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Lecture #1: The Biopsychosocial Model, Society and Culture
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> use multiple levels of analysis is distinct from the biomedical approach, where disease is studied by
examining only the biological factors of illness
> they neglect the contributing factors of psychological life and sociological context
> psychological processes have an affect on how the individual translates and interprets the biological
processes
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cirrhosis and alcoholism
Biomedical approach- focuses narrowly on the physical aspects of illness
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3 Examcrackers Approach
Just as a physician must consider the multiple aspects of a patient’s life that contribute to health or illness
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4 Models and Theories
Models provide an approximation—a physical or conceptual representation of a scientific phenomenon that
cannot be observed directly
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> validity can be supported by results of research
Associate the “p” shell with a dumbbell shape—> even though there isn't a physical sub-shell
This allows useful and accurate predictions about the formation of ions and bonds
**In other words, models and theories are the stories that we tell about the things that we study
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5 Studying Social Processes
Social constructionism adds to the idea of scientific models as a construction of reality
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> however individuals may have different values
> when immersed in one culture, one may think that is the “right” and natural way to be
Material culture refers to objects involved in a certain way of life
> tools, art, nuts and bolts, to teacups
Non-material culture encompasses the elements of culture that are non-physical
> ideas, knowledge, assumptions and values, religion and superstitions
Shared cultural experiences may be related to geographical area or country of of origin, they create—> social
norms: expectations that govern what behaviour is acceptable within a group
Social group- subset of population that maintains social interactions
> members of certain socioeconomics status
> connected even if they don’t interact

Evolution of culture
Compared to other animals, primates have a large ratio of brain to bodyside, and in humans, this ratio is taken
to the extreme
• Human lineage split from apes approximately 8 million years ago
• Cave art, metal working, urban lifestyle, steam engine, and internet are just a few examples of innovations by
humans in the past 40,000 years
Symbolic culture is a type of non-material culture that consists of the elements of culture that have a meaning
only in the mind
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7 Society, Systems and Structures
Society is defined as two or more individuals living together in a community and/or sharing elements of
culture
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Common examples of social institutions include:
1) Government and economy- government provides order to society through the services it provides
and the laws that it enforces
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> snapshots of a particular moment in life
Demographic transition: demographic change that takes place over time
Fertility: which refers to the production of offspring within a population
> fertility rate- over lifetime (cohort) or # of offspring produced during a specific time period (period
study)
Mortality rate is the death rate within the population, impacts the population size
> maternal care, immunizations etc
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8 Social Inequality
Spatial inequality is the unequal access to resources and variable quality of life within a population or
geographical distribution
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> extinguishing fire in a rural area
Residential segregation is an instance of social inequality on the local scale (due to socioeconomic status)
> location impacts access to transportation

Social Class
> is a system of stratification that groups members of society according to similarities in social standing
Socioeconomic status: SES, which defines the economic and social position of a person in terms of income,
wealth, education, and occupation
1) Privilege has advantages of power and opportunity over those who lack privilege
2) Prestige relative value assigned to something within a particular society
> “upper class” consists of wealthy families, name usually passed down from generation to
generation
> “middle class” members of society who are financially stable but not extremely wealthy
- they have “blue collar” jobs and have access to education
> “lower class” characterized by economic hardship or uncertainty
- lack professional development and/or educational opportunities to stabilize their status
The class system includes fluidity, unlike a caste system, in which hierarchy of society is strictly defined,
position is inherited, and the movement or marriage between castes is prohibited
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Meritocracy- a society in which advancement based solely on the abilities and achievements of the individuals
Cultural capital- refers to the non-monetary social factors that contribute to social mobility
> how an individual “fits in”
Social capital- an individual’s social networks and connections that may confer economic and or personal
benefits
> “who you know?”
The transmission of social inequality to from one generation to another is social reproduction
Poverty is an insufficiency of material goods, monetary wealth, and access to resources
> the lack of access is called isolation or social exclusion
Absolute poverty- describes the lack of essential resources such as food, shelter, clothing, and hygiene
Relative poverty- by contrast, describes social inequality in which people are relatively poor compared to other
members of society in which they live
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1 Introduction
This lecture will examine the motivations, effects, and social influences of human behaviour as well as the
process through which behavioural patterns are learned, changed or reinforced
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2 Learning
Behaviour is the foundation of social interaction, and is central to understanding humans as social animals
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> e
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dog salivating when the food is
presented= unconditioned response from an
unconditioned stimulus
> e
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food plate is a neutral stimulus and can
become conditioned stimulus (learned and becomes a
conditioned response)
***Pavlov’s studies showed that dogs are capable of
learning a new behaviour through the association of of one stimulus with another—> Acquisition
The reappearance of of conditioned response after a period of lessened response is called spontaneous
recovery
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The learned lack of response to a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus is known as stimulus
discrimination
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> Example: Whenever a rat presses a button, it gets a treat
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Negative reinforcement: occurs when a certain stimulus (usually an aversive stimulus) is removed after a
particular behaviour is exhibited
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> involves presenting an unfavourable outcome or event following an undesirable behaviour
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> involves taking something good or desirable away in order to reduce the occurrence of a particular
behaviour
***reinforcement = behaviour is more likely and punishment = behaviour is less likely
***addition means the addition of the punishment or reinforcement and negative means to take away
Primary reinforcer: relate to the psychological nee; like delivery of food— primary punisher would do
something like expose to extreme temperature
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Escape conditioning: learned behaviour allows the subject to escape the unpleasant stimuli
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Fixed interval

Rewards are provided after a specified 20 seconds after first time
time interval has passed

Variable interval

Rewards to a response are provided
after an unpredictable time interval
has passed

3 minutes after, then 2 minutes after etc
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> partial reinforcement schedule is more resistant to extinction
- gamblers dude
Shaping: shapes a behaviour toward a certain response by reinforcement successive approximations towards
a desired behaviour
Innate behaviours: they are developmentally fixed
> biological imperative of protecting their territory
Cognitive processes: high level brain function to recognize connection between cause and effect
> should also be able to perform new behaviour

Observational Learning
Based on modelling, witnessing another person’s actions
> task oriented; like making easy meals

> most important in childhood
Mirror neurons: specialized neurons fire both when a person is completing an action and when the person
observes someone else competing the same action
> learn imitation
Vicarious emotions: feeling of emotions of other as though they are one’s own- in order to learn from the
success and mistakes of others through observation

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Animal signals- vocalizations (distress call) or the use of visual stimuli, touch and smell for communication
Social behaviour- broadly defined as all interactions taking place between members of the same species
> e
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attraction
> e
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attachment
> e
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social support
Foraging behaviour- gathering/hunting for food, team or individual
> social behaviour can increase forging efficiency
Mating behaviour- the behaviour surrounding propagation of a species through reproduction
> natural selection is a huge force
Mate choice- determined by a number of factors, genetic qualities, overall health and potential parenting skills
Altruism- consists of behaviours that are disadvantages to the individual acting, but confer benefits to other
members of its social groups
Inclusive fitness- describes overall fitness by considering not only the individual’s own progeny, but also the
offspring of its close relatives
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> success based on your and the opponent’s choices

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Impression management- making choices in order to create a specific impression in the minds of others
> dramaturgical approach: ongoing performance to behave a certain way when interacting with different
group of people
> the self is not “fixed”
Front stage self- you are in front of an audience, you know that you are being watched
Back stage self- players are together, but no audience is present

Social Processes that Influence Behaviour
The behaviours of people within groups depend not only on individual desires and intentions, but also on the
dynamics of the group structure
Groupthink- phenomenon where a group’s members tend to think alike and agree for the sake of group
harmony
Group polarization- through the interactions and discussions of the group, the attitude of the group as a
whole toward a particular issue becomes stronger than the attitudes of its individual members
Peer pressure- is the social influence exerted by one’s peers to act in a way that is acceptable or similar to
their own behaviours
Social facilitation- tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched
Bystander effect- where onlookers in a crowd fail to offer assistance to a person who is in trouble because
they assume that someone else will help
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5 Behaviour in Cultural Context
Socialization
Socialization- process by which people learn customs and values of their culture
> create social norms, rules that community members are expected to follow
Agents of socialization- comprised of the groups and people who influence personal attitudes, beliefs and
behaviours
> family, friends, neighbours etc
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6 Prejudice, Bias and Discrimination
Ethnocentrism- belief that one’s group is of central importance
> cultural relativism- trying to understand a culture by and to judge it by its own terms

Stereotype- concept about a group or category of people that includes that belief that all members of that
group share certain characteristics
> institutional vs individual stereotyping
***prejudice based on ideas and and attitudes, discrimination on actions and behaviours

Lecture #3: Identity and the Individual
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> Personality is made up of internal characteristics and behaviour
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2 Personality Theories: One View of the Individual
Personality is most fundamentally the collection of lasting characteristics that makes a person unique
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Openness of experience
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Extraversion
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Neuroticism (OCEAN)
Neuroticism significant contributor to psychological disorders
Twin studies- particularly useful in separating the effects of eugenics and the environment building a picture of
which traits are more closely tied to genetics than others
Psychoanalytical theory- Sigmund Freud, personality is
determined by the flow of psychic energy between three systems
that reside in different levels of consciousness; id, ego and super
ego
> id- most primitive part of personality, which seeks
instant gratification with no consideration for morality or social
norms
> superego- develops later in line through internalization
of society’s rules for moral behaviour, learned through
interactions with caregivers

> ego- direct behaviour in way that balances the demands of the id and the superego
Crucial- the personality is developed outside the conscious awareness
Behaviourist theory- states that personality is constructed by a series of learning experiences that occur
through interactions between the individual and their environment
> environment shapes personality
> focused on external behaviour
Social cognitive theory- focuses on behavioural theory, focuses on learning experiences and observable
behaviours
> Observational learning- in which people learn from experiences of others and apply lessons of
previous experiences to new situation
> Reciprocal causation- behaviour, personal factors, and the environment continually interact and
influence each other
Humanistic theory- people continually seek experiences that make them better, more fulfilled individuals
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3 Identity: Another View of the individual
Identity can be thought of as a person’s view of who they are in term of both internal factors, including
personality traits, and social or external factors, like group membership
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Influence of Social Factors on Identity Formation
Culture and society are structures that exist long before the individuals are born
> children engage in imitation of the behaviours that they observe (imitation)
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Engage in role taking
Reference group: is a group that provides him or her with a model for appropriate actions, values, and world
views
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4 Theories of Development
Series of universal stages everyone goes through
Freud’s theory of developmental stages- he framed the stages of development in terms of impulses of the id
> if the child got too much or too little satisfaction of the urge associated with a particular stage, they
may fail to move on to the next stage —> Fixation (causes problems later in life)
Stage 1- Oral- preoccupied with biting and sucking; successful weaning leads to the development of trust and
the capacity for delayed gratification
Stage 2- Anal- child wishes to control their bowel, allows the development of self-control
Stage 3- Phallic- develop sexual and gender identity by focusing their sexual impulses on the opposite sex
parent and identifying with the same sex parent
Begins to internalize society’s rules and develops superego
Stage 3- Latent- sexual impulses are suppressed and child is focusing on developmental tasks
Stage 4- Genital stage- return of sexual urges that lead to the achievement of adult sexuality
Stage

Age

Focus of libido

Development

Adult fixation

Old- Oral

0-1 (tasting and
sucking)

Mouth

Feeding

Smoke, bite finger
nails, over-eat

Age- Anal

1-3 years

Anus

Toilet training

Orderliness,
messiness

Parrots- Phallic

3-6 years

Genitals

Oedipus and Electra
complex

Sexual Dysfunction
Sexual Deviance

Love- Latent

6-12 years

nothing

Development of social
and communication
skills

Grapes- Genital

12+

Genitals

Sexual maturity

Mentally healthy

Erik Erikson viewed these stages as psychosocial ones
> interaction between self and society over the lifetime
> each stage is a crisis that needs to be resolved
Stage 1- first year of life- trust vs mistrust: based on the actions of the parents
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Explore their limits
Stage 3- Initiative vs guilt: ability to execute a plan (play in activities)
Stage 4- Industry vs inferiority: complex social environment such as a school (self efficacy)
***stages 2-4 related to identity formation
Stage 5- Identity vs role confusion- formation of stable sense of identity
Stage 6- Intimacy vs isolation- forming emotionally significant relationships with others

Stage 7- Generatively vs stagnation: extent to which they wish to put back energy into family, work and
community vs taking care of only their needs
Stage 8- Integrity vs despair: sense of how well they have lived (65 to death)
Lev Vygotsky learning takes place through interactions with other that promote the acquisition of culturally
valued behaviours and beliefs
> current developmental level consists of those tasks that a child can perform without the help from
others
> potential developmental level represents the most advanced tasks that a child can do with guidance
from more knowledge people
> range between current and potential: zone of proximal development- meaning all of the skills that can
be accomplished with help (middle zone)
Kohlberg’s theory of moral development- child goes through a predictable sequence of stages of moral
reasoning
Level 1- Pre conventional Morality
Stage 1- Punishment
Stage 2- Reward
Level 2- Conventional Morality
Stage 3- Social disapproval
Stage 4- Rule following
Level 3- Post conventional Morality
Stage 5- Social contract
Stage 6- Universal ethics

Pre-conventional level- moral judgements are based solely on consideration of the of the anticipated
consequences of behaviour (it’s okay as long as I don’t get into trouble)
Conventional level- social judgement (what will people say?)
Post-conventional level- beyond personal and interpersonal considerations, rising to the level of universal
principles and fully developed ideas about right and wrong (universal ethics, more evolved form of reasoning)
- Research done with boys only- so feminist have argued with his theory
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6 Disorders: The Intersection of Psychological and Social Factors
Psychological disorders- defined as simply as sets of psychological abnormalities that are maladaptive to the
individual
> culture plays a significant role in definition of a mental illness
DSM 5- The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition- set of psychological disorders
observed by the physician and described by the patient
> homosexuality a disorder, and not removed from the DSM until 1973
Revisiting the Biomedical and Biopsychosocial Models (BPS)
George Engel first to develop the BPS model
Somatoform Disorders
Somatic symptom and related disorders- demonstrate that advantages of an approach that incorporates
psychological, biological and social conditions
> bodily symptoms include pain, fatigue, motor problems etc
Traditional approach neglected psychological distress
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety disorders are defined by the experience of unwarranted fear and anxiety, psychological tension, and
behaviours associated with the emotional and physical experience of anxiety
> most common (18% of adults in US affected by it)
> worries about future and hypothetical circumstances
> excessive SNS (sympathetic nervous system) activation
> causes emotional and physical responses
Generalized anxiety disorder- persistent anxiety is triggered by a wide variety of stimuli
Panic disorders- short lived instances of overwhelming SNS activation
> people fear that they might actually die
Phobias- excessive fear of an object or situation—> thus they try to avoid it
Mood disorders
Mood disorders- defined by two extremes, or poles, along the spectrum of emotional experience; extreme
sadness (depression) and detrimental excitement (mania)
Depressive disorders- pervasive feelings of sadness and hopelessness and/or loss of interest in activities that
an individual usually enjoys
> physical cognitive symptoms
- disruptions in sleep, eating, thoughts of suicide etc,
Biological basis of depression for the purpose of refining medical treatment or disorder
> heritability of depression is 40%
Monoamine hypothesis states that a deficiency in the availability or potency of monoamines in synapses
contributes to depression

> monoamine oxidase inhibitors, which inhibit the breakdown of monoamines and therefore increase
the availability of monoamines in the brain
- not the only contributor though
>Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis
- hypothalamus releases a hormone—> ant
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1 Introduction
Cognitive and problem solving strategies that people employ, as well as common barriers to effective problem
solving and decision making

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> Computer like models are called—> information processing models
- focus on input-output functions distinguish between serial and parallel processing
- serial = takes into account one input at a time
- parallel = takes into account multiple inputs at a time
Perception refers to organization and identification of sensory inputs, cognition refers to higher level
processing like language and reasoning
Cerebral cortex information processing and the most evolved
part of the brain
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Parietal lobe: tactile information, contains
somatosensory cortex
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Temporal lobe: auditory and olfactory as well as
emotion and language
Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development
Developmental psychology- study psychological and behavioural change in a human lifespan
> early: nature vs nurture
Jean Piaget- children developed cognitively by experimenting with their environment
> “results” of experimentation can be fitted into “schemas” (mental representations of the world) in a
process called “assimilation”
> if the child’s schemas are changed in response to new information it is called “accommodation”
4 Universal stages of cognitive development:
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Proportional - 2-7 years, use language, think very literally, egocentric and have difficulty taking
perspective of others
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Formal Operational - 11 and up, think logically in the abstract, deductive reasoning, and in the
“post conventional moral” stage

Culture and Cognitive Development
Expectations and cultural context affected children’s performance on his experimental tasks
> Lev V
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3 Language
Three language development theories:
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- Continuing interaction with environmental reinforcement, rather than focusing on innate ability
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Interactionist Theory: emphasizes the interplay between environmental cues and innate biology in
the development of language
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- helps enunciate and speak clearly
- ability to understand language remains unaffected expressive aphasia
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4 Intellectual Functioning
Multiple definitions of intelligence
Intelligence can be defined as the ability to understand and reason with complex ideas, adapt effectively to
the environment and learn from experience
> IQ used to predict school performance
General intelligence factor- every individual has a set level of intelligence that applies to all of their
intellectual pursuits regardless of specific sub-scales

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Crystallized intelligence: ability to think logically using specific, previously learned knowledge (stable
throughout adulthood)
Theory of multiple intelligence- Howard Gardner- argues that everyone has variety of intellingences that are
used in combination to solve problems and perform tasks
> linguistic, musical, logical, interpersonal etc
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Analytical intelligence
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Practical intelligence
Emotional Intelligence- 4 Components
1) Perceiving emotions- recognize others emotions via body language
2) Using and reasoning with emotions- employ emotions for cognitive ends
3) Understanding emotions- correctly attribute emotions
4) Managing emotions- regulating emotion
Influence of Heredity and Environment on Cognition and Intelligence
Identical twins- same genes- different environment: similar IQs
Fraternal twins- different genes- same environment: variation
Hereditary Influences: general learning disability can be traced to a genetic disorder
> phenylketonuria= children are unable to metabolize phenylalanine
> IQ is a highly heritable trait
Environmental Influences: prenatal environment has an effect, rubella, herpes, or syphilis
> socioeconomic status significantly influences children’s cognitive development

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6 Emotion
Emotion- multifaceted experience that is connected to thought, physiology, and behaviour
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> subjective experience of emotion—feeling that results from cognitive appraisal
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racing heartbeat and sweaty palms
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I must be afraid
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8 Stress
Stress is the strain that is experienced when an organism’s equilibrium is disrupted and it must adapt
> cataclysmic event- natural disasters or wars
Cognitive appraisals- or personal interpretations of situations trigger stress
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Secondary appraisal: assessing personal ability to cope with the threat

Stress Responses and Outcomes
Fight or flight- due to epinephrine and norepinephrine, there is also cortisol which increases blood sugar that
gets directed towards the muscles
People perform better under mild amount of stress,
particularly if they have an expertise task at hand
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1 Introduction
Correlation does not always mean causation
Biological correlates of psychology, the interaction between genetics and environment, and neuropsychological
process
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2 Genetics, Environment, and Behaviour
The dynamic interaction between the environment and heredity plays a critical role throughout psychological
development, including that of behavioural traits
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Adaptive value- the extent to which they contribute to survival in the given environment, natural selection will
result

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Absolute threshold- lowest intensity of a stimulus that can be sensed
Differential threshold- “just noticeable difference” smallest difference for the stimuli for now to be noticed
Weber’s Law- change required to meet he difference threshold is certain fraction of the originally presented
stimuli
> Imagine: in a bright room, the lights turn up a little bit more, that may not be noticeable
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> High sensitivity = small fraction
Signal detection theory- focuses on how an organism differentiates important or meaningful stimuli from
those that are not of interest in an environment where distinction is ambiguous
> ability to detect a meaningful stimuli midst of vast amounts of sensory information increases an
organism;s chance to survive
> always some amount of error in the presence of distinguishing signal from noise
> mediated by bias
Attention
Attention selects sensory information fro the perceptual processing
> selective attention- focus on one particular stimulus of task at the exclusion of other stimuli
> divided attention- split resources between multiple stimuli or behaviours

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Bottom-up Processing

Top-down Processing

> Involves the construction of perceptions from individual
pieces of information provided by sensory processing

> brings influence of prior knowledge into play to make
perception more efficient
> pre-existing system for organizing

Gestalt principles- our perception of the surroundings as being made up of distinct, stable objects
> one object form, rest background
> principle of nearness- clusters of objects each be perceived as a distinct object
> principle of similarity- points out the object with shared structure, perceived as single group
> Principle of common region- common background, objects perceived as one
> principle of continuity- ambitious stimulus according to simplest possible continuous forms
> principle of closure- see whole shapes even if they have holes (lol)

Depth harder to show!

> The brain interprets the
difference between the eye’s
images to estimate the depth
of the object being viewed
Motion cannot be represented
by the brain based solely on
pattern
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> size and shape constancy
> perception compensates for the change to the retina
Visual Processing From a Neurological Perspective
Two types of processing takes place- feature detection and parallel processing
> both are methods of bottom-up processing
Parallel processing- use of multiple pathways to convey information about the same stimulus
> starts at the level of bipolar and ganglion cells in the eye
There are two types of ganglion1
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Form of stimuli (shape and colours)
Once the information reaches the visual cortex —> analyzed by feature detection
This is a type of serial processing, where increasingly complex aspects of the stimulus are processed in
sequence

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Alertness can be called the “default” state of consciousness; most people are generally alert while they are
awake
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Circadian rhythm: the daily balance between wakefulness and sleep is maintained
> regulates the body’s functions on a predictable schedule
> opposed by “biological clock” (located in hypothalamus in the suprachiasmatic nucleus)
> SCN inhibits the release of melatonin by the pineal gland

Stages of sleep:
1) Stage 1- light sleep, alpha waves
2) Stage 2- bursts of brain wave activity that indicate transition into sleep
3) Stage 3- delta waves, transition into deep sleep
4) Stage 4- deepest sleep, all delta waves
REM sleep- high brain activity like in stage 1, relieves the massive amount of stimuli experienced during the
day
> dreaming happens in this
> Body is immobilized
NREM sleep- largest amount, activity is much lower
Sleep disorders- some aspects of sleep is abnormal, leading to a negative health consequences
> insomnia = falling asleep is a struggle
> sleep terror disorder = characterized by severe nightmare-like imagery occur in NREM
> narcolepsy = takeover of walking life by REM sleep that occurs without warning
Hypnosis and Meditation
Hypnosis- state of relaxation, focused attention and increased willingness to relinquish control over one’s own
actions
> imaginative role playing exercise
Meditation- intentional, self-produced state of consciousness induced by relaxing and systematically shifting
attention away from day-to-day concerns
Consciousness Altering Drugs
Affect the nervous system function and psychological characteristics—> perception, attention, and emotion
> Agonists = chemical similar, enhance effect
> Antagonist = bind to receptors
> Re-uptake = prevent constant stimulation
> Enzyme inhibitors = prevent breakdown of neurotransmitter
Stimulants- raise level of activity in the CNS, increasing amount of monoamines
Depressants- decrease in CNS
Hallucinogens- are category of drugs that cannot be neatly classified as stimulants or depressants
***The addictive power of some drugs is achieved by hijacking a system in the braun that causes feelings of
pleasure and reward
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6 Memory: Storage and Encoding
Memory is a tool to organize information for the purpose of behavioural response
> representative model

Two types of Memories:
Declarative memory

Non- declarative or Procedural Memory

• involves information that is consciously known, such as
memory of specific lifetime events and the knowledge of
facts
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> working memory (usually through an auditory representation)—5-9 pieces of info at a time
3) Long term storage- maintained outside conscious awareness
> guided by assigning meaning
Type of memory storage

Encoding

Storage

Sensory

Physical transduction

Unlimited

Working

Rehearsal

Limited (5-9)

Long term

Meaning

Unlimited

5
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5
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Semantic networks: which organizes information in networks of meaningfully related memories
> long term memory storage
> related memories are brought to mind through spreading activation—> where one item triggers an
activation to related memories
Recall is the retrieval of a memory “from scratch” while recognition is the correct identification of information
that is presented
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> environmental stimuli
> emotional state same as memory formation during retrieval = easier recall
Relearning allows the detection of long term memories that have become inaccessible to conscious
recognition or recall and thus are experienced as lost
...

> weakening of connections that make up that neural network
Something in the beginning of the list is the easiest to remember (Primacy effect) compared to those at the
middle of the list (Recency effect)
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Retroactive interference- newly learned material that prevents successful retrieval of related older memories
which is the opposite of proactive interference
> older memories thus have a greater vulnerability to interfere
Memories can be updated with new information and experiences, a process called—> Memory construction
> occurs during retrieval period
Source monitoring- occurs when a person attributes a memory to a particular source
> draw conclusions based on characteristics of the source; and these inferences then come to be part
of the memory
There is a relationship between aging and memory; hippocampus and prefrontal cortex

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> loss of ability to form memories of recent events
> mediated by hippocampus and surrounded areas
> Amyloid plaques: extracellular protein deposits
> Neurofibrillary tangles: located within neurons—> impact on language
Korsakoff’s syndrome- lower ability to recall recent events while older memories are relatively unaffected
> caused by severe alcoholism and deficiency in Vitamin B
> damage to the frontal cortex and thalamus
Parkinson’s disease- deterioration within the substantia nigra (in the midbrain), leads to the impairment of
motor abilities
> dopamine deficiency
> Stem Cell based therapy- replace lost or damaged cells



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