening or beneficial
...
, 2012)
...
The intricate process of the CMR theory originates with an
environmental demand (e
...
a stressor) that is subsequently evaluated by the
individual as threatening or beneficial, in turn, allows production of a range of
emotions that can influence sports performance (Neil et al
...
In 2009,
Woodman et al conducted a study that utilised the CMR theory
...
The results revealed than individuals
reported much higher levels of anger than any other emotion for this physical task
...

2
...
2 Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build Theory
Another theory that can help predict an individuals forthcoming action is
Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build theory (2001)
...
In a study by Fredrickson and Branigan (2005), the Broaden-and-Build theory
was tested by inducing emotion through the use of film and self-generation
...
Another finding
showed that after eliciting a negative emotion, an individual’s attention scope was
narrowed
...




9

2
...
3 Theories Combined
It is clear that the CMR theory (Lazarus, 1991b, 2000b) and Broaden-and-Build
theory (Fredrickson, 2001) have similarities
...
It is important however to examine how these emotions can impact
sporting performance
...
4 EMOTIONS IN SPORT
Within sport, emotion has been defined as a subjective feeling which an athlete
experiences through bodily responses which have the ability to motivate behaviour
(Lazarus, 1991a, p
...
, 2012, p
...
Over recent decades, two
emotions (happiness and anxiety) have been increasingly attractive to researchers
within a sporting context
...
g
...
There is no acceptable reason as to
why the majority of research has focused on negative emotions, but researchers
have revealed that for every 4 negative emotions there is one positive (Fredrickson,
1998)
...

2
...
5) suggested that anxiety contains
“emotional reactions that consist of a unique combination of: (1) feelings of tension,
apprehension and nervousness; (2) unpleasant thoughts (worries), and (3)
physiological changes
...
Jones 1995 reported that the majority literature examining anxiety,
particularly in North America, has regarded anxiety as a negative to performance,
whereas this is not always applicable
...
The findings revealed that the gymnasts who were picked for the
Olympic squad channelled their anxiety to better performance, whereas the


10

gymnasts who were not picked for the Olympic squad were unable to channel their
anxiety, instead, got themselves into ‘near-panic’ states which inhibited performance
...

2
...
1 Development of the CSAI-2
Driven by previous research, a group of researchers in 1990 set out to analyse the
affects of anxiety, by creating an inventory tool which allowed for measurement of
somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety and self-confidence
...
, 1990)
...
,2013)
...
541) defined cognitive anxiety as
‘’the cognitive elements of anxiety, for example, negative expectations and concerns
about oneself, the situation and potential consequences’’
...
,
1995, p
...
Somatic anxiety has been referred to as “the physiological and affective
elements of the anxiety experience that develop directly from autonomic arousal
...
,
1995, p
...
It has been successfully reported that this increase in heart rate response
will enhance adrenaline within the bodily system (Pyne et al
...
618),
subsequently, allowing the potential for a performance to be facilitated
...
5
...
, 1993; Jones, 1995; Jones & Hanton, 2001)
...
Their analysis included a directional measure
to better understand an athlete’s perception of anxiety
...
Some individuals perceived


11

anxiety as a performance facilitator, whereas others perceived anxiety as an inhibitor
to performance
...
, 2012)
...
Now the traditional view of
anxiety has been counter argued, more researchers are inclined to investigate
anxiety and its positive influence on performance
...
5
...
For the first time, research was
conducted to investigate if inducing anxiety had the ability to positively impact an
individuals sprint performance
...
This self-generation technique was deemed as
an appropriate induction method (Damasio et al, 2000)
...
Although their results
reported that anxiety was faster that the emotion-neutral condition sprints, this result
was not significant
...
e
...
Given that the emotion of anxiety has
recently been accepted as a potential facilitator to performance, research will often
investigate anxiety against another well-established positive emotion
...
6 HAPPINESS
Given the amount of research that has examined happiness within and outside of
sport, there is no preferred definition
...
1-45)
suggests that happiness signals that everything is well in one’s life, and that there is
no need or desire for change
...
39-63) states that happiness in
sport refers to one’s “positive subjective feeling, in which there is no desire to change
a current mood state, with the hope of continued progression towards a goal”
...
6
...
The researchers evaluated the
effects of a happy emotion against a sad emotion on physical performance
...
However, it is important to examine how an
induced positive emotion influences sporting performance
...
6
...
Based on Lazarus’
CMR theory (1991a, 2000b), the researchers hypothesised that “a positive affect
(happiness) might be able to improve performance” (Rathschlag & Memmert, 2014,
p
...
Their results were in conjunction with their hypothesis, as participants ran
significantly faster when induced into a happiness emotion prior to sprinting, in
comparison to no emotion and anxiety
...




13

2
...
7
...
, 2009), only one study
has examined the effect of self-generated emotion on sprinting performance
(Rathschlag & Memmert, 2014)
...

The researchers analysed the following emotions for each sprint; happiness,
anxiety, arousal and hedonic tone
...
Based on this
evidence, extended emotions should be reviewed when examining emotion in
performance
...

Within their design, they asked all participants to think of any scenario where they
felt this emotion significantly
...
The induction scenario chosen by the researchers could
be argued to not be transferable and specific for a sprint athlete to recall
...
It is important from a research perspective to measure whether the emotion
was felt throughout the entire physical task
...
Multiple studies (Kavanagh & Hausfeld, 1986; Fredrickson, 2001;
Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005; Rathschlag & Memmert
...
Literature
suggests that when an individual is feeling anxious, their heart rate will increase
(Sanderson & Reilly, 1983; Martens et al
...

When Rathschlag and Memmert (2014) analysed physical performance, they
chose a distance of 40 metres as an appropriate distance for testing
...
4 ft), drive force depreciates and an
individual enters the maintenance phase of their sprint (Gaudet, 2014)
...

The research design chosen by Rathschlag and Memmert (2014) included
participants that were not athletes with a sprinting background, if professional
athletes at all
...
If the data included recreational or an elite sample, the collected
data would be applicable to competitive athletes and could be used more effectively
...
Research
has revealed that anxiety can be a facilitator to performance for some individuals
(Mellalieu et al
...
, 2012)
...
7
...
This research
will measure 7 emotions: happiness, anxiety, calmness, sadness, anger, excitement
and tension, both prior to and during each sprint
...
The emotion
induction scenario will be sporting specific, allowing for a more transferrable scenario
that sprint athletes can use in both training and competition
...
This will allow for analysis of
whether the emotion (anxiety and happiness) was actually induced
...
4 ft), which is deemed as the drive/acceleration phase
for sprinters within a sprinting task
...
Finally, due to having both
elite and recreational athletes, anxiety perception will be analysed between groups
through a revised version of the CSAI-2 questionnaire which has been created by
the researcher for this study
...
8 PURPOSE OF THE CURRENT STUDY
By highlighting the main gaps within previous literature, this investigation aims to
analyse how emotions can influence a forthcoming action, utilising predominantly the
CMR theory (Lazarus, 1991b, 2000b), and Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build theory
(2001)
...
Based
on previous research (Mellalieu et al
...
, 2012), this study will
also try to examine how the level of an athlete (elite or recreational) can influence
interpretation of anxiety before and during performance
...

2
...
1 Aims of the Current Study
Based on assumptions that emotions are the reason we act in a certain way
(Lazarus, 2000a), the primary aim of this study is to examine how self-generated
happiness and anxiety can influence sprinting performance in currently competing
sprint athletes
...
9 HYPOTHESES
Due to promising literature examining happiness (Kavanagh & Hausfeld, 1986;
Fredrickson & Branigan, 2005; Rathschlag & Memmert, 2014), it is hypothesised that
when the participant self-generates happiness, he/she will benefit from this emotion
reflected in a reduced sprint time compared to the recorded sprint time both in the
anxious and emotion-neutral condition
...
e
...
, 2004, p
...

Based on previous literature (Sanderson & Reilly, 1983; Martens et al
...




16

One final expected finding is that anxiety will be interpreted differently
between groups
...
, 2006;
Wagstaff et al
...

2
...
1 Hypotheses Review:
1) A pre-sprint happiness emotion will produce an improved sprint time in
comparison to the anxiety and emotion-neutral condition, with anxiety being
more beneficial to only the emotion-neutral condition
...

3) Anxiety will be perceived as facilitative for the elite sprint athletes, and
debilitative for the recreational sprint athletes
...
1 PARTICIPANTS
4 male and 4 female (N = 8) athletes aged between 20 and 24 (M = 21, SD = 1
...
78) enrolled at Cardiff
Metropolitan University and/or part of the Welsh National sprint squad were acquired
using a purposive sampling method
...
Bertollo et al (2012), states that
National athletes are those currently part of a National squad, and have competed at
that level within the past 24 months
...

3
...
1 Demographic Information
Demographic information was obtained through a questionnaire designed by the
researcher (see Appendices D)
...
The
reason for this demographic information was to show that the participants had
experience with the equipment utilised within this research investigation
...
2 PILOT TEST
A pilot study was conducted with one Cardiff Metropolitan University sport student
...
Originally, the athlete was asked to report their feelings on their
sprint through a verbal open-ended answering system
...
To tackle this problem, it was agreed that for the main
investigation, the athletes would write down how they felt about their sprint and after
this, if necessary, partake in a 3-sense heart rate reduction technique
...
This would diminish any
possibility of influencing written feedback from the athlete
...
To ensure this problem did not arise in
the main study, it was agreed that the feedback desk was to be located toward the
end of the last 30 metre laser gate so the athlete could get back to the desk quicker,
recovery faster, and partake in the written feedback and manipulation checks earlier
...
It became clear that certain emotions were more
difficult to elicit than others
...

3
...
Once the participant had accepted to participate, they
were given an information sheet (see Appendices A) providing them with information
regarding the structure of the research
...

Additionally, a participant consent form (see Appendices B) was signed by all
participants on the day of the testing, stating they knew exactly what was expected
of them during the entirety of the study
...

3
...
After asking any questions, participants
completed and signed the participant consent form, a PAR-Q and demographic form
...
Each participant was allowed to warm-up to his or her own specific needs
to alleviate any possibility of injury during testing
...
230), and one on


20

anxiety: ‘‘negative expectations and concerns about oneself, along with unpleasant
feeling states such as tension and nervousness’’ (Morris et al
...
541)
...
The
final condition was a neutral condition, which would make up the final of the three
conditions under investigation
...

As the participant finished their warm up, they were fitted with the heart rate
monitor and watch
...
The participant was then taken to the start line
...

Simultaneously, a timer was started which was used to show length of emotion
induction
...
As the participant crossed the first laser gate, the timer
stopped to report an induction length time for that particular emotion induction
...
Prior to the investigation,
athletes were informed to complete the feedback in as much time as necessary
...
If
the measurement was above 70% of their maximum heart rate, they were required to
partake in a 3-sense heart rate reduction technique
...
The participant was then led to the start line in
preparation for the next sprint condition
...
As stated previously, the order of emotions to induce
was balanced and totally randomised across all 8 participants
...
5 EMOTION INDUCTION
Based on previous research (Coombes, Cauraugh & Janelle, 2006; Rottenberg et
al
...
Self-generation of an emotion is a method whereby the participant is
asked to elicit and remember a personal emotional episode (Damasio et al
...

Self-generation is time convenient and much more applicable for a sprint athlete due
to having a minimal amount of time on the start line prior to physical performance
(Rathschlag & Memmert, 2014)
...
6 MEASURES
3
...
1 Performance
The 8 sprint athletes were asked to sprint a distance of 30m (98
...
Sprint times were measured using SMARTSPEED
(Chicago, Illinois) laser gates
...
To discount any technical
advantage, starting blocks were prohibited during the testing period
...
6
...
, FT1, Polar Electro, Kemple, Finland) to indicate physiological
change
...

3
...
3 Emotion induction length
Prior to each sprint, the athlete was asked to recall their specific emotional episode
...

This was recorded using an electronic timer and a comparison with the reported
heart rate data
...
6
...
The
manipulation check included a Likert-scale reporting system, which asked the
participant to rate how they felt both prior to and during the sprint, in relation to the
specific emotion they had just induced
...

3
...
5 Athlete feedback (anxiety)
Briggs (2000) stated that most research papers conclude emotions to be either
positive or negative
...
A revised version of the CSAI-2 (Martens et al
...
The feedback asked two questions, the first asked the athlete how
they felt during the emotion induction, and the second asked how they felt during the
sprint
...

Scoring was reported between -2 and +2 (hence the two words stated by the
athlete)
...
The average score given by the participant both before and
during sprint was taken forward for analysis
...
This research tool, although not previously tested, attempted
to add to current research (Mellalieu et al
...
, 2012) on directional
perception of anxiety
...
7 ANALYSIS OF DATA
A repeated measures ANOVA and an independent samples T-test was used to
analyse the data set (all analysis was done using SPSS software)
...
All data was screened for outliers and normality prior to any data analysis
...
1 DATA ANALYSIS
Analysis examined self-generated emotions (anxiety and happiness) and its direct
influence on the physical task of sprinting
...
happiness vs
...
A second analysis to the latter of this results section, examines how each
group (elite and recreational) interpreted anxiety, and was performed using an
independent samples T-test
...
7 to +1
...
These values of skewness and
kurtosis are considered to be normally distributed (Kline, 2015) and normality can be
assumed
...

Reported Pre-Sprint Manipulation Scores; LS Happiness, LS Anxiety, LS Angry, LS
Sad, LS Calm, LS Tens and LS Excited for the Three Self-Generated Emotion
Conditions












25

4
...
2
...
56, p <
...
Follow-up Bonferroni pairwise correction analysis revealed
that participants were significantly happier prior to sprinting in the happiness
condition (M = 6
...
71, p <
...
00, SD =
...
001) and the neutral condition (M = 2
...
35, p <
...
The repeated measures ANOVA also revealed a significant difference
between emotion conditions for anxiety pre-sprint, F (2, 14) = 230
...
001; see
table 1
...
37,
SD =
...
001), compared to the neutral condition sprint (M = 1
...
76, p <

...
62, SD =
...
001)
...
25, SD =
...
001), sad
emotion (M = 1
...
164, p <
...
5, SD =
...
001),
tense emotion (M = 2
...
26, p <
...
625, SD =
...
001) and the excited emotion (M = 4
...
324, p <
...
The repeated
measured ANOVA revealed that prior to the anxious sprints, there was a significant
difference between the reported anxious emotion and all other emotion conditions:
happiness emotion (M = 2
...
267, p <
...
12, SD =

...
05), sad emotion (M = 2
...
532, p <
...
12,
SD =
...
001), excited emotion (M = 2
...
366, p <
...
75, SD =
...
05)
...

Reported During Sprint Manipulation Scores; LS Happiness, LS Anxiety, LS Angry, LS
Sad, LS Calm, LS Tense and LS Excited for the Three Self-Generated Emotion
Conditions






4
...
2 During sprint
The repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference between the
emotion conditions in the level of happiness during sprints, F (2, 14) = 35
...
001
...
75, SD =
...
01; see table 2) compared to the anxious condition (M = 1
...
64, p <
...
63, SD =
...
01)
...
4, p <
...
Follow-up Bonferroni pairwise
analysis revealed that participants were significantly more anxious during the anxiety
sprints (M = 6
...
87, p <
...
88, SD =
...
001) and the happiness sprints (M = 2
...
45,
p <
...

The repeated measures ANOVA revealed that during the happiness sprints,
there was a significant difference between the reported happiness emotion and all
other emotions: angry emotion (M = 4
...
412, p <
...
38, SD =
...
001), calm emotion (M = 2
...
35, p <
...
75, SD =
...
001), anxious emotion (M = 4
...
42, p <

...
(M = 1
...
46, p <
...
The repeated
measures ANOVA revealed that during the anxiety sprints, there was a significant
difference between the reported anxious emotion and all other emotions: happiness


27

emotion (M = 3
...
58, p <
...
88, SD =
...
005),
sad emotion (M = 4
...
3
...
005), calm emotion (M = 4
...
463, p
<
...
30, SD =
...
005) and the tense emotion (M =
1
...
479, p =
...


Table 3
...
3 PERFORMANCE: SPRINT TIME
The repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significance difference in sprint time
between the emotion conditions, F (2, 14) = 5
...
05; see table 3
...
87, SD = 0
...
05; see table 3)
compared to the emotion-neutral condition (M = 3
...
31, p <
...
There was
no reported significant difference in sprint time between the happiness and anxiety
condition (M = 3
...
34, p =
...
There was also no significant difference
between the anxiety condition and the neutral condition (M = 3
...
31, p =
1
...

4
...
10, p =
...

Although not significant, results revealed that the anxiety condition took the longest
to induce (M = 20
...
32; see table 3), second was the happiness
condition (M = 19
...
30) and the quickest emotion to induce was the
neutral condition (M = 15
...
30)
...
5 HEART RATE FLUCTUATION (beats⋅min-1)
The repeated measures ANOVA revealed a significant difference across all emotion
conditions for heart rate fluctuation, F (1
...
11) = 41
...
001; see table 3
...
93, SD = 4
...
01) compared to the happiness condition (M = -2
...
86, p <
...
31, SD = 1
...
01
...
Results revealed that both
happiness, via heart rate decrease, and anxiety, via heart rate increase, were
successfully induced (see table 3)
...
6 ANXIETY INTERPRETATION BETWEEN GROUPS
Athlete interpretation of anxiety was recorded post-performance through an athlete
feedback interpretation inventory tool created by the researcher
...
32, p <
...
The elite level group perceived preperformance anxiety as a facilitator to performance (M = 1
...
75, p <
...
50, SD =
...
01)
...
78, p <
...
The elite level group perceived anxiety
during the physical task as a performance facilitator (M = 1
...
29, p <
...
38, SD =
...
01)
...
1 INTRODUCTION
5
...
1 Study Aims
This investigation firstly aimed to evaluate the effects of self-generated happiness
and anxiety prior to, and during sprint performance
...
A secondary aim of this investigation
was to examine athlete interpretation of anxiety, via analysis of predominantly the
quantitative athlete feedback provided by the participant post each anxiety condition
sprint
...
1
...
Findings revealed that when induced into a happiness condition,
participant’s performance significantly improved in comparison to their respective
performance in the emotion-neutral condition
...

The second hypothesis was based on evidence by Sanderson and Reilly (1983) and
Martens et al (1990), subsequently hypothesising that during the anxiety emotion
induction, the individual’s heart rate would increase, the individual’s heart rate would
decrease during the happiness induction, and heart rate would not change (or
minimal fluctuation) during the emotion-neutral induction
...

The third hypothesis, based on current literature on anxiety perception (Jones et al
...
As predicted, groups differed
significantly in their perception of anxiety; the elite sprinters perceived anxiety as a



32

performance facilitator, whereas the recreational sprint athletes perceived anxiety as
a performance inhibitor
...
It
was predicted that anxiety would be the most difficult to induce which would be
reflected in an increased emotion induction time, with happiness being the fastest to
induce
...
Although some findings were not significant,
it is critical to review each of the main findings from this investigation
...
2 SPRINT PERFORMANCE
As stated previously, findings partially supported the researcher’s first hypothesis
...
Despite there being no significant
differences between the sprint times recorded in the happiness and anxiety
conditions, there was a significant difference when comparing the happiness and
emotion-neutral sprint times
...
An explanation as to why this result occurred can
be achieved through Lazarus’ CMR theory (1991b, 2000b), which suggests that
happiness can facilitate performance
...
In another study by Rathschlag and Memmert (2014), similar results were
produced
...
Within this present investigation,
manipulation checks revealed all necessary emotions were successfully induced
(happiness in the happiness sprints, anxiety in the anxiety sprints) however, this
study failed to report a significant difference between the happiness and anxiety
condition for sprint time
...
This result, although not expected,
agrees with previous research that suggests anxiety has the ability to provoke a


33

performance enhancing effect (Jones, 1995; Jones & Hanton, 2001; Jones et al
...
This result disagrees with Rathschlag and Memmerts’ (2014) results, which
indicate anxiety did not have a performance-increasing effect
...
Clearly, it is important to understand the impact of
anxiety in the context of how it is perceived by the athlete
...
3 ANXIETY PERCEPTION
This research used two groups (elite and recreational) sprint athletes to analyse selfgeneration of emotions on sprint performance
...
The findings revealed
that the elite sprint group perceived their anxiety induction as a positive
...

These results can lead to the assumption that as an athlete gains success and
experience within a sport, they acquire the ability to channel anxiety from a negative
to a positive
...
, 1993)
...
PET predicts that anxiety reduces the
processing capacity of stored working memory (Williams, Vickers and Rodrigues,
2001)
...
To reduce this processing capacity, performers need to think less
about their performance, which is likely to come from experience
...
The results from Mahoney and Averners’ (1977) study link directly with the
results from the present research
...
, 1993; Jones, 1995;
Jones & Hanton, 2001; Mellalieu et al
...
, 2012)
...

5
...
To induce happiness, the participants were
asked to recall a scenario within the sport of sprinting where they had felt extremely
happy
...
The
manipulation report also revealed that during the happiness sprint, happiness was
still significantly induced over all emotions
...
The results from the
manipulation check showed that during the induction of anxiety, anxiety was
significantly increased over all emotions
...

The results revealed that prior to and during the happiness sprint, participants
were significantly happier compared to before and during the emotion-neutral and
the anxiety sprints
...

Previous research by Rathschlag and Memmert (2014), who also analysed
self-generated emotion asked their participants to recall any scenario where the
individual felt the emotion in question
...
An athlete who is on the start line before a
competition would likely benefit from recalling an event that is related to sprinting as
it is more transferable and relevant to their subsequent performance
...
If the emotion
induction was not successful, the results from this study would have been invalid
...

5
...
This result showed that
there is no specific time needed to induce the emotion of happiness and anxiety prior
to performance
...
In a study by Rathschlag and Memmert
(2014), participants were given one minute their respective emotions
...
In the present study,
once the emotion induction began heart rate response was recorded, which as
essential to measure whether the emotion was successfully induced
...
6 HEART RATE FLUCTUATION (beats⋅min-1)
5
...
1 Anxiety Heart Rate Fluctuation
Heart rate was measured during the entire length of the emotion induction prior to all
sprints
...
As stated by
Hackfort and Spielberger (1989, p
...
Previous research has shown that an increased heart rate increases
oxygen consumption, and subsequently can improve cognitive functioning (Scholey
et al
...
Research also suggests that when heart rate is increased, more
adrenaline is pumped around the body making for an improved performance (Pyne
et al
...
618)
...
This aspect of the study was based around Sanderson and Reilly’s
(1983) suggestion that when anxious, an individual’s heart rate would increase
...

5
...
2 Happiness Heart Rate Fluctuation
Based on previous research (Sanderson & Reilly, 1983; Martens et al
...
The present investigation revealed that when
inducing happiness, the participant’s heart rate significantly decreased compared to
the participant’s heart rate during the pre-sprint emotion-neutral and anxiety
induction
...
It could be suggested that this is because measuring heart rate
can be a lengthy process, and a considerable amount of the analysis would
potentially take place after the performance at which time could be irrelevant
...
6
...
This was reported via the manipulation
check, which proposed that happiness was significantly induced during the emotion
induction, at which point, heart rate response significantly decreased
...
This was revealed via the manipulation check, which reported anxiety was
significantly induced during the anxiety emotion induction, at which point, heart rate
response significantly increased
...
7 THEORETICAL IMPLICATIONS
These findings have theoretical implications for adding additional support to both
Lazarus’ (1991b, 2000b) CMR theory, and Fredrickson’s Broaden-and-Build theory
(2005)
...
Emotions are triggered when a physical task is linked to an emotions action
tendency
...
243)
...
The CMR theory suggests that when a performers action tendency is
triggered, a subsequent performance could be enhanced
...
Given that the anxiety sprints were
faster than the emotion-neutral sprints, assumptions can be made that the physical
task of sprinting can in fact trigger the action tendency of anxiety, which is escape
...

The results from this study also add support for Fredrickson’s Broaden-andBuild theory (2001), which suggests a positive experience can serve to facilitate a
physical response (Fredrickson, 2001, p
...
This study has reported that
participants did perform better in the happiness condition, which was deemed as a
positive emotion, in comparison to an anxious emotion and no emotion at all
(emotion-neutral)
...
, 1990)
...




38

5
...
8
...
This study highlights the importance
of inducing a positive emotion prior to performance, which is significant for the sprint
athlete due to the transferability of the elicitation technique, which is suitable for use
in the time an athlete has before a training repetition or competition race
...
If an athlete is not already sensing a
positive emotion prior to performance, this study highlights an induction technique
that could help facilitate a positive emotion elicitation
...
This study also enforces the point that having an emotion
(specifically happiness or anxiety) is more beneficial to performance than having no
emotion
...
8
...
The results from
this study reveal that an individual induced into a positive emotion (happiness), has
the potential to significantly enhance performance in comparison to having no
emotion
...
It is recommended that the coach allows the athlete to recall an
emotional scenario that link directly to the sport they are currently competing in, for
example, a sprint athlete should recall an experience where they felt significantly
happy in the context of sprinting
...
Although this
study used recreational and elite sprint athletes, there is no evidence to suggest selfgeneration of happiness does not work for other sports
...
g
...
Based on the results from
this study, sports coaches who work with recreational athletes should steer away


39

from allowing their athletes to recall an anxious scenario
...
As the athlete
progresses to elite level, the coach may wish to trial the recall of an anxiety-based
scenario as the results revealed that elite athletes perceived anxiety as a
performance facilitator
...
9 STUDY STRENGTHS AND LIMITATIONS
5
...
1 Strengths
This study was the first (to the researcher’s knowledge), to investigate heart rate
response pre-performance during the self-generation of emotion, and to analyse that
emotions direct influence on sprint performance
...
This result revealed that heart rate could be a potential indicator of
behaviour change, specifically convenient to measure whether the emotion of
happiness or anxiety has been significantly induced
...
By restricting the emotional recall experience, the results are
more transferable to real-world sprint athletes
...

5
...
2 Limitations
Although there are several strengths to this investigation, there are a number of
limitations
...
Many athletes who declined to
partake in the study stated that due to time of year, which was the start of their
indoor season, their coaches had informed them that this sort of task was
unnecessary and could hinder competition performance
...
If this investigation took place between the
transition of the indoor season ending and the outdoor season beginning, more
athletes would have been available for the research
...

Although this research aimed to improve and build upon previous emotion induction


40

scenarios (Rathschlag & Memmert, 2014), results could have been more accurate by
asking participants to induce the same scenario
...

5
...

Future research could be conducted with controlled sprint emotion induction
scenarios with sprint athletes
...
Having this data would provide sprint athletes with a specific scenario to
induce which would significantly improve performance
...
Research could
investigate happiness and anxiety in a range of sports, for example football
...
This research would be
required to examine more than one person (e
...
a goalkeeper) to see whether
exerted emotion can hinder an opposition’s performance
...

The intention of the investigation was to analyse the influence of self-generated
emotion, specifically happiness and anxiety, on the sprint performance of currently
competitive sprint athletes
...
It was revealed that a
successfully elicited happiness emotion prior to performance does positively impact
sprint performance, reflected in a reduced sprint time
...
This study adds support for the CMR theory as both the reported
happiness and anxiety sprint times were quicker than the emotion-neutral sprint
times
...
e
...
e
...
Another important finding
from this study revealed that the level of an athlete (elite or recreational) could
potentially differentiate between whether an athlete perceives anxiety as facilitative
or debilitative to performance
...
, 1993; Jones, 1995; Jones & Hanton, 2001; Mellalieu et
al
...
, 2011; Wagstaff et al
...
This finding suggests
that practitioners who work with elite sprint athletes may wish to trial self-generated
anxiety in training to inevitably aid competition
...
One final proposition of
this research which builds upon previous literature (Sanderson & Reilly, 1983;
Martens et al
...
It was reported that an increased heart rate is an indicator of
induced anxiety, and a decreased heart rate is an indicator of induced happiness
...
This type of research is crucial to the development of emotion
understanding in an array of sports, and together, researchers can build upon the
already prosperous knowledge surrounding the performance-emotion relatio


43

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...
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...
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...
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...
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...
The aim of this study is to further
contribute to previous findings which examine emotional influences on sporting
performance
...
All testing will be carried out at Cardiff School of
Sport
...
Please take your time to read over the information sheet
...


What happens if you want to change your mind?
If you join this study it does not mean you need to complete it
...


What would happen if you agree to participate?
If you agree to join the study, there are two things that will happen:

1
...
From this, a date and time will be
mutually agreed
...

1
...
You should be warmed up and
ready for data collection prior to your selected time slot
...
During
the overview of the study, I will ask you to think of a sporting moment you have
endured which has made you feel extremely happy, and one which has made you
feel extremely anxious
...
You will then perform three sprints in
all of the sprint conditions (happiness, anxious and emotionally neutral)
...

Following this, a minute of recovery will commence which will depreciate the heart
rate prior to the next sprint
...
The time you will spend in the research area may vary but
the expected time duration of the investigation is between 35 and 45 minutes
...
We ask that you adhere to the instructions, for example by
warming up adequately before the investigation commences
...
In all cases, you should not do
anything that you do not want to
...


Your rights
It is completely up to you whether or not you want to take part in the study
...
If you decide to for any reason, you may withdraw from
the study
...


What happens to your results of the experiment?
All data collected will be taken and stored on a private file which can only be accessed by
myself, the researcher
...
We will present this
information together for all of the subjects, but there will be no presented description that
would identify participants taking part
...
However, the data collected and
findings from your contribution may contribute to knowledge emotional states and more
importantly self-generation of emotional states and their direct influence on sprinting
performance
...
Once that has been signed and delivered, you will be contacted in the near
future to arrange a suitable time period to conduct the study in
...

Further Information:
If you have any questions about the research or how we will conduct the study, please do
not hesitate to ask
...

1
...
I have had the opportunity to consider the
information, ask questions and have had these answered
satisfactorily
...
I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am
free to withdraw at any time, without giving any reason
...
I also understand that if this happens, our relationships with the
researcher, with Cardiff Metropolitan University and our legal
rights, will not be affected
...
I understand that information from the study may be used for
reporting purposes, but that I will not be identified
...
I agree to take part in the above study
...
I understand that the researchers and Cardiff Metropolitan University are
notresponsible for any potential injury I may suffer when taking part in the
study
...
Please answer the following questions truthfully and again, thank you for
taking part
...

Date and time of completion: ……………………………………
...

Nationality: ………………………………
Age: ………
Years of experience: ……………
Highest performance level: (please tick below your highest performance level)
County/Regional
______

National
______

International
______

Current performance level: (please tick below your current performance level)
County/Regional
______

National
______

International
______

When was the last time you competed at the previously stated level? (please tick
the correct box)
2+ years

1-2 years

Within the last 12 months

Have you used Smart-Speed laser gates in training previous? (please tick the
correct box)
Yes

No
Athlete

Signature: ____________________________





55

Appendices E – Manipulation Check
Below you will find a list of words that describe a range of feelings that you may have
experienced
...


1

2

3

Not at all

4

5

6

7

Moderately

Extremely

I felt…
Happy

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Angry

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Sad

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Calm

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Tense

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Anxious

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Excited

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Finally, can you think back to the how you felt during your sprint: Using the scale below,
pleas indicate how you felt
...
Error

Sig
...
875

*


...
019

-1
...
166

-4
...
453


...
667

-2
...
875

*


...
019


...
584

-3
...
324


...
388

-2
...
250

*


...
000

2
...
667

NeutralHappy

3
...
324


...
362

4
...
The mean difference is significant at the
b
...


Appendices G2:
Measure: During Happiness Sprint: Happiness Manipulation
Pairwise Comparisons
95% Confidence Interval for
Differenceb

Mean
Difference (IJ)

Std
...
375


...
855

-1
...
638

HapHappy

-3
...
567


...
273

-1
...
375


...
855

-
...
388

HapHappy

-3
...
441


...
503

-1
...
500

*


...
001

1
...
273

3
...
441


...
747

4
...
The mean difference is significant at the
b
...




59

Sig
...
Error

Sig
...
875


...
000

3
...
798

4
...
250


...
968

5
...
875

*


...
000

-5
...
952

-
...
227

1
...
834


...
750

*


...
000

-5
...
968

Neutral

Anxiety

*


...
227

1
...
584


...
The mean difference is significant at the
b
...


Appendices G4:
Measure: During Anxiety Sprint: Anxiety Manipulation
Pairwise Comparisons

(I) AnxietyDuring (J) AnxietyDuring

95% Confidence Interval for
Differenceb

Mean
Difference (IJ)

Std
...
b

Lower Bound Upper Bound

NeutralAnxiety

NeutralAnxiety

4
...
412


...
962

5
...
375*


...
000

2
...
932

*


...
000

-5
...
962


...
227

1
...
584


...
498


...
932

-2
...
125


...
000

-
...
584

AnxiousAnxiety
HappinessAnxiety

HappinessAnxiety AnxiousAnxiety

NeutralAnxiety

-4
...
375

Based on estimated marginal means
*
...
Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni
...
Deviation

N

MeanAnxtime

3
...
33519

8

MeanNeutime

3
...
30806

8

MeanHaptime

3
...
34254

8

Pairwise Comparisons

(J)
(I) SprintTime SprintTime
Anxiety

95% Confidence Interval for
Differenceb
Sig
...
017

1
...
068


...
030


...
115

-
...
066

Anxiety


...
017

1
...
036


...
046

*


...
049


...
091

Anxiety

-
...
012


...
066


...
016

Happiness
Neutral

Neutral

Mean
Difference (IJ)
Std
...
015


...
091


...
046

Based on estimated marginal means
*
...
Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni
...

Deviation

20
...
9375
19
...
31923
6
...
84914

N
8
8
8

Pairwise Comparisons
Mean
Difference (IJ)
Std
...
438

2
...
464

-4
...
136

Anxiety


...
596

1
...
620

8
...
438

2
...
464

-13
...
261

Anxiety

-3
...
542


...
761


...
500

2
...
000

-8
...
620

Neutral

3
...
542


...
886

8
...
Adjustment for multiple comparisons: Bonferroni
...
a

Lower Bound Upper Bound

Appendices G7:
Measure: During Emotion Induction: Heart Rate Fluctuation
Descriptive Statistics
Mean
MeanHRFluAnx
MeanHRFluNeut
MeanHRFluHap

Std
...
9375

...
6875

4
...
57973
1
...
Error

Sig
...
625

*

1
...
002

4
...
749

11
...
329


...
483

14
...
625

*

1
...
002

-12
...
501

3
...
675


...
404

4
...
625

*

1
...
000

-14
...
483

-3
...
675


...
596

-1
...
The mean difference is significant at the
b
...




63

Appendices G8:
Measure: Pre-sprint Anxiety Perception: Between Groups
Group Statistics
Level
Anxiety presprint

N

Mean

Std
...
Error
Mean

County

4

-1
...
40825


...
6250


...
37500

Appendices G9:
Measure: During Sprint Anxiety Perception Between Groups
Group Statistics
Level
Anxiety during
sprint



N

Mean

Std
...
Error
Mean

County

4

-1
...
75000


...
7500


...
14434

64



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