Notesale: Turn your study into money

Document Preview

Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above

---

 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Unit​ ​1:​ ​Biology

*It​ ​begins​ ​again
A​ ​neverending​ ​cycle
The​ ​first​ ​of​ ​many
(too​ ​much​ ​CAH)​ ​ ​**protip,​ ​do​ ​the​ ​chapter​ ​reviews​ ​on​ ​the​ ​moodle

Chapter​ ​1:​ ​Cells​ ​and​ ​More​ ​Cells
1
...
2

1
...
4

Review

Microscopes
Parts​ ​and​ ​Functions:

Part

Tube

Function
Connects​ ​the​ ​eyepiece​ ​to​ ​the​ ​nosepiece
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Eyepiece

Arm

Nosepiece

The​ ​eyepiece​ ​is​ ​the​ ​lens​ ​of​ ​the​ ​microscope
and​ ​is​ ​present​ ​at​ ​the​ ​top​ ​of​ ​the​ ​machine
...

Supports​ ​the​ ​tube​ ​of​ ​the​ ​microscope​ ​and
connects​ ​it​ ​to​ ​the​ ​base​ ​of​ ​the​ ​microscope
...

Rotating​ ​this​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​microscope​ ​allows
the​ ​use​ ​of​ ​the​ ​different​ ​lenses
...


Objective​ ​Lenses

Usually,​ ​microscopes​ ​will​ ​have​ ​three​ ​to​ ​four
objective​ ​with​ ​magnifications​ ​of​ ​4,​ ​10,​ ​40,​ ​and
100​ ​respectively
...
​ ​These​ ​lenses​ ​provide​ ​the
magnification​ ​needed​ ​to​ ​see​ ​the​ ​microscopic
specimens​ ​a​ ​microscope​ ​is​ ​used​ ​for
...


Diaphragm

The​ ​diaphragm​ ​controls​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​light
that​ ​is​ ​passing​ ​through​ ​the​ ​opening​ ​in​ ​the
center​ ​of​ ​the​ ​stage
...


Coarse​ ​adjustment​ ​knob

Used​ ​to​ ​focus​ ​in​ ​on​ ​the​ ​specimen​ ​while​ ​using
the​ ​low​ ​power​ ​lens​ ​by​ ​moving​ ​the​ ​stage​ ​or
upper​ ​part​ ​of​ ​the​ ​microscope​ ​up​ ​and​ ​down
...


Base

Provides​ ​support​ ​for​ ​the​ ​microscope
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Rules​ ​of​ ​the​ ​microscope:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...

10
...

11
...


Types​ ​of​ ​microscopes:
Leeuwenhoek​ ​-​ ​up​ ​to​ ​250x

Fluorescence​ ​microscope​ ​ ​-​ ​up​ ​to​ ​1500x

One​ ​of​ ​the​ ​first​ ​microscopes,​ ​its​ ​creator,
Leeuwenhoek​ ​used​ ​it​ ​to​ ​view​ ​organisms​ ​he
called​ ​“beasties”
...
​ ​Upon
observation,​ ​certain​ ​cell​ ​structures​ ​of
substances​ ​glow
...


Brightfield/Darkfield​ ​-​ ​up​ ​to​ ​2000x

This​ ​microscope​ ​is​ ​named​ ​as​ ​such​ ​because
the​ ​image​ ​viewed​ ​either​ ​has​ ​a​ ​bright​ ​or​ ​dark
background
...
​ ​Produces​ ​very​ ​realistic​ ​3-D
images​ ​viewable​ ​only​ ​as​ ​photographs​ ​or​ ​on​ ​a
monitor
...
​ ​The​ ​images​ ​created​ ​by​ ​a
TEM​ ​can​ ​only​ ​be​ ​viewed​ ​using​ ​a​ ​separate
monitor
...
O
...
​ ​=​ ​measurement​ ​of​ ​F
...
V
...
O
...
​ ​/​ ​#of​ ​times​ ​specimen​ ​fits​ ​on​ ​F
...
V
...
All​ ​living​ ​organisms​ ​are​ ​made​ ​of​ ​one​ ​or​ ​more​ ​cells
...
Cells​ ​are​ ​the​ ​basic​ ​organizational​ ​unit​ ​of​ ​all​ ​life
...
All​ ​cells​ ​come​ ​from​ ​preexisting​ ​cells
...

-”Spherical”

-Plant​ ​cells​ ​can​ ​be​ ​larger​ ​than
animal​ ​cells
-Chloroplast​ ​convert​ ​sunlight
into​ ​glucose,​ ​mitochondria
convert​ ​glucose​ ​into​ ​energy
-Rigid​ ​cell​ ​wall
-One​ ​large​ ​vacuole

-Membrane​ ​bound​ ​organelles
-Cytoplasm
-Similar​ ​organelle​ ​functions

Organelles:

 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Organelle

Function

Cell​ ​membrane

Separates​ ​the​ ​inside​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​from​ ​everything​ ​outside
...


Cytoskeleton

Supports​ ​structure​ ​and​ ​helps​ ​move​ ​proteins
...


Nucleus

Contains​ ​a​ ​cell’s​ ​DNA​ ​which​ ​controls​ ​all​ ​cell​ ​activity​ ​via
regulation​ ​of​ ​gene​ ​expression
...


Rough​ ​Endoplasmic​ ​Reticulum

Site​ ​where​ ​ribosomes​ ​bind​ ​and​ ​operate​ ​(produce​ ​proteins
and​ ​such)
...
​ ​Site​ ​where​ ​lipids​ ​are​ ​synthesized
...


Mitochondrion

Produces​ ​energy​ ​through​ ​cellular​ ​respiration​ ​(glucose​ ​+
oxygen​ ​->​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​+​ ​ATP​ ​(adenosine​ ​triphosphate))
...


Vacuole

Effectively​ ​larger​ ​size​ ​versions​ ​of​ ​vesicles​ ​used​ ​to​ ​store​ ​or
transport​ ​small​ ​molecules
...


Golgi​ ​Apparatus/Body

Synthesizes,​ ​packages,​ ​and​ ​releases​ ​concentrated​ ​proteins
or​ ​lipids
...


Lysosome

Specialized​ ​vesicles​ ​that​ ​contain​ ​decomposition​ ​enzymes
to​ ​destroy​ ​many​ ​types​ ​of​ ​unwanted​ ​biological
materials/waste
...


 

Chloroplast

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 
Creates​ ​glucose​ ​via​ ​photosynthesis​ ​(carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​+
water​ ​--sunlight->​ ​glucose,​ ​oxygen)
...
​ ​These
chromosomes​ ​come​ ​in​ ​pairs​ ​with​ ​one​ ​of​ ​each​ ​pair​ ​coming​ ​from​ ​either​ ​parent
...

Chromosomes​ ​are​ ​all​ ​made​ ​of​ ​DNA​ ​with​ ​each​ ​chromosome​ ​consisting​ ​of​ ​a​ ​single​ ​molecule​ ​of
DNA
...
​ ​These​ ​genes​ ​provide​ ​instructions​ ​for
making​ ​proteins
...

The​ ​current​ ​model​ ​for​ ​DNA​ ​was​ ​created​ ​by​ ​two​ ​scientists:​ ​James​ ​Watson​ ​and​ ​Francis
Crick
...
​ ​Adenine​ ​will​ ​always​ ​bond​ ​with
thymine​ ​and​ ​cytosine​ ​will​ ​always​ ​bind​ ​to​ ​guanine
...
​ ​Because​ ​of​ ​this​ ​exclusive​ ​binding​ ​property,​ ​there​ ​will​ ​always​ ​be​ ​the
same​ ​number​ ​of​ ​adenine​ ​bases​ ​as​ ​thymine,​ ​and​ ​same​ ​to​ ​cytosine​ ​and​ ​guanine
...
​ ​One​ ​of​ ​these​ ​include
amniocentesis,​ ​which​ ​consists​ ​of​ ​a​ ​needle​ ​being​ ​inserted​ ​into​ ​a​ ​pregnant​ ​woman’s​ ​abdominal
wall​ ​to​ ​withdraw​ ​a​ ​sample​ ​of​ ​amniotic​ ​fluid
...
​ ​This​ ​micrograph,​ ​called​ ​a​ ​karyotype,​ ​displays​ ​the
chromosomes​ ​in​ ​the​ ​cell,​ ​allowing​ ​doctors​ ​to​ ​detect​ ​a​ ​genetic​ ​disorder​ ​by​ ​seeing​ ​if​ ​there​ ​are​ ​too
many​ ​or​ ​too​ ​little​ ​of​ ​any​ ​chromosomes
...

Other​ ​techniques​ ​include​ ​the​ ​examination​ ​of​ ​a​ ​patient’s​ ​blood​ ​for​ ​specific​ ​enzymes,​ ​as
done​ ​when​ ​testing​ ​for​ ​PKU
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

However,​ ​DNA​ ​screening​ ​has​ ​a​ ​few​ ​ethical​ ​issues
...


Transgenic​ ​Organisms:
Transgenic​ ​organisms​ ​are​ ​those​ ​that​ ​have​ ​had​ ​their​ ​genes​ ​altered,​ ​thus​ ​gaining​ ​new
characteristics​ ​they​ ​would​ ​not​ ​normally​ ​have
...


Uses​ ​of​ ​GMOs​ ​(transgenic​ ​organisms):
●
●

●
●

Bacteria​ ​can​ ​be​ ​genetically​ ​modified​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​many​ ​different​ ​types​ ​of​ ​proteins​ ​and
substances,​ ​useful​ ​for​ ​medicinal,​ ​industrial,​ ​and​ ​scientific​ ​applications
Common​ ​applications:
○ Insulin,​ ​hormone​ ​that​ ​regulates​ ​metabolism,​ ​needed​ ​to​ ​treat​ ​diabetes
○ Production​ ​of​ ​viruses​ ​for​ ​vaccines
○ Biomining​ ​and​ ​bioremediation
Many​ ​crops​ ​we​ ​eat​ ​today​ ​have​ ​been​ ​genetically​ ​modified​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​more​ ​crop​ ​per
season​ ​(provide​ ​more​ ​yield)
The​ ​same​ ​has​ ​been​ ​done​ ​for​ ​fish​ ​to​ ​increase​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​flesh​ ​we​ ​get​ ​when​ ​farming
fish​ ​(increase​ ​growth​ ​speed,​ ​and​ ​increase​ ​yield)

Cloning:
Mammals​ ​are​ ​cloned​ ​by​ ​taking​ ​a​ ​nucleus​ ​from​ ​the​ ​egg​ ​of​ ​a​ ​female​ ​and​ ​a​ ​mature​ ​cell​ ​ ​and
placing​ ​them​ ​next​ ​to​ ​each​ ​other​ ​in​ ​a​ ​bath​ ​of​ ​chemicals
...
​ ​Once​ ​fused,​ ​the​ ​cells​ ​will​ ​begin​ ​dividing​ ​to​ ​form​ ​an​ ​embryo
...


Mutations​ ​and​ ​Mutagens:
When​ ​a​ ​change​ ​occurs​ ​in​ ​the​ ​normal​ ​DNA​ ​building​ ​it​ ​is​ ​called​ ​a​ ​mutation
...
​ ​Mutations​ ​usually​ ​occur​ ​because​ ​of​ ​either​ ​chance​ ​or​ ​mutagens
...
​ ​These
include​ ​radiation,​ ​cigarettes,​ ​or​ ​whatever​ ​else​ ​you​ ​can​ ​name
...
​ ​As​ ​such,​ ​research​ ​has​ ​gone​ ​into​ ​gene​ ​therapy;​ ​however,​ ​this​ ​research
has​ ​so​ ​far​ ​been​ ​unsuccessful
...

The​ ​nuclear​ ​membrane​ ​begins​ ​to​ ​break
down,​ ​and​ ​the​ ​nucleolus​ ​disappears
...
k
...

centrioles)​ ​head​ ​towards​ ​opposite​ ​ends​ ​and
begin​ ​to​ ​form​ ​spindle​ ​fibers,​ ​which​ ​kind​ ​of​ ​act
as​ ​supporting​ ​struts
...


Metaphase​ ​-​ ​the​ ​phase​ ​of​ ​mitosis​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the
chromosomes​ ​are​ ​aligned​ ​across​ ​the​ ​centre​ ​of
the​ ​cell

The​ ​centrosomes​ ​reach​ ​the​ ​opposite​ ​ends
and​ ​have​ ​finished​ ​latching​ ​onto​ ​the
chromosomes,​ ​which​ ​them​ ​move​ ​towards​ ​the
center
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Anaphase​ ​-​ ​the​ ​phase​ ​of​ ​mitosis​ ​in​ ​which​ ​the
centromere​ ​splits​ ​apart​ ​and​ ​the​ ​chromatids​ ​are
pulled​ ​to​ ​opposite​ ​sides​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​by​ ​the
spindle​ ​fibres

The​ ​proteins​ ​holding​ ​the​ ​chromosomes
together​ ​are​ ​broken​ ​apart
...


Telophase​ ​-​ ​the​ ​phase​ ​of​ ​mitosis​ ​in​ ​which​ ​two
daughter​ ​nuclei​ ​are​ ​formed

The​ ​spindle​ ​fibres​ ​start​ ​to​ ​disappear
...
​ ​Chromosomes​ ​become​ ​less​ ​coiled
and​ ​harder​ ​to​ ​see
...

It​ ​pinches​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​membrane​ ​until
the​ ​parent​ ​cell​ ​is​ ​separated​ ​into​ ​two
identical​ ​cells
...

The​ ​vesicles​ ​line​ ​up​ ​between​ ​the​ ​two​ ​nuclei,​ ​forming​ ​a
cell​ ​plate​ ​which​ ​grows​ ​outward​ ​and​ ​joins​ ​the​ ​old​ ​cell
wall
...

New​ ​cell​ ​membranes​ ​form​ ​on​ ​each​ ​side​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​walls

 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Why​ ​can’t​ ​cells​ ​continue​ ​growing
Cells​ ​divide​ ​for​ ​a​ ​multitude​ ​of​ ​reasons
...

This​ ​is​ ​important​ ​because​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​to​ ​volume​ ​ratio​ ​expands​ ​geometrically
...

Passive​ ​transport​ ​is​ ​on​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​exposed
...
​ ​If​ ​a​ ​cell​ ​becomes​ ​too​ ​large,​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​point​ ​where​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​for
​
passive​ ​transport​ ​is​ ​not​ ​enough​ ​to​ ​sustain​ ​its​ ​volume
...

The​ ​more​ ​distance​ ​a​ ​particle​ ​needs​ ​to​ ​move,​ ​the​ ​more​ ​chance​ ​for​ ​it​ ​to​ ​wander
...
​ ​If​ ​a​ ​cell​ ​is​ ​too​ ​large,​ ​then​ ​critical​ ​substances,​ ​such​ ​as
oxygen,​ ​would​ ​potentially​ ​take​ ​months​ ​to​ ​reach​ ​their​ ​destinations
...
​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​some​ ​cells​ ​that
become​ ​highly​ ​mutated​ ​become​ ​cancerous​ ​as​ ​they​ ​no​ ​longer​ ​listen​ ​to​ ​the​ ​stop​ ​signs​ ​within​ ​the
cell​ ​cycle
...
​ ​Generally,​ ​cells​ ​require
several​ ​mutations​ ​before​ ​complete​ ​loss​ ​of​ ​control​ ​over​ ​cell​ ​division​ ​occurs
...
​ ​However,​ ​cancer​ ​cells​ ​do​ ​not​ ​follow​ ​this​ ​principle​ ​because
(most​ ​of​ ​them)​ ​emit​ ​an​ ​enzyme​ ​called​ ​telomerase,​ ​which​ ​tells​ ​cells​ ​they​ ​don’t​ ​need​ ​to​ ​kill
themselves
...

Diffusion
Movement​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​in​ ​a​ ​solution​ ​from
an​ ​area​ ​of​ ​higher​ ​to​ ​lower​ ​concentration
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Membrane​ ​not​ ​required,​ ​simply​ ​just​ ​the
movement​ ​due​ ​to​ ​the​ ​concentration​ ​gradient
...


Imagine​ ​a​ ​droplet​ ​of​ ​dye​ ​dropped​ ​into​ ​a​ ​glass
of​ ​water
...


Plants​ ​use​ ​this​ ​principle​ ​to​ ​maintain​ ​rigidity
by​ ​filling​ ​its​ ​vacuole​ ​to​ ​fill​ ​the​ ​entirety​ ​of​ ​the
cell​ ​wall​ ​(turgor​ ​pressure)
...
1

2
...
​ ​These
tissues​ ​are​ ​formed​ ​by​ ​groups​ ​of​ ​specialized​ ​cells
...

Dermal​ ​tissue​ ​becomes​ ​cells​ ​in​ ​the​ ​outermost​ ​areas​ ​of
the​ ​plant​ ​such​ ​as​ ​epidermal​ ​cells
...
​ ​Additionally,​ ​they​ ​protect​ ​the​ ​inner​ ​tissues​ ​of
the​ ​plant​ ​and​ ​regulate​ ​the​ ​exchanges​ ​of​ ​water​ ​and
gases​ ​between​ ​the​ ​plant​ ​and​ ​its​ ​environment
...

Vascular​ ​tissue​ ​does​ ​one​ ​of​ ​the​ ​more​ ​important​ ​jobs​ ​in​ ​the​ ​plant,​ ​that​ ​being
the​ ​transportations​ ​of​ ​water,​ ​nutrients,​ ​and​ ​sugars​ ​throughout​ ​the​ ​plant
...


Meristematic​ ​cells
Meristematic​ ​cells,​ ​or​ ​meristem,​ ​are​ ​unspecialized​ ​plant​ ​cells​ ​that​ ​give
rise​ ​to​ ​a​ ​specific​ ​specialized​ ​cell
...

Meristematic​ ​cells​ ​can​ ​become​ ​three​ ​kinds​ ​of​ ​tissues:​ ​dermal​ ​tissue,
ground​ ​tissue,​ ​and​ ​vascular​ ​tissue
...

Meristematic​ ​cells​ ​are​ ​either​ ​located​ ​at​ ​the​ ​tip​ ​of​ ​plant​ ​shoots​ ​and​ ​roots,
or​ ​they​ ​are​ ​located​ ​laterally
...
​ ​The​ ​most​ ​active​ ​growth​ ​occurs​ ​near​ ​the​ ​terminal​ ​bud,​ ​while
the​ ​lateral​ ​buds​ ​are​ ​inactive​ ​but​ ​have​ ​the​ ​potential​ ​to​ ​produce​ ​new​ ​branches,​ ​leaves,​ ​and
flowers
...
​ ​Cell​ ​differentiation​ ​is​ ​the​ ​process​ ​that​ ​a​ ​cell​ ​undergoes​ ​to
acquire​ ​that​ ​specialization
...

Cell​ ​differentiation​ ​is​ ​the​ ​process​ ​of​ ​turning​ ​undifferentiated​ ​(stem)​ ​cells​ ​into​ ​specialised​ ​cells
...

Textbook:
Cell​ ​specialization​ ​-​ ​the​ ​process​​ ​by​ ​which​ ​cells​ ​develop​ ​from​ ​similar​ ​cell​s​ ​into​ ​cells​ ​that​ ​have
specific​ ​functions​ ​within​ ​a​ ​multicellular​ ​organism
...
​ ​This​ ​hormone​ ​shuts​ ​down​ ​the​ ​development​ ​of​ ​cells​ ​in​ ​lateral​ ​buds
...
​ ​However,​ ​when​ ​the​ ​terminal​ ​bud​ ​is​ ​removed
(which​ ​happens​ ​naturally​ ​when​ ​a​ ​moose​ ​or​ ​deer​ ​nibbles​ ​the​ ​top​ ​branches),​ ​this​ ​suppressing
hormone​ ​is​ ​removed,​ ​and​ ​so​ ​the​ ​plant​ ​will​ ​start​ ​growing​ ​laterally​ ​and​ ​outwards
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Functions​ ​of​ ​Plant​ ​Cells

Leaf​ ​cells:
❖ Upper​ ​Surface
➢ Cuticle
■ Secreted​ ​by​ ​the​ ​epidermis
■ Waxy
■ Reduce​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​that​ ​evaporates​ ​from​ ​the​ ​leaf’s​ ​surface
➢ Epidermis
■ Protects​ ​the​ ​leaf
■ Does​ ​not​ ​perform​ ​photosynthesis
■ Sunlight​ ​passes​ ​through​ ​them​ ​to​ ​the​ ​photosynthesising​ ​palisade​ ​cells
❖ Mesophyll​ ​Tissue
➢ Palisade​ ​Tissue
■ Specialized​ ​to​ ​perform​ ​most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​photosynthesis​ ​in​ ​the​ ​leaf
■ Arranged​ ​in​ ​lines​ ​that​ ​resemble​ ​long​ ​poles​ ​side​ ​by​ ​side
■ Tops​ ​of​ ​cells​ ​meet​ ​the​ ​sunrays,​ ​so​ ​the​ ​rays​ ​pass​ ​through​ ​the​ ​length​ ​of​ ​the
cell
■ Packed​ ​with​ ​mitochondria​ ​for​ ​cellular​ ​respiration
➢ Spongy​ ​Parenchyma
■ Loosely​ ​packed​ ​cells​ ​-​ ​form​ ​a​ ​network​ ​with​ ​spaces​ ​in​ ​between

 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Stores​ ​gases​ ​produced​ ​and​ ​required​ ​by​ ​the​ ​leaf​ ​e
...
​ ​Water​ ​Vapour,
Carbon​ ​Dioxide,​ ​and​ ​Oxygen
➢ Vascular​ ​bundles
■ Made​ ​of​ ​xylem​ ​and​ ​phloem
■ Form​ ​veins​ ​that​ ​go​ ​through​ ​the​ ​plant​ ​at​ ​regular​ ​intervals,​ ​kind​ ​of​ ​like​ ​a
salt​ ​shaker
■ The​ ​tips​ ​of​ ​these​ ​vascular​ ​tissues​ ​meet​ ​the​ ​open​ ​spaces​ ​in​ ​the
parenchyma​ ​tissue,​ ​where​ ​they​ ​drop​ ​off​ ​water​ ​and​ ​sugars​ ​or​ ​intake
sugars
...
​ ​Most​ ​plants​ ​perform​ ​photosynthesis​ ​to​ ​survive​ ​on​ ​a
daily​ ​basis
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Organs​ ​of​ ​plants
The​ ​Leaf:
The​ ​job​ ​of​ ​the​ ​leaf​ ​is​ ​to​ ​use​ ​its​ ​large​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​to​ ​perform​ ​photosynthesis​ ​and​ ​generate​ ​loads
of​ ​glucose​ ​using​ ​the​ ​energy​ ​of​ ​the​ ​sun,​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide,​ ​and​ ​water
...
​ ​The​ ​stem
contains​ ​most​ ​of​ ​the​ ​plant’s​ ​xylem​ ​tissues
...

They​ ​can​ ​also​ ​act​ ​as​ ​a​ ​storage​ ​area​ ​in​ ​some​ ​plants
...
​ ​The​ ​flower​ ​itself​ ​does​ ​not​ ​partake​ ​in
any​ ​self-maintenance
...
​ ​Most​ ​plants​ ​pollinate​ ​and​ ​are​ ​pollinated​ ​through
external​ ​forces​ ​such​ ​as​ ​the​ ​wind​ ​or​ ​insects
...
​ ​This​ ​anchors​ ​the​ ​plant​ ​firmly
into​ ​the​ ​ground
...

● a​ ​single​ ​tap​ ​root​ ​plant​ ​can​ ​easily​ ​be​ ​pulled​ ​out​ ​of​ ​the​ ​ground​ ​by​ ​strong
winds​ ​or​ ​animals​ ​(humans​ ​included)
Plants​ ​with​ ​fibrous​ ​roots​,​ ​however,​ ​spread​ ​horizontally​ ​with​ ​no​ ​main
root
...

Benefits:

 
●
●
●
Cons:
●
●

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

more​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​allows​ ​more​ ​absorption​ ​of​ ​more​ ​nutrients
large​ ​tangle​ ​of​ ​roots​ ​means​ ​the​ ​plant​ ​is​ ​harder​ ​to​ ​uproot
falling​ ​foliage​ ​supplies​ ​fresh​ ​nutrition
cannot​ ​reach​ ​the​ ​nutrients​ ​deeper​ ​in​ ​the​ ​ground
more​ ​competition​ ​for​ ​resources
○ e
...
​ ​two​ ​large​ ​plants/trees​ ​can’t​ ​grow​ ​next​ ​to​ ​each​ ​other​ ​(and​ ​survive)

Plant​ ​Viruses​ ​and​ ​Galls​ ​(their​ ​causes​ ​and​ ​differences​ ​from​ ​human​ ​tumours)
Plants​ ​can​ ​also​ ​be​ ​susceptible​ ​to​ ​viruses​ ​as​ ​well​ ​(LINK)
...
​ ​Others,​ ​such​ ​as​ ​tobacco​ ​mosaic​ ​virus
(TMV,​ ​right),​ ​are​ ​extremely​ ​destructive​ ​and​ ​often​ ​lowers​ ​the
yields​ ​of​ ​the​ ​plants
...

Galls:​ ​an​ ​abnormal​ ​growth​ ​of​ ​plant​ ​tissue​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​insects​ ​or​ ​microorganisms
(LINK)​
...
​ ​Plants​ ​produce​ ​galls​ ​in​ ​response​ ​to​ ​outside​ ​forces​ ​(insects,​ ​fungi,
bacteria,​ ​viruses,​ ​etc
...
​ ​The​ ​tree​ ​is​ ​injected​ ​with​ ​a​ ​chemical​ ​from​ ​the​ ​insect​ ​that
changes​ ​the​ ​genes​ ​of​ ​the​ ​plants​ ​(which​ ​genes​ ​are​ ​turned​ ​on​ ​and​ ​which​ ​are​ ​turned​ ​off)
...


Pollination​ ​and​ ​Fertilization
Pollination​ ​is​ ​the​ ​act​ ​of​ ​transferring​ ​pollen​ ​from​ ​the​ ​male​ ​parts​ ​of​ ​a​ ​flower​ ​(the​ ​anther)​ ​to​ ​the
female​ ​parts​ ​of​ ​the​ ​flower​ ​(this​ ​is​ ​the​ ​stigma​ ​in​ ​the​ ​first​ ​instance)
...
​ ​This​ ​cell​ ​will​ ​then​ ​divide​ ​to​ ​form​ ​an​ ​embryo​ ​and​ ​ultimately,​ ​if​ ​all​ ​goes​ ​well,​ ​a​ ​new
individual​ ​of​ ​that​ ​organism
...
​ ​You​ ​should​ ​note​ ​that​ ​many​ ​types​ ​of​ ​plants​ ​do​ ​not​ ​produce​ ​pollen,​ ​although
they​ ​may​ ​still​ ​reproduce​ ​sexually,​ ​in​ ​which​ ​case​ ​pollination​ ​ ​does​ ​not​ ​occur,​ ​but​ ​fertilisation
does
...
​ ​Fertilization​ ​is​ ​when​ ​the
male​ ​and​ ​female​ ​(gamete)​ ​reproductive​ ​cells​ ​unite​ ​to​ ​form​ ​a​ ​zygote
...
​ ​Its​ ​job​ ​is​ ​to​ ​take​ ​in​ ​water​ ​and
minerals​ ​from​ ​the​ ​ground
...


Shoot​ ​system:
The​ ​shoot​ ​system​ ​is​ ​responsible​ ​for​ ​providing​ ​support​ ​to​ ​the​ ​plant
...


Transport​ ​of​ ​sap
The​ ​shoot​ ​system​ ​transports​ ​the​ ​sap
...
​ ​The​ ​sap​ ​(which​ ​contains​ ​sugar​ ​converted​ ​from​ ​starch)
moves​ ​up​ ​through​ ​the​ ​phloem​ ​or​ ​xylem​ ​to​ ​where​ ​they​ ​are​ ​needed
...
​ ​The​ ​water​ ​then​ ​travels
through​ ​the​ ​cells​ ​or​ ​through​ ​the​ ​spaces​ ​surrounding​ ​the​ ​cells​ ​until​ ​they​ ​reach​ ​the​ ​endodermis,
which​ ​is​ ​surrounded​ ​by​ ​a​ ​waterproof​ ​substance​ ​that​ ​stops​ ​water​ ​from​ ​passing​ ​in​ ​between​ ​its

 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

cells
...
​ ​Once​ ​through,​ ​the​ ​water​ ​and​ ​nutrients​ ​travel​ ​up​ ​the​ ​xylem​ ​vessels​ ​to​ ​the​ ​leaves
up​ ​above
...
​ ​Then,​ ​the
process​ ​used​ ​changes​ ​to​ ​transpiration
...
​ ​This​ ​exerts​ ​a​ ​pull​ ​on​ ​the​ ​water
column​ ​inside​ ​the​ ​xylem​ ​and​ ​moves​ ​water​ ​from​ ​farther​ ​down​ ​the​ ​tree​ ​upwards​ ​to​ ​the​ ​leaves
...
​ ​When​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​large
amount​ ​of​ ​water​ ​in​ ​the​ ​leaf,​ ​the​ ​stomata​ ​open​ ​and​ ​transpiration​ ​increases,​ ​and​ ​vice​ ​versa
...
​ ​The​ ​water​ ​stays​ ​together​ ​because​ ​of​ ​two​ ​main
factors:​ ​adhesion​ ​and​ ​cohesion
...
​ ​In​ ​water,​ ​molecules​ ​are​ ​attracted,​ ​positive​ ​to​ ​negative​ ​(hydrogen​ ​to​ ​oxygen),​ ​and​ ​this
electric​ ​attraction​ ​causes​ ​surface​ ​tension​ ​and​ ​the​ ​two​ ​phenomena​ ​below
...

○ i
...
​ ​coherent:​ ​united,​ ​consistent
● The​ ​force​ ​of​ ​adhesion​ ​causes​ ​water​ ​to​ ​stick​ ​to​ ​the​ ​walls​ ​of​ ​the​ ​xylem​ ​for​ ​the​ ​same​ ​reason,
water​ ​is​ ​attracted​ ​to​ ​the​ ​molecules​ ​of​ ​the​ ​cell​ ​walls​ ​of​ ​the​ ​xylem
...
e
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

Chapter​ ​3:​ ​Animals
3
...
2

3
...
g
...
​ ​The
walls​ ​of​ ​arteries​ ​are​ ​thick​ ​so​ ​that​ ​they​ ​can
withstand​ ​the​ ​pressure​ ​of​ ​the​ ​heart​ ​pumping
blood
...
​ ​The​ ​walls​ ​of​ ​the​ ​veins​ ​are​ ​thinner,
as​ ​the​ ​pressure​ ​is​ ​not​ ​as​ ​high
...

Capillaries​ ​are​ ​the​ ​smallest​ ​of​ ​the​ ​body's​ ​blood​ ​vessels
...
​ ​They​ ​also​ ​collect​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​waste​ ​materials​ ​and
fluids​ ​for​ ​return​ ​to​ ​the​ ​veins
...
​ ​It​ ​can​ ​only

 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

type​ ​or​ ​organ​ ​type

divide​ ​into​ ​itself
...


Stem​ ​cell​ ​research
​ ​This​ ​type​ ​of​ ​research​ ​is​ ​highly​ ​controversial​ ​as​ ​it​ ​is​ ​often​ ​required​ ​for​ ​it​ ​to​ ​be​ ​done​ ​using
embryonic​ ​stem​ ​cells
...
​ ​However,
recent​ ​research​ ​has​ ​shown​ ​that​ ​adult​ ​stem​ ​cells​ ​can​ ​be​ ​induced​ ​to​ ​become​ ​totipotent​ ​cells,​ ​thus
allowing​ ​research​ ​to​ ​be​ ​conducted​ ​without​ ​embryonic​ ​stem​ ​cells
...


Scanning​ ​Technologies
Type

Technology

X-ray

-

Produced​ ​by​ ​transmitting
electromagnetic​ ​radiation
through​ ​the​ ​body,​ ​X​ ​rays​ ​go
through​ ​soft​ ​tissue​ ​and​ ​thus
hard​ ​tissue​ ​will​ ​be​ ​shown
through​ ​contrast
...
​ ​It​ ​also​ ​includes​ ​public​ ​health
strategies,​ ​which​ ​are​ ​co-ordinated​ ​efforts​ ​to​ ​reduce​ ​the​ ​incidence​ ​of​ ​various​ ​health​ ​problems
...


What​ ​are​ ​vaccinations?
Vaccinations​ ​are​ ​the​ ​process​ ​by​ ​which​ ​vaccines​ ​are​ ​given​ ​by​ ​mouth​ ​or​ ​injection​ ​to​ ​provide​ ​active
immunity​ ​against​ ​a​ ​disease
...
​ ​Active​ ​immunity​ ​is​ ​the​ ​creation​ ​of​ ​antibodies​ ​because​ ​of​ ​the​ ​exposure​ ​to
a​ ​pathogen
...
g
...
coli)
...
​ ​However,​ ​if​ ​a​ ​pathogen​ ​does​ ​enter​ ​your​ ​body,​ ​the
immune​ ​system​ ​then​ ​tries​ ​to​ ​attack​ ​and​ ​destroy​ ​the​ ​invader
...
​ ​This​ ​causes​ ​inflammation
...
​ ​Any​ ​material​ ​that​ ​the​ ​body
considers​ ​foreign​ ​and​ ​that​ ​stimulates​ ​this​ ​response​ ​is​ ​called​ ​an​ antigen​
...
​ ​White
blood​ ​cells​ ​and​ ​other​ ​disease​ ​fighting​ ​molecules​ ​are​ ​manufactured​ ​in​ ​the​ ​bone​ ​marrow
...
​ ​Each​ ​antibody​ ​identifies​ ​and
attaches​ ​to​ ​a​ ​specific​ ​antigen
...


Examples​ ​of​ ​infectious​ ​diseases
SARS​ ​(Severe​ ​Acute​ ​Respiratory​ ​Syndrome)​ ​entered​ ​Canada​ ​in​ ​2003
...
​ ​It​ ​is​ ​easily​ ​transferred
through​ ​the​ ​air,​ ​and​ ​does​ ​not​ ​have​ ​vaccination​ ​available
...

AIDS​ ​(Acquired​ ​Immune​ ​Deficiency​ ​Syndrome)​ ​is​ ​caused​ ​by​ HIV​ ​(Human​ ​Immunodeficiency
​
Virus),​ ​which​ ​attacks​ ​the​ ​immune​ ​system​ ​itself
...


 

Created​ ​by​ ​Lartiel​ ​Pants​ ​Wontercorporated​™ 

West​ ​Nile​ ​Virus​ ​is​ ​a​ ​virus​ ​that​ ​is​ ​spread​ ​by​ ​mosquitoes
...
​ ​The​ ​Public​ ​Health​ ​Agency​ ​of​ ​Canada​ ​now
coordinates​ ​a​ ​strategy​ ​to​ ​reduce​ ​people’s​ ​exposure​ ​to​ ​the​ ​virus,​ ​by​ ​identifying​ ​the​ ​presence​ ​of
the​ ​disease​ ​and​ ​informing​ ​the​ ​public
...

Clearly, one of best ways to prevent cancer is to avoid the substances and situations ( ͡° ͜ʖ ͡°)
that​ ​cause​ ​cells​ ​to​ ​mutate​ ​in​ ​this​ ​way
...
​ ​For​ ​example,​ ​people​ ​did​ ​not​ ​know​ ​for​ ​a​ ​long​ ​time​ ​that​ ​asbestos​ ​was​ ​carcinogenic
...

Other​ ​causes​ ​of​ ​cancer​ ​are​ ​not​ ​known​ ​and​ ​so​ ​cannot​ ​be​ ​avoided
...
​ ​They​ ​are​ ​tests​ ​used​ ​to​ ​detect​ ​cancer​ ​cells​ ​at​ ​an​ ​early​ ​stage​ ​of
the​ ​disease​ ​so​ ​that​ ​it​ ​can​ ​be​ ​treated​ ​more​ ​effectively
...
​ ​For​ ​how​ ​long?​ ​I​ ​don’t​ ​know
...
​ ​By​ ​removing​ ​some​ ​cervical​ ​cells​ ​using​ ​the
technique​ ​called​ ​PAP​ ​smear,​ ​the​ ​cells​ ​can​ ​be​ ​examined​ ​for​ ​abnormalities​ ​that​ ​might​ ​indicate​ ​the
presence​ ​of​ ​cancer
...




---