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PERSONALITY
Psychoanalytic
Freud’s psychosexual theory
Structure: id (pleasure principle), ego
(reality principle), superego (morals,
ideals)
Levels of awareness: conscious, preconscious, unconscious
Development: oral, anal, phallic
(Oedipal complex, penis envy), latency, genital
Fixations
Defense mechanisms - reduce anxiety
Repression (primary)
Regression
Reaction formation
Rationalization
Displacement
Sublimation
Projection
Denial
Neo-Freudians
Adler—social, not sexual tensions
* Birth order, inferiority complex
Horney—rejected penis envy idea
Carl Jung—collective unconscious
Assessment
Projective tests
Rorschach
TAT - Thematic Apperception Test
Draw-a-person
Sentence completion
Evaluation:
* Repression often not shown (vivid
memory often results after trauma)
* Terror management theory

Social-cognitive

Humanism
Maslow—self-actualization
Hierarchy of needs
* Safety—security—love—selfesteem—self-actualization
Carl Rogers—person-centered
Genuineness
Unconditional positive regard
Empathy

Trait theory
Greeks—4 humors (choleric, sanguine, melancholic, phlegmatic)
Allport (student of Freud)
Eysenck—unstable/stable; introverted/extroverted
Costa & McCrae (Big 5)
OCEAN (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, neuroticism)
Assessment
MMPI (used factor analysis, empirically derived)
Cattell’s 16PF
Person-situation controversy
Walter Mischel—emphasizes
power of situational factors
Expressive style—thin slices
Barnum effect—astrology, etc
...
secure
Self-serving bias

STRESS & HEALTH
Stress response
Stressor—leads to eustress or distress
Depends on appraisal
Fight-or-flight—Walter Cannon
Adrenal glands
* Epinephrine (quick response)
* Glucocorticoids (slow response)
General Adaptation Syndrome—Selye
Alarm—activation of sympathetic
nervous system
Resistance—deal with/fight
Exhaustion—breakdown of immune
system (telomeres in DNA affected,
can’t replicate); hippocampus can’t
make new memories as well
Illness
Heart (Friedman & Rosenman study)
Type A—anger, reactive vs
...
72
Fraternal twins correlation +
...
) vs
...
)
* Schedules of reinforcement
Continuous (rapid learning)
Partial (intermittent)
- Ratio (certain # of behaviors)
* Fixed (5 visits to restaurant =
free meal)
* Variable (slot machine)
- Interval (certain period of time)
* Fixed (ex
...
m
...
shooting stars)
Punishment
Positive punishment (add bad thing)
Negative punishment (take away good)
*Both create avoidance behaviors
(ex
...
reinforced)

Latest contributions
Latent learning (Tolman)
- cognitive maps (demonstrate
learning after award is given)
Intrinsic motivation (desire to do
something for its own sake)
- When rewards are given for activity that is intrinsically rewarding, enjoyment declines
(overjustification effect)
Extrinsic motivation (desire to do
something for reward)
- Should be recognition for a job
well done
Biological predispositions
- Easier to condition behaviors that
match natural behavior
Legacy of Skinnerian thinking
- Criticism of deterministic philosophy, dehumanization, loss of
personal freedom
Observational learning (modeling)
Mirror neurons (biological basis)
- promote empathy
Bandura’s Bobo doll study
Child watches adult, mimics
Increase of violence, aggression
Media influence
Violent crimes—87% on TV,
13% real life
Violent action is correlated to
viewing violence (media, video
games) - leads to desensitization

MEMORY
ENCODING

Controlled by attention
Types:
Acoustic
Visual
Semantic

STORAGE

Information-processing theory
Sensory
STM
LTM
Sensory memory (Sperling)
Iconic
Echoic

RETRIEVAL

Aids (retrieval cues):
Context
State-dependent
Mood-congruent
Priming
Recognition vs
...
recognition
Decay of fluid intelligence
Consistency of crystallized
Intelligence
Dementia
Alzheimer’s disease

Lev Vygotsky (social-cognitive)
Zone of proximal development
Mentors
Lorenz’s study of imprinting
Harlow’s research on touch
Stranger anxiety
Ainsworth’s attachment theory
Strange situation paradigm
Secure attachment (60%)
Insecure attachment
Ambivalent
Avoidant
Baumrind’s parenting styles
Authoritarian
Authoritative
Permissive
Erikson’s stages (psychsocial)
Trust vs
...
shame & doubt
(1-2) independence
Initiative vs
...
inferiority
(6-12) accomplishment
Identity vs
...
isolation
(20s to 40s) relationship
Generativity vs
...
despair

COGNITIVE
Schemas
Assimilation
Accommodation
Sensorimotor stage (0-2)
Object permanence (6 mos)
Preoperational stage (2-7)
Egocentrism
Animism
Symbolic thought begins
Concrete operational stage (812)
Conservation
Volume
Area
Number
Reversibility
Formal operational stage (12+)
Hypothesis testing
Abstract thinking
Megacognition
Self concept
18 mo
...
g
...
hemisphere
Left hemisphere
Language/logic

Right hemisphere
Nonverbal/spatial/
musical/recognition

Methods of study
Structure
Lesions
CT scan
MRI

The endocrine system

Function
EEG
PET scan
fMRI

Pituitary—master gland
(directed by the hypothalamus)
Biochemically the same as neurotransmitters
Adrenal gland—stress hormones

Perspectives
Introspection
Wilhelm Wundt—1st lab, Germany
Structuralism
William James—1st text, Harvard
Functionalism
Gestalt—total experience ―the whole‖
Perception
Psychoanalysis—Freud
Behaviorism—Watson (Little Albert),
Skinner (operant conditioning)
Humanism (Maslow, Rogers
Biological—brain chemistry, hormones, etc
...

Control condition
Independent variable
Experimenter manipulates
Dependent variable
Experimenter measures
Confounding variables
Random selection
Random assignment

Measuring data
Descriptive statistics
Central tendency (averages)
Mean
Median
Mode
Normal curve
Correlations (relationships)
Scatterplot
Correlation coefficient
Variation
Range
Standard deviation
Inferential statistics
Do my results matter?
* Sample size influence
* Significant differences
p<
...
perception
Bottom-up processing
Top-down processing
Prosopagnosia
Thresholds
Psychophysics
Absolute threshold
Signal detection theory
Subliminal messages
Difference threshold (JND)
Weber’s Law/Fechner’s Law
Sensory adaptation
Transduction
Receptors

Other senses
Touch
Pressure, temperature, pain
Nociceptors
Gate-control theory
Taste (gustatory sense - chemical)
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami
Taste buds
Sensory interaction
McGurk effect
Smell (olfactory sense - chemical)
Does not go through the thalamus
Direct route to limbic system
Kinesthesis
Vestibular sense
semicircular canals
Synaesthesia

Light energy
Wavelength (color)
Amplitude (brightness)
Parts of the eye
Cornea
Pupil
Lens
Accommodation
Retina (transduction here)
Rods (120 million)
Cones (6 million)
Fovea
Bipolar cells
Ganglion cells
Optic nerve to occipital lobe
Blind spot
Visual acuity
Nearsightedness/farsightedness
Feature detectors
Parallel processing
Blindsight
Change blindness
Retina to thalamus to cortex
Color interpretation
Young-Helmholtz theory
Subtractive color mixing
Additive color mixing
Opponent-process theory
Afterimages
Color constancy

Sound energy
Frequency (pitch)
Amplitude (loudness)
Measured in dB (decibels)
Every 10 dB = 10 times louder
Parts of the ear
Outer ear
Pinna (visible part)
Auditory canal
Middle ear
Tympanic membrane (eardrum)
Ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup)
Inner ear
Oval window
Cochlea
Basilar membrane
Hair cells (transduction here)
Organ of Corti
Semicircular canals (NOT for
hearing)
Auditory nerve to temporal lobe
Perceiving sound
Place theory
Frequency theory
Volley principle
Sound localization
Hearing loss
Sensorineural hearing loss
Cochlear implant
Conduction hearing loss

The basics

PERCEPTION

Other principles

Visual perception
Sensation vs
...

Hypnagogic sensations
Stage 2 (K-complexes, sleep spindles)
Approx
...

Latent content
Information-processing theory
Filing experience
Synthesizing memory
Pruning connections
Build neural pathways
Activation-synthesis theory
Pons generates neural firing
Lucid dreams
Conscious awareness of dream
state

Hypnosis
Mesmer (18th century)
Susceptibility
Creativity, desire influences
Therapeutic capacity
Posthypnotic suggestions
Pain alleviation
Selective attention?
Theories:
Social influence theory
Emphasizes desire of subjects
to do well
Divided consciousness theory
Emphasizes dissociation
Hilgard’s ―hidden observer‖

Psychoactive drugs
Tolerance/withdrawal
Involves neuroadaptation
Addiction
Depressants
Alcohol
Reduces inhibitions
Impairs activity of frontal lobe
Disrupts formation of LTM
Barbiturates (tranquilizers)
Reduce anxiety, mimic alcohol
Opiates (endorphin agonists)
Morphine, heroin, oxycontin
Stimulants
Amphetamines/meth
Cocaine—rush/crash
Ecstasy—also a hallucinogen
Stimulates serotonin
Interferes w/sleep, impairs
memory, reduces immune response
Hallucinogens
LSD—serotonin agonist
Marijuana—cannabinoid agonist
Disrupts memory formation
Reverse tolerance

MOTIVATION
Physiology of hunger
Keys’ research
Cannon’s research
Body chemistry
Insulin up, glucose down
Hypothalamus stimulation
Lateral—hunger increases
Orexin produced
Ventromedial—hunger declines
Hormones
Ghrelin—hunger increases
PYY—suppresses hunger
Proteins
Leptin—decreases hunger
Orexin—increases hunger

Theories of motivation
Instinct theory (evolutionary)
- fixed patterns, unlearned
Drive-reduction theory (Clark Hull)
Object is homeostasis
- Pulled by incentives (external)
Arousal theory
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Easy task—high arousal
Difficult task—moderate
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Physiological at base, then safety,
belonging & love, esteem,
self-actualization, transcendence
Need to belong
Ostracism—activates anterior cingulate cortex (also activates with
pain)

Psychology of hunger
Achievement motivation
Neophobia (avoidance of unfamiliar
food)
Eating disorders
Anorexia nervosa
At least 15% underweight
Continue to view self as fat
Bulimia nervosa
Binge-purge pattern
Not necessarily low weight
Obesity (30% in US)

Flow
I/O psychology
Personnel psychology
To avoid the interviewer illusion
Structured interviews
360-degree feedback
Grit (determination, breeds success)
Theory X vs
...
social leadership
Great person theory
Transformational leadership

Physiology of sex
Kinsey report
Masters & Johnson research
Sexual response cycle
Excitement—plateau—orgasm—
resolution (refractory period)
Sexual disorders
Premature ejaculation
Erectile dysfunction
Orgasmic disorder
Hormones
Estrogen / androgens (testosterone)

Psychology of sex
External stimuli
Habituation occurs
Decreased satisfaction w/sexual partners
Gender roles/gender identity
Sexual orientation
Estimated 3-4% men, 1-2% women
But could be higher (response bias)
Identical twin studies support genetic
basis
Hypothalamus differences (LeVay)
Anterior commissure differences
Fraternal birth order effect
Same sex attraction in animals
(6-10%)
Finger length/fingerprint ridges
(7th/16th week of development)

EMOTION
Theories
Emotion—arousal, expressive behavior, and conscious experience
James-Lange theory: physiological response 1st, emotion 2nd
Cannon-Bard theory: physiological response at the same time as experience of emotion
Schachter’s two-factor theory: physiological arousal, then appraisal
(cognition) creating emotion label
Spillover effect: Stirred up
physiological state can be misinterpreted as emotional state
Zajonc’s theory: Subliminal processing
of emotions (neural pathway is
from thalamus to amygdale)
Lazarus: Cognitive appraisal controls
emotion

Nervous system
Autonomic arousal
Sympathetic nervous system: pupils
dilate, dry mouth, perspiration, fast
breathing, accelerated heart rate,
slowed digestion, stress hormones
released (fight-or-flight)
Parasympathetic nervous system: returns body to original calm state

Expressed emotion
Nonverbal communication
Easily detect threatening cues
Thin slices (quick views of interactions) - some better at reading
Gender differences
Women tend to be more able to
read non-verbal cues
Also tend to communicate emotion
better
Ekman’s research
Microexpressions
Universal emotional expressions
Happiness, surprise, fear, sad
ness, anger, disgust
Facial feedback: we feel the emotion
we show
Behavior feedback: we feel the emotion our body looks like it’s feeling
Empathy: feeling another’s emotion
Mirror neurons
Reading emotion: autistic people
show problems in reading emotional states of others

Experience of emotion
Emotion = valence (pleasant/
unpleasant) and arousal (low/high)
Fear—learn early, through conditioning, observation
* Amygdala key
* Anterior cingulated cortex
Anger Catharsis hypothesis—release
But creates more anger
Reinforcement
How to control?
Waiting to act
Exercise
Forgiveness
Happiness (subjective well-being)
* Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
* People who value love over money
report higher life satisfaction
* Adaptation-level phenomenon
* Relative deprivation principle
Predictors: high self-esteem, optimism, close friendships/marriage,
engaging work, meaningful faith,
good sleep, exercise
Contributors: know that wealth
doesn’t make you happy, control
your time, act happy, seek enjoyable
work, exercise, sleep, make relationships a top priority, help others, be
grateful, seek spiritual fulfillment

COGNITION
Concepts
Metacognition—wow!
Organization:
Hierarchies
Prototypes

Problem solving
Barriers:
Fixations:
Functional fixedness
Mental set
Confirmation bias
Overconfidence
Approaches:
Trial and error
Insight
Algorithm
Heuristics
Representativeness heuristic
Based on prototypes
Availability heuristic
Based on vivid experience
Issues:
Framing (wording)
Belief bias
Belief perseverance
Illusory correlation
Memory reconstruction
Self-serving bias

Intuition
Factors:
Blindsight
Right-brain thinking
Moral thinking (Haidt’s theory)
Automatic processing/implicit memory
Creativity
Thin slices
Subliminal stimulation
Microexpressions
Dual attitude system
Unconscious/conscious
Implicit/explicit
Gut-level/rational

About Language
Structure
Phonemes
Morphemes
Grammar
Semantics
Syntax
Appearance
Babbling (approx
...
‖
* Common elements
Surface structure (syntax)
Deep structure (semantics)
* Critical period
Age 7 for language acquisition
Cochlear implants
Best results 2-4 year olds

Language & Thinking
Whorf’s linguistic determinism theory
(or linguistic relativity theory)
- language shapes thinking
Evidence: bilingual advantage
Thinking in images (process simulation)
Animal thinking
* Concept formation
* Theory of mind—similar to 2 yr
...
divergent thinking
How to maximize:
Develop expertise
Keep a venturesome personality
Stay intrinsically motivated
Live in creative environment

Neurological evidence
Brain anatomy:
Larger brain (thickening of cortex due to
enhanced connections?)
17% more synapses (maybe better neural
plasticity?)
Einstein’s brain—thicker in parietal lobe
(math/spatial intelligence?)
Brain function:
Frontal lobe activity during IQ test questions
Perceptual speed correlates positively
Neurological speed (evoked brain response faster)
More efficient glucose consumption
Uses less, processes more efficiently?
Genes:
Identical twins highly correlated
Adopted children, little correlation
Heritability

Assessing intelligence
Binet’s test (to identify special needs)
Terman (Stanford)
Supported eugenics (Social Darwinism)
American version (Stanford-Binet)
MA/CA X 100 = IQ
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
(WISC)
Bias: Stereotype threat, gender bias

Creating tests
Standardization
Representative sample, compare scores
Chart on normal curve
68-95-99
...
Condition?
Axis 4—psychosocial or environmental problems?
Axis 5—global assessment of functioning (0-100)
Diagnostic labeling
Advantages:
Appropriate treatment
Stimulate research
Payment of insurance
Disadvantages:
Rosenhan’s study—labeling leads to
self-fulfilling prophecies? Cause
interpretations of behavior?
Insanity—when?
M’Naughten rule—is the defendant
unable to distinguish right from
wrong because of mental defect?
90% of those with disorders are not
dangerous to others

Anxiety disorders (#7)
Panic disorder
- strikes suddenly
- panic attacks (seem like heart attacks)
- often linked to agoraphobia
Phobias—focused fear
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
Obsessions—thoughts
Compulsions—behaviors
PTSD (post-traumatic stress disorder)
GAD (generalizaed anxiety disorder)
Free-floating anxiety
Source:
- Behavioral interpretation
* Classical conditioning & generalization
* Negative reinforcement maintains the
fear
- Observational learning?
- Biology (natural selection, genes, activity in
anterior cingulated cortex, activity in
amygdale, GABA)

Dissociative disorders (#10)
Dissociative identity disorder
- multiple personality
Dissociative fugue
- person doesn’t remember past,
wakes up in strange location
Dissociative amnesia
- person doesn’t remember past
No biological explanations

Mood (affective) disorders (#6)
Depression (common cold of disorders)
Major depressive disorder (more than 2
weeks of debilitating depression)
Dysthymic disorder (more than 2 years
feeling bad most days)
Bipolar disorder
Mania (restlessness, risk-taking, craziness,
fast talking) alternates with depression
- May be fast cycling or slow cycling
Explanations:
Genetic predispositions (linkage analysis,
association studies)
Brain chemistry (serotonin, norephinephrine, dopamine; decreased activity in left
frontal lobe
Social-cognitive
Self-defeating beliefs (learned helplessness)
Optimistic Explanatory Style
Stable, global, internal (depressed)
Temporary, specific, external
(non-depressed)
Vicious cycle of depression:
Stressful experience…
...
leads to
Depressed mood… leads to
More stressful experiences
...

fraternal twins
Psychological factors/warning signs
* Birth complications
* Mother with schizophrenia
* Separation from parents
* Disruptive or withdrawn behavior
* Poor muscle coordination
* Poor attention span
* Poor peer relationships/solo play
* Emotional unpredictability
Typical onset—teens or early 20s

Cluster A (eccentric)
Paranoid personality disorder
Schizoid personality disorder—odd, withdrawn behavior
Schizotypal personality disorder—with some
schizophrenic-like symptoms
Cluster B (dramatic)
Antisocial personality disorder—lack of remorse, empathy (mirror neurons); typical
onset about 8 yrs
...
ulcers)
Conversion disorder—psychological
problem converted to non-biological
physical problem (ex
...
response for unwanted behavior)
Operant conditioning applications:
- punishment (bed-wetting buzzers)
- behavior modification
* token economy

Cognitive therapy
Aaron Beck (cognitive triad)
Albert Ellis (RET)
Stress inoculation training (change in thinking
patterns to stress)
Cognitive-behavioral therapy

Group/family therapy
Saves time/money
Humanistic foundation
Often as effective as individual therapy

Effectiveness
People report that therapy is effective
* But regression toward the mean?
* Selective recall
* Eysenck’s research: 2/3 improved with or
without therapy
Depression: cognitive, interpersonal, behavior
Anxiety: cognitive, exposure, behavioral
Bulimia: cognitive-behavioral therapy
Other unusual treatments:
EMDR— For trauma victims
Light exposure therapy—for SAD

Biomedical therapy
1950’s—deinstitutionalization
Antipsychotic medications (D2 antagonists):
Chlorpromazine (Thorazine) - pos
...

Mood stabilizers
Lithium—bipolar
Depakote—bipolar (originally for seizures)
Brain stimulation
ECT (electroconvulsive therapy)
rTMS (magnetic stimulation)
Surgery: Lobotomy (Moniz)

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Attribution theory
Internal vs
...
social inhibition
* related to Yerkes-Dodson Law
Social loafing

Attitude change
Cognitive/affective components of attitudes (attitude vs
...
Informational social influence
Obedience (Milgram’s study)

Deindividuation
* loss of identity, others don’t know who you
are
Group polarization
* movement to more extreme positions
Groupthink (Janus)
* influenced by desire for harmony

Aggression and conflict
Biology: genetics, amygdala, decreased frontal lobe activity, testosterone levels
Psychology
* Frustration-aggression principle
* Modeling (observational learning)
* Social scripts (mental tapes on how to act)
* Video games?
* Catharsis hypothesis (builds more anger)
Conflict
* Social traps
- pursue self-interest, everyone loses
* Enemy perceptions
- mirror-image perceptions

Attraction and altruism

Minority influence
* self-confidence, determination key
Prejudice (attitude) — leads to discrimination
(behavior)
* Social roots: social inequality, blame-thevictim, in-group vs
...
companionate love (key is equity, selfdisclosure)
* Physical attractiveness key
* Similarity
* Proximity (mere exposure effect)
Altruism
Bystander affect
* diffusion of responsibility
* pluralistic ignorance
* Explained by social exchange theory
* Reciprocity norm
* Social responsibility norm
Peacemaking, GRIT
*Superordinate goals



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