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ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY NOTES
1
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- Palms face forward
- Thumbs point away from body
Define homeostasis and identify systems that control it
...
Endocrine system
2
...

- ANATOMY: ​studies the structure of body parts
- PHYSIOLOGY: ​studies the function of the body
Sequence the levels of organization from simplest to most complex
...

- Integumentary system
- External body covering
- Protects deeper tissues from injury
- Synthesizes vitamin D
- Houses cutaneous receptors
- Sweat and oil glands
-

Skeletal system
- Protects and supports body organs
- Provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement
- Blood cells formed in bones
- Bones store minerals

-

Muscular system
- Allows manipulation of the environment
- Locomotion
- Facial expression
- Produces heat

-

Maintains posture

-

Nervous system
- Responds to internal and external changes

-

Endocrine system
- Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes
- Reproduction
- Nutrient use (metabolism)

-

Cardiovascular system
- Blood vessels transport blood

-

Lymphatic system
- Removes debris
- Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)
- Attacks foreign substances

-

Respiratory system
- Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide

-

Digestive system
- Breaks down food into nutrients

-

Urinary system
- Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
- Regulates acid-base balance of the blood

-

Reproductive system
- Production of offspring

Identify major organs belonging to each of the organ systems
...


Be familiar with the regions of the abdominopelvic area
...


Cephalic (head)

Frontal (forehand)

Pedal (foot)

Orbital (eye)

Nasal (nose)

Tarsal (ankle)

Oral (lip)

Mental (chin)

Calcaneal (heel bone)

Cervical (throat)

Thoracic (chest)

Metatarsal (middle foot)

Sternal (sternum)

Axillary (armpit)

Digital (fingers)

Mammary (breast)

Abdominal (stomach)

Plantar (down foot)

Umbilical (belly button)

Pelvic (underneath
stomach, above groin)

Hallux (big toe)

Inguinal (groin)

Pubic (genital)

Otic (ear)

Upper limb (upper limb)

Acromial (upper arm)

Occipital (back of head)

Brachial (arm)

Antecubital (anterior-side
of elbow)

Back (dorsal)

Olecranon (elbow)

Antebrachial (forearm)

Fibular or peroneal
(fibula)

Carpal (wrist)

Manus (hand)

Vertebral (vertebrae)

Pollex (thumb)

Metacarpal (middle
hand)

Lumbar (lower back)

Palmar (end of palm)

Digital (index finger)

Sacral (lower back)

Lower limb (lower limb)

Coxal (hip)

Gluteal (buttox)

Femoral (thigh)

Patellar (knee cap)

Perineal (between anus
and external genitalia)

Popliteal (back of knee)

Crural (leg)

Sural (calf)

Review directional terms
...

- Sagittal (vertical plane that divides body into
right/left parts)
- Frontal planes (vertical plane that divides body
into front/back parts)
- Transverse (horizontal plane that divides the body
into superior and inferior parts)

Sequence the elements of a control system
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Stimulus (produces change
in variable)
2
...
Input (information sent along
afferent pathway to control
center)
4
...
Response (of effector feeds
back to reduce the effect of
stimulus and returns
variable to homeostatic
level)
Contrast negative and positive feedback systems
...
Receptors sense increased blood glucose

2
...
Insulin causes body cells to absorb more glucose which
decreases blood glucose levels
Review survival needs of the body
...
CELLS AND TISSUES
Identify structure and function of cell organelles
...

- Active:
- Go against concentration
gradient (low to high)
- Requires energy (ATP)
-

Passive:
- Goes with the concentration
gradient (high to low)
- Does not require energy (ATP)

Distinguish among isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic solutions and how they affect
cells
...

- Interphase (G1 (growth), S (DNA replicates, synthesis), G2 (growth, preparation))
- Prophase (the chromosomes appear condenses and the nuclear envelope is not
apparent)
- Metaphase (chromosomes line along the metaphase plate)
- Anaphase (the chromosomes have separated and are moving toward the poles)
- Telophase (the chromosomes are at the poles, and are becoming more diffuse,
the nuclear envelope is reforming, the cytoplasm may be dividing)
- Cytokinesis (cleavage furrow appears and the cell separates into two)

Compare and contrast DNA and RNA molecules
...
C-T
RNA:
- sugar is ribose
- uracil instead of thymine
- single stranded molecules
- A-G
...

Replication:
- helicase unwind the parental double helix
- single-strand binding proteins stabilize the unwound parental DNA
- each DNA molecule formed consists of one old (template) strand and one
newly assembled strand and constitutes a chromatid of a chromosome
Transcription:
- RNA polymerase binds to pry apart the two DNA strands
- RNA polymerase moves along the template strand, transcription one base
at a time
Translation:
- genetic code carried by mRNA is decoded to produce the specific
sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
Review the structure and function of epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue
...

Endocrine:
- ductless glands
- produce hormones directly into the bloodstream to other organs
Exocrine:
- duct glands that secrete products onto body surfaces (skin) or into body
cavities)
Duct structure:
- simple (unbranched duct (intestinal glands))
- compound (branched duct (salivary glands))
Secretory parts:
- tubular (if the secretory cells form tubes (ex
...
salivary
glands))
Function:
- merocrine (secrete their products by exocytosis as they're produced
(sweat glands, salivary glands)) (exocytosis as they're produced)
- holocrine (accumulate their products within them until they rupture
(sebaceous/oil-glands of skin)) (accumulate their products within
them until they rupture)
Sequence the steps of tissue repair
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Inflammation
2
...
Regeneration/fibrosis affect permanent repair

3
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Stratum Corneum:
- Most superficial layer
- 20-30 layers of dead cells
- Essentially flat membranous sacs filled with keratin
- Glycolipids in extracellular space
Stratum Lucidum:
- Thin translucent
band
- Subdivision of the
superficial stratum
corneum
- Consists of two or
three rows of clear,
flat, dead
keratinocytes with
indistinct boundaries
Stratum Granulosum:
- Typically five layers
of flattened cells
- Organelles
deteriorating
- Cytoplasm full of
lamellar granules
(release lipids) and
keratohyalin
granules
Stratum Spinosum:
- Several layers of keratinocytes unified by desmosomes
- Cells contain thick bundles of intermediate filaments made of pre-keratin
Stratum Basale:
- Deepest epidermal layer
- One row of actively mitotic stem cells
- Some newly formed cells become part of the more superficial layers
- See occasional melanocytes and dendritic cells

List and describe the functions of the skin
...

1
...
Fine interlacing collagen and elastic
fibers form a loosely woven mat that is
heavily infested with small blood vessels
b
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Reticular layer
a
...
Is coarse and irregularly arranged
c
...
Have thick bundles of interlacing collagen
fibers
e
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Apocrine:
- Sweat glands
- Merocrine glands
- Release product by exocytosis
- Lie deep in dermis
- Ducts empty into hair follicles
Eccrine:

- Sweat glands
- Palms and soles of feet and forehead
- Simple, coiled, tubular gland
- Duct extends to open in a funnel shaped pore at the skin surface
- Axillary and anogenital areas
Sebaceous:
- Oil glands
- Simple branched
- Everywhere but palms/soles
- Secrete an oily substance called sebum
- Accumulate until they burst
- Create sebum in hair follicle
Sudoriferous:
- Sweat glands
- Everywhere but genitalia and nipples
- Contraction forces sweat into and through the gland duct system to the
skin surface
- TYPES: ​eccrine and apocrine
Explain what happens when your skin “tans”
...
The
darker you become, the more Melanin is being produced
...

- Volume of fluid lost can be estimated by
computing the percentage of body surface
burned
- Method divides the body into 11 areas (each
accounting for 9% of total body area, plus an
additional area surrounding the genitals
accounting for 1% of body surface area)
- 4
...
0% ​Full arm
- 18% ​Trunk
- 1% ​Perineum
- 18% ​Full Leg

Define: first, second, and third degree burns
First:
- Only epidermis is damaged
- Localized redness, swelling, and pain
- Heals in 2-3 days
- Example: Sunburn
Second:
- Injure the epidermis and the upper region of the dermis
- Blisters appear
- Heals in 3-4 weeks
- Partial-thickness burns
Third:
- Full-thickness burns
- Burned area is gray-white, cherry red, blackened
- No edema, nerves have been destroyed so no pain
- Skin grafting advised
Know nail structure
...


4
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Axial:
- Skull
- Ribs
- Spinal Cord
- Thoracic Cavity
Appendicular:
- Everything other than the skull, ribs, and spinal
cord
Describe the functions of the skeletal system
...

1
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Thoracic (T1-T12)
3
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Sacrum (S1-S5, five fused vertebrae)
5
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- True ​1-7
- False ​8-12
- Floating ​11-12
Define the following: foramen magnum, coxal bone, tubercle, odontoid process, hyoid,
mastoid process, and nasal conchae
...

Contrast the male and female pelvis
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Bone and Bone Tissue
Describe the following types of bone fractures:
- Compound: bone pierces the skin
- Greenstick: bone breaks incompletely, only one side of the shaft breaks
- Comminuted: bone fragments into three or more pieces, found in aged people
- Simple: bone fracture that doesn’t pierce skin or tissue
- Compression: bone is crushed
- Spiral: ragged break occurs when excessive twisting forces are applied, common
in sports

Describe the structure of compact bone
...

- inside compact bone, a honeycomb of small needle-like or flat pieces called
trabeculae (filled with yellow marrow)
Identify and give examples of the following categories of bone:
a
...
Long bone
- longer in one axis than another; medullary cavity
- femur and phalanx
c
...
Irregular bone
- have two or more different shapes (ex
...

- No cavity
- Cartilage
- Between vertebrae
- Hyaline cartilage
Define fibrous joints and give examples
...

- Has a cavity
- Articular and accessory ligaments
- Shoulder, knee, hip
Identify the features of a synovial joint
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Explain the purpose and location of the epiphyseal plate
...

1
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FIBROCARTILAGINOUS CALLUS FORMS: ​soft granulation tissue forms,
capillaries grow into the hematoma and phagocytic cells invade the area and
begin cleaning up the debris, fibrocartilaginous callus splints the broken bone
3
...
BONE REMODELING OCCURS: ​bony callus is remodeled, excess material on
diaphysis exterior and within the medullary cavity is removed, compact bone is
laid down to reconstruct the shaft walls, final structure of remodeled area
resembles the original unbroken bony region because it responds to the same
set of mechanical stressors
List the functions of red and yellow bone marrow
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- SYNARTHROSES: ​immovable
- DIATHRASES: ​slightly movable
- AMPHIARTHROSES: ​freely moveable



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