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Science
● Physical​ ​and​ ​chemical​ ​changes
Physical​ ​Changes
- No​ ​new​ ​chemicals​ ​are​ ​formed
- Chemical​ ​makeup​ ​is​ ​the​ ​same​ ​but​ ​the​ ​appearance​ ​looks​ ​different
- Change​ ​in​ ​size,​ ​shape​ ​or​ ​state
- Easily​ ​reversed​ ​e
...
​ ​Water​ ​can​ ​be​ ​frozen​ ​into​ ​ice,​ ​it​ ​can​ ​also​ ​be​ ​turned​ ​back​ ​into​ ​a​ ​liquid
- Affects​ ​the​ ​state​ ​of​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​but​ ​not​ ​its​ ​chemical​ ​composition
- Reversible
Chemical​ ​Changes
- Chemical​ ​change​ ​–​ ​produces​ ​a​ ​new​ ​substance,​ ​generally​ ​not​ ​reversible​ ​since​ ​chemical​ ​bonds
are​ ​formed​ ​or​ ​broken
...
g
...

- Results​ ​in​ ​the​ ​formation​ ​of​ ​at​ ​least​ ​one​ ​new​ ​substance
Signs​ ​of​ ​chemical​ ​change:
- Size
- Changes​ ​in​ ​smell
- Heat​ ​released
- Change​ ​in​ ​colour
- Change​ ​of​ ​state​ ​(can’t​ ​be​ ​reversed)
- Cloudy​ ​substance
- Noise
- Precipitation
● Exothermic/endothermic​ ​reactions​ ​and​ ​combustion/corrosion​ ​reactions
Exothermic​ ​Reaction​ ​-​ ​chemical​ ​reaction​ ​that​ ​releases​​ ​energy​ ​by​ ​light​ ​or​ ​heat
Endothermic​ ​Reaction​ ​-​ ​any​ ​chemical​ ​reaction​ ​that​ absorbs​​ ​heat​ ​from​ ​the​ ​environment
​
-​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Combustion​ ​=​ ​a​ ​high​ ​temperature​ ​chemical​ ​reaction​ ​in​ ​which​ ​fuel​ ​(e
...
​ ​methane)​ ​reacts​ ​with
oxidant​ ​and​ ​produces​ ​heat​ ​and​ ​light
...
g
...

These​ ​occur​ ​because​ ​the​ ​reactant​ ​carbon​ ​has​ ​not​ ​been​ ​chemically​ ​combined​ ​with
oxygen
-​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​Complete​ ​combustion:
o​ ​ ​ ​Occurs​ ​when​ ​there​ ​is​ ​a​ ​constant​ ​and​ ​adequate​ ​supply​ ​of​ ​oxygen​ ​and​ ​sufficient
temperature
o​ ​ ​ ​Limited​ ​number​ ​of​ ​products​ ​are​ ​released
o​ ​ ​ ​Release​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide,​ ​water​ ​and​ ​energy

Corrosion​ ​(rusting​ ​of​ ​a​ ​refined​ ​metal)
o​ ​ ​ ​Deterioration​ ​of​ ​a​ ​metal​ ​as​ ​a​ ​result​ ​of​ ​the​ ​chemical​ ​reactions​ ​between​ ​it​ ​and​ ​the
surrounding​ ​environment
o​ ​ ​ ​E
...
​ ​Iron​ ​reacts​ ​with​ ​water​ ​and​ ​oxygen​ ​to​ ​form​ ​a​ ​new​ ​chemical​ ​on​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​of​ ​the
metal​ ​called​ ​iron​ ​oxide
​ ​Word​ ​equations:
Complete​ ​=​ ​hydrocarbon​ ​+​ ​oxygen​ ​→​ ​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​+​ ​water
CH4​ ​+​ ​O2​ ​→​ ​CO2​ ​+​ ​H2O
Incomplete​ ​=​ ​hydrocarbon​ ​+​ ​oxygen​ ​→​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​+​ ​water​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​monoxide​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​(soot)
CH4​ ​+​ ​O2​ ​→​ ​CO2​ ​+​ ​H2O​ ​+​ ​CO​ ​+​ ​C
Corrosion​ ​=​ ​iron​ ​+​ ​oxygen​ ​→​ ​ ​iron​ ​oxide​ ​(rust)
-

●
●
-

Conservation​ ​of​ ​Mass
Law​ ​of​ ​conservation​ ​of​ ​mass​ ​states​ ​that​ ​mass​ ​can​ ​neither​ ​be​ ​created​ ​nor​ ​destroyed​ ​in​ ​a
chemical​ ​reaction
But​ ​can​ ​change​ ​from​ ​one​ ​form​ ​to​ ​another
Matter​ ​is​ ​therefore​ ​neither​ ​created​ ​nor​ ​destroyed,​ ​just​ ​transformed​ ​into​ ​different​ ​forms
Recall​ ​to​ ​prac​ ​same​ ​grams​ ​before​ ​and​ ​after​ ​the​ ​chemical​ ​reaction
MASS​ ​DOESN'T​ ​CHANGE​ ​DURING​ ​A​ ​CHEMICAL​ ​REACTION
Atom​ ​Structure
All​ ​matter​ ​is​ ​made​ ​of​ ​atoms
In​ ​a​ ​chemical​ ​reaction​ ​there​ ​is​ ​no​ ​loss​ ​or​ ​gain​ ​of​ ​atoms
Basis​ ​of​ ​everything​ ​in​ ​the​ ​universe
Made​ ​up​ ​of​ ​a​ ​nucleus​ ​and​ ​electron​ ​shells
Protons​ ​and​ ​neutrons​ ​are​ ​in​ ​the​ ​nucleus
Electrons​ ​surround​ ​the​ ​nucleus

Charges:
-

Proton​ ​=​ ​Positive​ ​(+)
Neutrons​ ​=​ ​Neutral
Electrons​ ​=​ ​Negative​ ​(-)

-

Number​ ​of​ ​protons​ ​in​ ​an​ ​atom​ ​is​ ​called​ ​the​ ​atomic​ ​number
E
...
​ ​Oxygen​ ​has​ ​an​ ​atomic​ ​number​ ​of​ ​8​ ​(and​ ​is​ ​the​ ​8th​ ​on​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table)​ ​because​ ​it
has​ ​8​ ​protons
...
”​ ​Atoms
are​ ​like​ ​plum
puddings,​ ​with
positive​ ​protons
and​ ​negative
electrons
embedded​ ​in​ ​a
sphere
...

Neutrons​ ​have​ ​no
electrical​ ​charge
and​ ​the​ ​same
mass​ ​as​ ​protons

Organisation​ ​of​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table​ ​(group​ ​and​ ​period​ ​number​ ​and​ ​the​ ​electron​ ​con
guration)​ ​1st​ ​20​ ​elements
Period​ ​number​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​the​ ​ROW​ ​of​ ​the​ ​periodic​ ​table​ ​and​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electron​ ​shells
Group​ ​number​ ​is​ ​related​ ​to​ ​the​ ​number​ ​of​ ​electrons​ ​in​ ​the​ ​outermost​ ​shell
P​ ​=​ ​R​ ​(period​ ​=​ ​row,​ ​going​ ​across)
G​ ​=​ ​C​ ​(group​ ​=​ ​column,​ ​going​ ​down)

RULE:
● First​ ​shell​ ​maximum​ ​of​ ​two​ ​electrons
● Second​ ​shell​ ​maximum​ ​of​ ​8​ ​electrons
● Third​ ​shell​ ​maximum​ ​of​ ​8​ ​electrons​ ​for​ ​the​ ​first​ ​20​ ​elements
EXAMPLE:

Neutralisation​ ​reactions:​ ​Acid​ ​+​ ​Base​ ​=>​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water​ ​and​ ​Acid​ ​+​ ​Metal​ ​Oxide​ ​=>
salt​ ​+​ ​water
Acid​ ​base​ ​reaction:
Acid​ ​+​ ​base​ ​→​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water
Acid​ ​+​ ​metallic​ ​oxide​ ​→​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water
Acid​ ​+​ ​carbonate​ ​→​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​gas
Acid​ ​+​ ​bicarbonate​ ​→​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide​ ​gas
- Neutralisation​ ​is​ ​a​ ​reaction​ ​in​ ​which​ ​an​ ​acid​ ​and​ ​a​ ​base​ ​cancel​ ​each​ ​other​ ​out​ ​to​ ​form​ ​a
salt​ ​and​ ​water
- To​ ​neutralise​ ​an​ ​acid​ ​you​ ​add​ ​a​ ​base,​ ​and​ ​to​ ​neutralise​ ​a​ ​base​ ​you​ ​add​ ​an​ ​acid
- Acid​ ​+​ ​base​ ​→​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water
- In​ ​the​ ​process​ ​of​ ​neutralisation,​ ​a​ ​chemical​ ​change​ ​may​ ​occur
- Acids​ ​and​ ​bases​ ​cancel​ ​eachother​ ​out​ ​to​ ​form​ ​salt​ ​and​ ​water
●

Acid

Group​ ​of​ ​Salts​ ​Produced​ ​by​ ​this​ ​Acid

Sulfuric

Sulfates

Hydrochloric

Chlorides

Nitric

Nitrates

Hydrofluoric

Fluorides

Carbonic

Carbonates

Phosphoric

Phosphates

● Products​ ​from​ ​chemical​ ​reactions:​ ​metal​ ​+​ ​acid,​ ​acid​ ​+​ ​base,​ ​acid​ ​+​ ​carbonate
Metal​ ​+​ ​acid:
Metal​ ​oxide​ ​+​ ​acid​ ​→​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water
Copper​ ​oxide​ ​+​ ​hydrochloric​ ​acid​ ​→​ ​copper​ ​chloride​ ​+​ ​water​ ​(metallic​ ​oxide)
- Remember:​ ​salt​ ​+​ ​water​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide
Acid​ ​+​ ​bicarbonate:
Tin​ ​bicarbonate​ ​+​ ​nitric​ ​acid​ ​→​ ​tin​ ​nitrate​ ​+​ ​water​ ​+​ ​carbon​ ​dioxide
Decomposition​ ​reaction:
A​ ​single​ ​compound​ ​breaks​ ​down​ ​into​ ​2​ ​or​ ​more​ ​elements
E
...
​ ​2H20​ ​→​ ​H2​ ​+​ ​02

Paddle​ ​pop​ ​stick​ ​prac:
Hydrogen​ ​test

Oxygen​ ​test

Lit​ ​splint​ ​→​ ​makes​ ​a​ ​popping​ ​sound

Lit​ ​splint​ ​→​ ​reignites​ ​the​ ​fire​ ​-​ ​stronger

● Precipitation​ ​reactions,​ ​solubility
Solubility​ ​-​ ​level​ ​by​ ​which​ ​two​ ​or​ ​more​ ​solutions​ ​dissolve​ ​completely​ ​when​ ​being​ ​mixed
Precipitation​ ​reactions​ ​-​ ​occur​ ​when​ ​positive​ ​and​ ​negative​ ​ion​ ​in​ ​aqueous​ ​solution​ ​(solvent​ ​=
water)​ ​combine​ ​to​ ​form​ ​an​ ​insoluble​ ​ionic​ ​solid​ ​called​ ​a​ ​precipitate
Precipitation​ ​→​ ​reacts​ ​to​ ​form​ ​an​ ​insoluble​ ​solid​ ​called​ ​a​ ​precipitate
E
...
​ ​Copper​ ​sulfate​ ​+​ ​magnesium​ ​chloride​ ​(SWAP​ ​THE​ ​LAST​ ​NAMES)
Copper​ ​CHLORIDE​ ​+​ ​magnesium​ ​SULFATE

●
Alkali
Acid
-

Acids​ ​and​ ​bases​ ​(common​ ​properties​ ​of​ ​each)​ ​and​ ​pH​ ​scale​ ​and​ ​indicators
Alkalis​ ​is​ ​a​ ​base​ ​that​ ​is​ ​soluble​ ​in​ ​water​ ​(can​ ​dissolve)
Strong​ ​Alkali​ ​can​ ​cause​ ​chemical​ ​burns
Alkali​ ​feels​ ​slippery​ ​or​ ​like​ ​soap​ ​when​ ​you​ ​touch​ ​it
Acids​ ​can​ ​react​ ​with​ ​a​ ​base
Acids​ ​have​ ​a​ ​sour​ ​taste
Acids​ ​contain​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​an​ ​oxide

PROPERTIES:

ACIDS:

BASES:

PH

Less​ ​than​ ​7

Greater​ ​than​ ​7

TASTE

Sour

Bitter

IN​ ​SOLUTION
DISSOCIATES​ ​INTO

H+​ ​ions

OH-​ ​ions

COLOUR​ ​ON​ ​LITMUS
PAPER

Red

Blue

COMMON​ ​EXAMPLES

Acetic​ ​acid​ ​-​ ​vinegar
Carbonic​ ​acid​ ​-​ ​soda
Hydrochloric​ ​acid​ ​-​ ​stomach
acid

Sodium​ ​bicarbonate​ ​-​ ​baking
soda
Sodium​ ​hypochlorite​ ​-​ ​bleach
Aluminium​ ​hydroxide​ ​deodorant

H​ ​(hydrogen)​ ​ions​ ​=​ ​acidic
OH​ ​(hydroxide)​ ​ions​ ​=​ ​basic
Indicators:
- Phendophthalein
- Universal​ ​Indicator
- Methyl​ ​Orange
- Blue​ ​Litmus​ ​Paper
- Red​ ​Litmus​ ​Paper
PH​ ​Indicator:
- Ph​ ​is​ ​a​ ​measure​ ​of​ ​how​ ​many​ ​H​ ​(hydrogens)​ ​and​ ​OH​ ​(hydroxide)​ ​ions​ ​there​ ​are​ ​in​ ​a
solution
- If​ ​there​ ​are​ ​lots​ ​of​ ​H​ ​ions​ ​the​ ​substances​ ​is​ ​acidic​ ​and​ ​if​ ​there​ ​are​ ​lots​ ​of​ ​OH​ ​ions​ ​the
solution​ ​is​ ​basic
- So,​ ​water​ ​being​ ​neutral​ ​has​ ​equal​ ​hydrogen​ ​and​ ​hydroxide​ ​ions
●
-

Word​ ​equations​ ​-​ ​reactants​ ​and​ ​products
Chemists​ ​use​ ​a​ ​certain​ ​set​ ​of​ ​conventions​ ​(or​ ​rules)​ ​to​ ​write​ ​chemical​ ​equations
...

An​ ​arrow​ ​is​ ​drawn​ ​from​ ​the​ ​reactants​ ​to​ ​the​ ​products
...


● Factors​ ​affecting​ ​rates​ ​of​ ​reactions
Surface​ ​Area:
- The​ ​larger​ ​the​ ​surface​ ​area,​ ​the​ ​faster​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​reaction​ ​(increasing​ ​surface​ ​area​ ​of
solid​ ​reactant)
- If​ ​a​ ​substance​ ​is​ ​cut​ ​into​ ​smaller​ ​pieces​ ​or​ ​in​ ​a​ ​powder,​ ​more​ ​particles​ ​are​ ​exposed​ ​to
the​ ​other​ ​reactant
Temperature:
- The​ ​higher​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​the​ ​faster​ ​the​ ​rate​ ​of​ ​reaction
- Increasing​ ​the​ ​temperature​ ​increases​ ​reaction​ ​rates​ ​because​ ​of​ ​the​ ​increase​ ​in​ ​the
number​ ​of​ ​high​ ​energy​ ​collisions
...

Mercury,​ ​Venus,​ ​Earth,​ ​Mars,​ ​Jupiter,​ ​Saturn,​ ​Uranus​ ​and​ ​Neptune
...

Size​ ​range:​ ​Dwarf​ ​stars,​ ​supergiants

Galaxies

Large​ ​clusters​ ​or​ ​groups​ ​of​ ​stars
...


Nebulae

Cloud​ ​of​ ​dust​ ​parties​ ​and​ ​glow​ ​in​ ​sky​ ​against​ ​stars
...


Asteroids

Rocky​ ​bodies​ ​with​ ​irregular​ ​shapes​ ​with​ ​craters​ ​and​ ​boulders

● Gravity
Mass​ ​is​ ​the​ ​amount​ ​of​ ​matter​ ​an​ ​object​ ​contains
...
​ ​Gravity​ ​is​ ​a​ ​force​ ​that​ ​attracts​ ​objects​ ​to​ ​one​ ​another
...
​ ​Mass​ ​has​ ​a​ ​gravitational​ ​field,​ ​the​ ​force​ ​of​ ​gravity​ ​is​ ​not​ ​the
same​ ​on​ ​every​ ​object
...
7​ ​billion-years-old​ ​(because​ ​of
Hubble's​ ​data)
Revealed​ ​thousands​ ​of​ ​galaxies​ ​(takes​ ​photos)
Responsible​ ​for​ ​discovering​ ​four​ ​of​ ​the​ ​five​ ​moons​ ​that​ ​are​ ​currently​ ​known​ ​to​ ​orbit​ ​the
dwarf​ ​planet​ ​Pluto
Rover
- Mars​ ​Rovers​ ​has​ ​played​ ​a​ ​vital​ ​role​ ​in​ ​our​ ​understanding​ ​the​ ​world​ ​beyond​ ​our​ ​borders
- The​ ​two​ ​rovers​ ​are​ ​called​ ​Spirit​ ​and​ ​Opportunity
- Gives​ ​us​ ​a​ ​better​ ​idea​ ​of​ ​what​ ​to​ ​expect​ ​on​ ​Mars
...
​ ​The​ ​satellite​ ​can
then​ ​send​ ​them​ ​back​ ​down​ ​to​ ​different​ ​spots​ ​on​ ​Earth
...

Astronomers​ ​use​ ​exponential​ ​notation/​ ​astronomical​ ​unit​ ​(AU)​ ​to​ ​describe​ ​a​ ​planet's
distance​ ​from​ ​the​ ​sun
...
​ ​Planets​ ​farther​ ​away​ ​would​ ​have​ ​AU​ ​greater​ ​than​ ​1,
planets​ ​closer​ ​less​ ​than​ ​1
...

Big​ ​Bang​ ​Theory
Started​ ​off​ ​from​ ​an​ ​infinitely​ ​small,​ ​hot​ ​area​ ​of​ ​infinite​ ​pressure​ ​and​ ​density
Not​ ​an​ ​explosion,​ ​more​ ​like​ ​a​ ​balloon​ ​going​ ​from​ ​a​ ​small​ ​size​ ​to​ ​growing
...

- Longer​ ​wavelengths​ ​of​ ​visible​ ​light​ ​are​ ​red​ ​(red​ ​shift)
- Shorter​ ​wavelengths​ ​of​ ​visible​ ​light​ ​are​ ​blue
- The​ ​colour​ ​of​ ​light​ ​can​ ​show​ ​the​ ​speed​ ​and​ ​direction​ ​of​ ​stars​ ​and​ ​galaxies

Evidence​ ​#2:​ ​Cosmic​ ​Microwave​ ​Background​ ​Radiation​ ​(CMB)
- This​ ​is​ ​the​ ​faint​ ​background​ ​radiation​ ​that​ ​astronomers​ ​detect​ ​with​ ​sensitive​ ​radio
telescopes
- Universe​ ​was​ ​initially​ ​foggy​ ​-​ ​from​ ​hot​ ​hydrogen​ ​plasma
- As​ ​the​ ​universe​ ​expanded,​ ​it​ ​cooled,​ ​stable​ ​atoms​ ​formed​ ​and​ ​the​ ​fog​ ​cleared
- The​ ​CMB​ ​is​ ​the​ ​left​ ​over​ ​from​ ​that​ ​initial​ ​fog​ ​-​ ​the​ ​after​ ​glow

-

Infectious​ ​and​ ​noninfectious​ ​diseases
Infectious​​ ​disease​ ​caused​ ​by​ ​microorganisms​ ​that​ ​invade​ ​tissue,​ ​can​ ​be​ ​things​ ​like,
common​ ​cold,​ ​flu,​ ​strep​ ​throat,​ ​stomach​ ​flu​ ​etc
Noninfectious:​ ​a​ ​disease​ ​that​ ​is​ ​not​ ​contagious
...
​ ​Instead,​ ​they​ ​are​ ​likely​ ​to​ ​have​ ​causes​ ​such​ ​as​ ​lifestyle​ ​factors,
environmental​ ​toxins,​ ​or​ ​gene​ ​mutations
...


●

Causes​ ​of​ ​disease​ ​and​ ​pathogen​ ​types

●
-

Pathogen
Viruses

Examples
●
●
●

Image​ ​of​ ​Pathogen

HIV
Flu
Cold

Symptoms
●

●

●

●

Bacteria

●
●
●

Blue-​ ​Green
bacteria
Thermus
Chloroflexi

Blue-green
Bacteria

●
●
●
●

●
●

Treatment

Abdominal
cramps​ ​and
pain
...

Occasional
muscle​ ​aches
or​ ​headache
...


For​ ​most​ ​viral​​ ​infections,
treatments​​ ​can​ ​only​ ​help
with​ ​symptoms​ ​while​ ​you
wait​ ​for​ ​your​ ​immune
system​ ​to​ ​fight​ ​off​ ​the
virus​
...

There​ ​are​ ​antiviral
medicines​ ​to​ ​treat​​ ​some
viral​​ ​infections
...

nausea​ ​and
vomiting
...

abdominal
pains​ ​and
cramps
...

fever
...

Most​ ​Bacterial​ ​diseases
can​ ​be​ ​treated​​ ​with
antibiotics,​ ​although
antibiotic-resistant​ ​strains
are​ ​starting​ ​to​ ​emerge
...


Protozoa

●
●
●

Rhizopoda
Sarcodina
Mycetozoa

Mycetozoa

●

●

Fungi

●
●
●

Eumycota
Microsporidia
Ascomycota

Prions

●

Creutzfeldt-Jakob
Disease​ ​(CJD)
Gerstmann-Sträussl
er-Scheinker
disease​ ​(GSS)
Fatal​ ​Familial
Insomnia​ ​(FFI)

●

●

Ascomycota

Symptoms​ ​depend​ ​on
the​ ​area​ ​affected,​ ​but
can​ ​include​ ​skin​ ​rash
or​ ​vaginal​ ​infection
resulting​ ​in​ ​abnormal
discharge
...

Diarrhea
usually​ ​lasts
1-2​ ​weeks,
whereas
abdominal​ ​pain
can​ ​persist​ ​for
1-2​ ​months
...

Difficulty
walking​ ​and
changes​ ​in
gait
...

Muscle
stiffness
...

Fatigue
...


Nausea
Vomiting
Diaherra

Protozoan​ ​infections​ ​are
parasitic​​ ​diseases​ ​caused
by​ ​organisms​ ​formerly
classified​ ​in​ ​the​ ​Kingdom
Protozoa
...
​ ​Examples
include​ ​Entamoeba
histolytica,​ ​Plasmodium
(some​ ​of​ ​which​ ​cause
malaria),​ ​and​ ​Giardia
lamblia​
...


Antibodies​ ​against​ ​PrP
could​ ​be​ ​one​ ​potential
treatment​​ ​for​ ​prion
diseases
...
​ ​Antibodies​ ​are​ ​no
exception

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