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Title: International Baccalaureate SL Psychology Notes
Description: These notes are for the International Baccalaureate (IB) program, for Standard Level (SL) Psychology. These study notes contain key detail for Cognitive Level of Analysis Psychological studies, needed for Paper 1 of the SL Psychology course. I have created my notes in an easy to follow and comprehensive format, allowing all students to effectively study and memorize the information, then apply it to the objective and examination question. These notes contain the aim, method, results, conclusion, and evaluation of each psychology study, along with a detailed link to specific Cognitive LOA objectives. I hope these notes will be as useful for you as they were for me! :)

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Cognitive LOA Key Studies



Have strong evaluation
Must include real life application

1
...

Used serial reproduction (repeated story multiple times)
IV = one’s culture (naturally occurring)

Results:
-

After recalling the story 6 times, it was reduced from 330 words to 180
interpretation of certain aspects was added, and they assimilated the story
...


Evaluation
Strength:
-

Provides evidence that the way we remember depends on our prior knowledge in the form
of schemas

Limitation:
-

Low generalisation (Only used English participants, different cultures may produce different
results and these participants are not of the general population)

Link CP1 (schema theory):
-

Results show schemas affect memory
demonstrated cognitive distortions in memory successfully

Link CP5 (memory reliability):
-

participants changed the wording of canoe to boat in order to fit into their previous cultural
knowledge

-

demonstrates the memory is not reliable as it can be influence by one’s culture

2
...
Cognitive skills are dependent on
the environment
...

Method:
-

Quasi experiment
Researchers observed the effects that formal schooling and culture has on memory
...

The researchers observed the everyday cognitive processes of the children and used words
they were familiar with
...

Oral history is a key mechanism of transferring culture in traditional societies
...

Cognitive skills are dependent on the environment (education, social interaction, culture)

-

Demonstrates that all the children can remember but the way they do this is dependent on
their culture

Link (GLO3 – Research Methods):
-

Investigate two groups (Kpelle and USA school children)
IV was naturally occurring (cultural influences)
High ecological validity (especially due to the use of local graduates on the research and
culturally appropriate words)
Used at the cognitive LOA as it investigates the effect that culture has on memory recall
(cognitive process)

Link (CP4 – Social and Cultural Factors):
-

the ability to remember is simple when presented in a meaningful context to one’s culture
...


3
...
6 – 2
...
8 ideas
...


4
...


Conclusion:
-

Although Bartlett's procedures were not as strict
confirmation for his major findings has come from several well-controlled studies

Link (CP1):
-

supports Bartlett research which supports schema theory

5
...

Method:
-

Participants were 30 university students whose memory were tested
Participates were taken into an office where they had to wait individually for approximately
35 seconds alone
...


Results:
-

There was a high recall for typical office items
few people remembered the atypical items of an office schema (picnic basket, wine bottle,
coffee pot)
the skull was frequently recalled as it was an extremely distinctive item in an office
...


6
...
Glanzer & Cunitz (1966): primary and recency effect on memory recall
Aim: to investigate the primary (first) and recency (last) effect in recall
Method:

-

Lab experiment
Participants were 240 army enlisted men
Participants were read a list of words and then have to recall them either immediately or
after a distraction
...

clearly illustrating the two separate stores of short term memory which was easily displaced
by distractor tasks (recency effect) and how the first words were rehearsed into LTM and
were available for recall (primacy effect)
...
Baddeley & Hitch (1976): study on STM
Aim: to investigate if participants can use different parts of working memory at the same time
Method:
Results:

Participants were asked to perform two tasks at the same time (dual task technique)
Task involved a digit span task which required the participants to repeat a list of numbers
Other task involved a verbal reasoning task which required the participants to answer true
or false to various questions

-

As the number of digits increase participants took longer to answer the reasoning questions
(only a fraction of a second)
However, did not make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of digits
increased

Conclusion:
-

the results were interpreted as an overload of problems for the central executive

Evaluation:
Strengths:
-

showed that short term memory was more complex than previously thought

Limitations:
-

the tasks may have caused stress to the participants

Link (CP2 – Memory Model):
-

the verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive
the digit span task made use of the phonological loop

9
...
Rogoff & Waddel (1982): research on cross culture and memory
Aim: to investigate the effect of culture on memory recall between Mayan and USA children
Method:
-

Conducted a miniature model of a Mayan village (resembled the children’s own village)
Mayan children saw the researchers selected 20 miniature objects from a set of 80 (animals
and people) and then places them in the model
Objects were then taken out of the model and replicated amount the 60 objects
...

The Mayan children were able to accurately remember the details of the objects as it related
to their everyday surroundings (familiar with and could understand) as they learn to take
notice of new surroundings

11
...
Loftus & Palmer (1974): effect on leading questions on recall with two experiments
Aim: to investigate the effect of leading questions on eyewitness recall ability
Method – Experiment 1:
-

Participants of 45 students
Participants were put into groups and shown short films of car accidents
After they were given questionnaires to complete
Only one question was critical: the estimation of the speed that the car was travelling
Experiment consisted of 5 different conditions which differed only by the wording
For the other conditions the verb hit was replaced with contacted, collided, bumped and
smashed into
...


Conclusion – Experiment 1:
-

Leading questions affect memory and may negatively affect it
...

As the word smashed is usually correlated to violence

Method Experiment 2:
-

Participants were presented with a one-minute film showing a multiple car accident
then asked questions about it with a critical question about speed
...

The control group was not asked anything about speed
...


Result – Experiment 2:
-

32% of those who had been asked about the car’s speed with the verb smash claimed to
have seen broken glass
14% of the participants in the hit group
12% in control group also reported seeing glass
...


Conclusion:
-

-

Demonstrates unreliability of memory because it was found that the leading question asked
to eye-witnesses caused a distortion of memory as the result of the reconstructive processes
of memory
...


Limitation:
-

Not a real life accident as actual accident which is more shocking unexpected
Uni students so can only generalise to other US students

Link (GLO1/GLO2 – Mental Processes scientifically investigates):
-

The laboratory experiment was a scientific research method
allowed researchers to investigate the cognitive processes of reconstructive memory

GLO3 (Ethical Consideration):
-

Participants were fully briefed and debrief about the procedure, aim and results
Gained informed consent from all participants
Had protection from harm for participants

Link CP5 (memory reliability):
Leading questions:
-

This research provides evidence that memory recall can be inaccurate as it is easily distorted
by leading questions
provides evidence that the cognitive process of memory may be distorted dependent upon
the extent of how vigorous the leading question
as participants remembered broken glass that was no actually there based on each
experimental condition (verb used)
Post even information does to a minor extent affect memory recall

13
...

Anterograde amnesia means impairments in the ability to remember new information
learned after the onset of the amnesia
...

His journal demonstrates what he was thinking and aids insight into what it is like to lose
one’s memory
He could not transfer information from STM to LTM
His memory lasted 7 – 30 seconds and was unable to form new memories
Episodic memory (cannot remember/identify his children but can remember his wife)
Limited semantic memory loss (mixing up jam, honey and marmalade)

Evaluation:
Strengths:
- In depth
- Enriched data
- High ecological validity
Limitation:
- Small participant sample (low ability to generalise)
- Cannot be replicated
- Research may develop personal relationship (result in subjective data)
Link (GLO3 – Research Methods):
-

It is an in depth study of Clive Wearing (individual) and his memory loss (phenomenon on
behaviour)
Occurs in his naturally environment
Demonstrates the effect of hippocampal damage has on the cognitive process of memory
...


14
...

Plays a role in human behaviour as it has a fundamental responsibility in memory, high
amounts of Ach increase memory function while low amounts of Ach decreases memory
function
...


- Last group was controlled group
- Rats then repeated findings their way through the maze
Results:
-

scopolamine group of rats were slower to find their way through the maze and made more
errors
physostigmine group of rats which ere the quickest through the maze and made fewer
errors than the controlled group
results correlate to the influence of increase levels of Ach increase memory formation and
resulted in better success when repeating the rat’s way through the maze

-

Conclusion:
-

Results found have revealed that Ach plays an important role in spatial memory
...


Real Life Application:
- Demonstrates how Ach affects human behaviour in relation to memory and memory loss
- Aid in further research into Alzheimer’s
- This is supported by research by Squire on Alzheimer’s’ patients who have low levels of ACh
which affected their loss of episode memory and eventually procedural memory
...


Link (CP3 – Biological Factors):
-

Ach is an important neurotransmitter (biological factor) in the formation of memory
(cognitive process
provide and insight into human behaviour because low concentrations of Ach are found in
people with Alzheimer's Disease (Squire, 1987)
...
Newcomer et al (1999): Experiment on the effect of cortisol on memory
Cortisol:
-

Cortisol is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands in response to stress and to restore
homeostasis
...


Method:
-

-

-

Results:

In order to investigate a possible link between cortisol and memory the researchers
designed an experiment with three experimental conditions
Condition 1 - high level of cortisol: The participants in the high level cortisol group were
given a tablet containing 160 mg of cortisol on each day of the four day experiment
...

Condition 2 – low level of cortisol: The participants in the low level of cortisol group were
given a tablet containing 40 mg of cortisol per day
...

Condition 3- placebo group: The participants in this condition were given placebo tablets that is, a tablet that looked like the other tablets but with no active ingredient
...

All participants were asked to listen to and recall parts of a prose paragraph
...
It is known that verbal declarative memory is often
affected during long-term stress and the researchers knew from previous studies that
cortisol could be involved in memory impairment
...

Conclusion:
-

Since this study was experimental the researchers could establish a clear cause-effect
relationship between the IV and the DV
...

- In spite of this, there was a clear relationship between the amount of cortisol ingested and
performance on the memory test
...

However, the participants had signed an informed consent, and the damage was not
permanent
...
Yuville & Cutshall (1986): study the effectiveness of eyewitness testimony using real
eyewitnesses
Aim: to investigate the accuracy in recall of eye witnesses to a real crime in response to leading
questions and over time
...

Researchers used the same procedure as the police use on theme to given their accounts
first and then asked them questions (leading questions)
Half the group were asked if they saw a broken headlight
Even though there was no headlight
Half also asked either about a yellow panel on the car
Even though the panel was blue

Results:
-

Researchers obtained more detail than the police (however police were only interest in
who was at fault of the crime)
Found that misleading questions had very little effect on participant’s recall
Ten participants said there was no broken headlight and no yellow panel on the car (which
was correct)

Conclusion:
-

Eyewitnesses were actually reliable
Disagreed with Loftus & Palmers (1974) results

Evaluation:
Strength:
-

Strong ecological validity (real life incident)
Scoring procedure produced quantitative data from qualitative data (easier to base
conclusions on)

Limitations:
-

Limited replication (one off incident)
Does not have variation records
A lot of their results where qualitative therefore had to quantify the results (too general)

Link CP5 (memory reliability):
-

Demonstrates that memory is reliable when experiencing an emotional/stressful/violent
event first hand
...
Rinolo et al (2003): accuracy of EWT in real life situations (Titanic)
Aim: to investigate the reliability of memory of the eye witness testimonies involved in the final
plunge of the Titanic
Method:
-

It was believed at the time that the titanic went down intact, researchers investigate the
EWT on whether the Titanic sank intact or broke in two before it went down
Researchers used archival data (transcripts from two hearing in 1912 one in the USA and
one in the UK)
The researchers identified 20 cases (N = 20) from the total amount of 91 survivors in the
hearings who had addressed the state of the ship during its final plunge
...


Evaluation:
Strengths:
-

Used actual published documents

Limitation:
-

Possible bias (witnesses used were part of a subgroup and did not represent all witnesses)
Sample was small (not possible to interview the eyewitness for clarification because
majority were dead – acceptable limitation)

Link (CP5 – Reliability of Memory):
-

Central traits of the event were recalled accurately, although the memory was formed
during traumatic conditions (high emotional arousal)
This case study contributed to our knowledge about the accuracy of eyewitness testimony
from people who witness a traumatic even in real life
Lends support to the idea that even under stress our memory is reliable but not everyone
(makes it difficult to determine whose memory was reliable)

Link (CE2 – Emotion on Memory):
-

Demonstrates that strong emotional arousal which formed a highly accurate FBM

18
...

The neuro-imaging was important to discover which specific parts of the brain were
related to specific parts of cognitive processing
...


Link (CP6 – BIT):
-

EEG combined with MEG use was important to detect specific brain areas involved in the
memory (cognitive process)
...


19
...

Technology can pick initial stages of deterioration in memory accurately

-

Conclusion:
-

PET scans and computer program allow early detection of Alzheimer’s disease (detecting
lower brain metabolism in hippocampus)

Evaluation:
Strengths:
-

Used new technology
Allows for further research into Alzheimer’s
Use general methodology ideas (longitudinal thus shows changes over time and can track
developments)
provides a potential biological marker for early identification of vulnerable individuals

-

Limitation:
-

Cannot measure how Alzheimer’s may be affected by genes and inheritance
limitation is cannot control all potentially confounding variables
needs replication for greater reliability

Link (CP6 - BIT):
-

evident that PET technology are useful in investigating the cognitive process of memory
PET scans and computer program allow early detection of Alzheimer’s disease (detecting
lower brain metabolism in hippocampus)
...

Aided the findings that the decrease in metabolism did not occur in subjects with no family
history of Alzheimer’s disease
...
Schacter & Singer (1962): two factor theory
Aim: to investigate the two factor theory of emotion
Method:
-

Participants were told that the aim was to test visions and the effect of vitamin “suproxin”
on vision
184 male American college students (researchers checked health records)
90% received course credit for taking part in the experiment
True experiment

-

Participants were injected with either adrenalin (epinephrine) or a placebo, which was
actually a saline solution, which has no side effects at all
...
minutes and last from ten minutes to an hour
...
Adrenalin Ignorant - participants were given an adrenalin injection and not told of the
effects of the drug
...
Adrenalin Informed - participants were given an adrenalin injection and warned of the ‘side
effects’ of the drug (hand shake, heart pounding, dry mouth etc
...

3
...
These participants
would, therefore, not be expecting the effects of the adrenalin
...
Control Group - Placebo - participants were given an injection that would have no effect and
were given no instructions of what to expect
...

In the anger situation = stooge in a waiting room carried out tasks and made comments
designed to annoy the participant
...


Results:
- Level of emotion for each condition was determined using a self – report questionnaire (rate
scaling) and research observations
- Researchers subtracted the anger score from happiness to give emotion overall
- In the euphoria condition the misinformed participants were feeling happier than all the
others
...
This demonstrates that these
participants were more susceptible to the stooge because they had no explanation of why
their bodies felt as they did
...

- In the anger condition, the ignorant group felt the angriest
...
The least angry group was those who were informed
...


Conclusion:
-

-

Schachter and Singer argue that their findings support their two-factor theory of emotion
...

Claim that results support two factor theory as two factors are generally needed for emotion
The epi misinformed felt strongest euphoria because they were physiologically advised and
had no correct explanation for their emotion so they looked to the environment for an
explanation
Although the placebo group felt some anger this may be due to demand characteristics as no
biological arousal

Evaluation:
Strength:
-

Support two factor theory
Large population but lack validity

Limitation:
-

Low ecological validity (artificially engineered as it was chemical injections)
Reduced population sample validity (participants were only male, students and American)
Low generalisation (sample does not represent female emotional reactions)
Ethical concerns involved (deception was used)

GLO3 (Ethical Consideration):
-

Deception in aim was used (participants were told the injection were of ‘vitamins’)

-

Not proper informed consent (participants were not aware of everything)

-

However, to an extent justifiable as it was link to reduced demand characteristics and
wanted to support their theory with an ingenious design (important to say extent as
explain needs full debriefing to be justifiable and ensuring no harm)

CE1 (cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion):
-

Provides empirical support for both cognitive factors and physiological arousal necessary for
emotion
Suggests an interaction between the two is needed for emotion to be felt

21
...
Trauma = soundtrack emphasises mutilation
2
...
Denial = adolescents willing and happy
Results:
-

Participants in trauma condition had increased physiological stress via heart rate and
galvanic skin response compared to the other 2 conditions
Support appraisal theory as manipulation
Impacted stress reaction and participants in trauma were more emotional

Conclusion:
-

Results demonstrate that biology and cognition interact in emotion

Evaluation:
Strengths:
-

Shows cause and effect relationship between anxiety arousal and emotion (lab experiment)
Well controlled variables
High ecological validity (real life evidence and films)

Limitations:
-

Ethical concerns (participants harm towards the exposure to videos)

GLO3 (Ethical Consideration):
-

Protection from harm (participants saw traumatic conditions however did consent to
viewing it)

-

deception in aim was used

-

however, to an extent justifiable as it lowered the demand characteristics and was
additionally covered in the brief

Link (CE1):
-

Demonstrates that cognitive appraisal impacts the biological response to stressful situations
(through soundtrack manipulation)
The appraisal of what was seen on the videos was affected by the sound track
Soundtracks influence an increase and decrease physiological response (hear rate) towards
the videos

22
...


-

9 events were of events that shocked the pubic (assassinations of various leaders e
...
John F
...
more vividly
personal experience recalled was generally that of a death of a relative (mainly parents)

Conclusion/Link (CE2 – Emotion on Memory):
-

supports the theories of FBM
Are formed in situations where we encounter surprising and highly emotional information
...
Conway et al (1994)
Aim: To show that a public event has a distinctive meaning and emotional impact which will be more
memorable and create a flashbulb memory
Method:
-

369 UK and non-UK citizens (undergraduates)
Asked to complete a questionnaire 14 days after Margaret Thatcher's unexpected
resignation in 1990
then again 11 months after
...


Evaluation:
Strength:

-

High ecological validity
Interviews gave in-depth qualitative data

Limitation:
-

Interview was not focused (as it had to control all possible variables
Perhaps distress in having to remember a tragic event

24
...

Participants reported on the event twice, 24 hours after the incident and 2 and a half years
later
2 and a half years later, 44 of the original students answered the questionnaire again, but
this time they were asked to rate how confident they were on the accuracy of their memory
on a scale of 1-5
...

Participants then saw their original reports from the first questionnaire
...

The mean score of correctness of recall of the seven questions was 2
...

For 11 participants the score was 0, and 22 scored 2 or less
...
17
...

Participants were confident that they remembered the event correctly both times and they
could not explain the discrepancies between the first and second accounts
...
Talarico & Rubin (2003)
Aim: investigate the consistency of FBM
Method:
-

Researchers asked participants to recall the event of September the 11th, 2001 (9 – 11) on
four occasions
Four occasions = 1, 7, 42 and 224 days after the event
Also tested the participant’s memory for an everyday event that had happened around the
same time of the event

Results:
-

FBM remained very vivid throughout the study
Participants were very confident about their accuracy
the actual accuracy of the participant’s FBMs was not any more consistent than their
corresponding memories for the everyday event

Conclusion:
-

FBMs accuracy and consistency are not greater than everyday memories
demonstrate that there is no relationship between people’s belief that their memory is
accurate and their memory’s actual accuracy

Evaluation:
Strengths:
-

Multiply variables
demonstrates that FBM can still be distorted (due to high emotional arousal)

Limitations:
-

limited control over participants lives between tests (external influences such as lifestyle or
stress ma distorted their memories)
limited generalisation (mainly female participants)
cannot be replicated (one-time event)

Link (CE2 – Emotion on Memory):
-

Because the accuracy of high emotional memories was the same as ordinary memories
does not fully support the theory of Brown and Kulik

-

due to the fact that even when emotion was involved, the accuracy of the memory recall
was not greater than when emotion was not involved


Title: International Baccalaureate SL Psychology Notes
Description: These notes are for the International Baccalaureate (IB) program, for Standard Level (SL) Psychology. These study notes contain key detail for Cognitive Level of Analysis Psychological studies, needed for Paper 1 of the SL Psychology course. I have created my notes in an easy to follow and comprehensive format, allowing all students to effectively study and memorize the information, then apply it to the objective and examination question. These notes contain the aim, method, results, conclusion, and evaluation of each psychology study, along with a detailed link to specific Cognitive LOA objectives. I hope these notes will be as useful for you as they were for me! :)