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Title
The Inductive Thinking Model: Learning to think inductively
Introduction
“Thinking inductively is inborn and lawful”, says Hilda Taba, the founder and developer of the
Inductive Thinking/Teaching models (Joyce, et al
...
41)
...
Curriculum oriented,
the author occupied a relevant position in the ‘traditional curriculum theory’
...
This evidences her lifelong desire to unriddle the
lapses in theory and practice through teachers
...
, 2004)
...
The model proposed and developed for over a decade and half was founded
on her teaching strategies of cognitive tasks
...


1

The development of the Taba’s Inductive teaching model was facilitated through various financial
assistance from the Office of Education, United States of America (USA)
...
On the other hand, ‘No
...
Centered on these works, Taba’s ideas first came to light by emergent
publications from Addison-Wesley; the 1967 edition of the Teacher’s handbook for Elementary
Social Studies (Joyce, et al
...

Irrespective of Taba’s demise in 1967 with unaccomplished works, her associates (Norman E
...
Durkin, Jack R Fraenkel, Anthony N
...
Sawin)
completed the final research which was conducted at San Francisco State College
...
Composited of the program were eight (8) volumes; 4 each associated with
secondary and elementary education (Michelle, 1986; Taba, 1962)
...
S
...


2

For what is known to be the Inductive teaching model originated from Taba’s initiative works with
children and saw the supports of the U
...
Office of Education
...
This papers therefore seeks to explore and review the “Inductive
Thinking/Teaching Model” whose origin can be traced to Hilda Taba and her first works involving
children’s thinking
...

Taba’s Conception of Thinking
Taba’s conception of thinking emanated from her membership of an evaluation staff in the Eight
Year Study in the 1930’s which was sponsored by the Progressive Education Association (19321940)
...
The Study distinguished thought processes whose progress was later measured using
diagnostic evaluation instruments which they developed
...
Among
them were; the ability to make generalizations from specific data, apply known concepts to
unknown/new situations and do perform critical thinking activities (Taba, 1964; Michelle, 1986)
...


3

The objectives also gave reverence to the sought for assistance and verification of predications and
hypothesis in the final aspect but however had critical thinking excluded as the curriculum was not
rooted in critical thinking perspective (Taba, 1964; Michelle, 1986)
...
Cognition and thinking are
replaceable conceptions with contextual meanings which however share akin structures on
theoretical basis
...
These
studies formed the fundaments of the Inductive Teaching Model that was rooted in Her Contra
Costa Social studies Curriculum in California, 1964 (Piaget, 1953; Dewey, 1933; Bruner, et al
...

Before discussing the conceptual thinking structure of inductive thinking generated and developed
by Hilda Taba, the cognition-oriented conceptions that emanated from precious cognition need to
be reviewed
...
The why and how relevant
those areas of emphasis are that led to their adoption would be investigated through an analysis of
the cognition literature from previous studies
...


4

Piaget’s Cognition Concept
Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist (1896-1980) although not trained as a psychologist but had a
biological orientation of genetics developed one of the most influential cognitive developmental
theories in education
...
Piaget introduced two major thought concepts in his cognitive development studies
assimilation and accommodation which Taba found useful in her inductive thinking approach
hence the adoption
...

On the other hand, the second stage, the pre-operational Stage (2-7) constitutes where children
commerce representational thoughts and symbols with rapid language development although
children were found yet to develop logical reasoning
...
The final stage; the formal
operational stage (11 and Above) constitutes the period where children begin to address concrete
problems applying causality principles and are more abstract and hypothetically oriented (Piaget,
1953; 1951, 1972; Piaget and Cook, 1952; Taba, 1964; Michelle, 1986)
...
These concepts were adopted into the Inductive Teaching Model
where they usually are described the ‘dual mechanism of two complementary processes
...
Cognitively during assimilation, Piaget indicated children modify concepts to be
adjustable to already formulated schemes where in accommodation, children modify or swap
already formulated schemes in the process of assimilating concepts (Piaget, 1953; 1951, 1972;
Piaget and Cook, 1952; Taba, 1964)
...
Taba’s
model of teaching had basic conceptions of Dewey’s scientific inquiry theoretical model and
problem solving which was Dewey most emphasized aspect
...
For instance, Taba’s third strategy “application of principles” signifies
suggesting possible solutions and testing of consequences as seen in Dewey’s third and fourth
steps (Michelle, 1986; Dewey, 1933; Taba, 1964)
...
A Study
of Thinking, (1956), their land mark book of which the study was found, is relative to the ‘concept
formation’ (first strategy) of the Taba’s Inductive Teaching Model
...
, (1956) proposed
two categorization components; the act of categorizing formation and concept attainment (Bruner,
et al
...

Bruner and associates’ categorizing thinking had components of learner being characterized as
‘active tester of hypothesis’ which Taba adopted focusing on cognitive processes such as
discrimination, grouping and labeling which were incorporated in the Contra Costa curriculum of
social studies in 1964 (Bruner, et al
...

His study of the structure of the intellect in 1959 facilitated thinking conceptions through the
differentiated divergent or creative thinking functions
...
Guilford’s theory and model made
of four operational cognitive stages were incorporated into Taba’s Inductive Teaching Model
...


7

The preceded discussion established the origin of Taba’s conception of thinking that she
incorporated in the Contra Costa curriculum of social studies in California, 1964
...
It is evident that the Taba’s Inductive Teaching/Thinking Model was
rooted in the findings and the theoretical orientation of the following cognition researchers; Jean
Piaget, John Dewey, Jerome Bruner and Guilford
...


8

The Inductive Teaching Model
The Inductive Teaching Model composited the Inductive Thinking which was developed by Hilda
Taba in 1964 that emanated from analysis and incorporation of prior thinking conceptions and
theories; Piaget, (1953), Dewey, (1933), Bruner, (1956) and Guilford, (1960) into Her Contra
Costa Social studies Curriculum in California, 1964
...
Wallen, Mary C
...
McNaughton, and Enoch I
...
Developed
with an integrated approach that composited many theoretical conceptions of prior researchers on
cognition and the experiences of the social studies curriculum, the Taba’s Inductive Teaching
Model often called the Inductive Thinking Model was developed (Taba 1964, 1962; Piaget, 1953;
Dewey, 1933; Bruner, et al
...

The Teaching Model focused on the student stimulation to form conceptualized conceptions
through logical reasoning, categorization and or classification vis-sa-vis suggestion of possible
solutions towards solving tasks
...
, 2004; Joyce
and Weil, 1980; Taba, 1964, 1962)
...
It is interesting to note that some
researchers, theorists and practitioners prefer to call it Inductive Teaching versus Inductive
Thinking on the other hand
...
Drawn from the observation and study of human mental forces, the following
quote of Taba establishes podium of swerve in curriculum development
...
recent studies of learning and experimentation with curriculum have greatly extended the scope
of responsibilities of the schools
...
The development of cognitive powers now is recognized as an important aspect of
excellence
...
We no longer can assume that mastering well organized knowledge
automatically develops either autonomous or creative minds" (Taba 1967)
...
With inferences to the United States, Michelle, (1986) indicated that
modern educational critics in the United States preaches at peaks ‘teaching for thinking’
...
Developed from the Taba’s thinking
perspectives were many critical thinking conceptions about teaching for creative thinking in
classrooms in the United States and World at large (Taba, 1967, 1964, 1962; Michelle, 1986; A
Nation at Risk, 1983; Educating Americans for the 21st Century, 1903; ASCD, 1984)
...
These varied aspects of the Inductive
Teaching Model would be given enough consideration in the discussion
...
These assumptions guided and shaped the objectives, structure
and strategies of the Teaching/Thinking Model
...
Second, thinking constitutes active transaction between an
individual and data and or concepts they are working with
...

In addition, the third assumption included that, thinking capabilities can not be transferred from
teachers to students neither can it be “given”
...
This she prioritized depends on the
relevance of the content presented to students
...
All school children have abstract
thinking potentials at diverse levels; this make up the fifth assumption whereas the sixth one
established that precise teaching and learning strategies can be developed to encourage and
improve thinking of students
...


11

The Objectives of the Inductive Teaching Model
The teaching model adopted from a multi-theoretical and cognition and thinking perspective is
composed of mainly four (4) interconnected; interrelated and corresponsive objectives
...

▪

Knowledge of content

▪

Thinking

▪

Attitudes

▪

Skills

As indicated, these objectives constituted a broader category of the Inductive Teaching Model and
they are further discussed
...
Linkages
between and among both broader category objectives and subjects were reviewed to establish the
connections that facilitate collective achievement of the Inductive Teaching objectives
...
Key concepts were used to refer to the focal points continuum that continuously
reoccur through out the contents of teaching the curriculum
...
constitute such conceptions in the curriculum which
usually possess high abstraction levels (Taba, 1964, 1962; Michelle, 1986)
...
These conceptions as curriculum was derived from the societal norms, need and demands
sought to demonstrate the interrelationships between communities and the curriculum
...
It is
argued these key conceptions are incorporated into the curriculum from broader fields such as
anthropology, economics, geography, sociology and political and nonetheless, history
...

Taba, (1964) using the various categories, organized hey concepts into the curriculum
...
Oriented towards the
advocates of the societies, the ecological validity confirms and assesses if the main concepts
selected can sufficiently serve the needs of the discipline
...
This criterion could be assessed and testified in
terms of the needs of the modern society whereas the third category takes on the appropriateness
of the selection of the main concepts
...

However, the fourth selection criterion of main concepts is the durability factor
...

In addition, attention is paid to curriculum content (subject matter) balance
...


13

Questions often asked within this period of selection include; “does the content select permit easy
comprehension?”
...
This includes the settings and coverage of the learning content
selected; whether content comes from diverse sources (Taba, 1964)
...
They include; concept formation, interpretation of data and application of principles
...
, 2004)
...

She addressed attitudes to include the feelings and sensitiveness in areas such as; empathy, selfconfidence and open-mindedness
...
Students’ attitudes should according to Taba encompass the attributes of identifying with
other people, comfortability in differing others and exploration of diversified views of self and
others with some degree of objectivity
...


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Skills Objective
The Inductive Teaching Model emanated from a curriculum which emphasized and advocated the
teaching of both academic and social skills
...
Among the skills that Taba recommended in
students included selective reading, asking relevant questions and the development of relevant
hypothesis that matter in the learning content (Michelle, 1986; Taba, 1962)
...
Planning cooperatively and the
undertaking group discussions in group contexts was the one of the major focuses of the Inductive
Teaching Model objective category in terms of skills; social skills of student to be specific
(Michelle, 1986)
...
The teaching model was developed with the orientation towards the productive
thinking aimed at maximizing problem-solving techniques among students in their learning
processes
...
The below quote best describes the autonomy
development among students as inscribed in one of the curriculum handbooks
...

Consequently, the nature and the organization of learning activities should be calculated to
encourage the learner to inquire, to do his own thinking, to develop his own ways of working out
problems, and to try out and to evaluate his own ideas
...
Even though the products may be less refined than the teacher would wish
...
, 1971)
...
The Inductive Teaching Model Structure

Source: Michelle, 1986
The preceded table encompasses a broader spectrum of the structure of the Inductive Teaching
Model
...
These phases represent in broader concept how teachers and students
can learn to attain productive thinking progressing from one phase in a strategy to the other phase
of the next strategy
...

17

Teaching Strategies
Teaching Strategies encompass the final aspect of the Taba Inductive Teaching Model developed
in 1964 in California during Her Social Studies curriculum implementation
...
, (1971), Inductive Teaching Model successes are predicated by the strategies that teachers adopt
during curriculum implementation
...
It is therefore oriented towards the development of effective strategies that facilitate the
intuition of cognitive skills among students (Taba, et al
...

"
...
A
comparison of results from coding discussion transcripts according to levels of thought, both in
classrooms where teachers used appropriate strategies and in classrooms in which they did not,
indicates the enormous influence of adequate teaching strategies on the thirsting of students
...
Furthermore, it is quite clear
that, when appropriate teaching strategies are employed, this advance in the level of cognitive
functioning is not limited to students of high abilities (as measured by current intelligence tests),
many students who were considered slow 1 earners also advanced, beginning to think on a more
abstract level " (Taba 1966)
...
They were; firstly, Taba assumed that ‘learning is not always
the product of teaching’
...

18

The second aspect of strategy designation in teaching Taba predicted was a complicated process
which have diverse decision-making criteria
...
The analysis should be based upon the acquisition of knowledge, cognition
development, academic and social skills mastery as well as attitudes and feelings development
(Taba, 1966; Michelle, 1986)
...
Evidenced in the review, the Inductive
Teaching Model was developed by Hilda Taba amidst her demise in 1967 which had his
accomplishes and associates completed the study grants and published most of her uncompleted
works later
...
Derived from Her social studies curriculum, Taba, (1964)
indicated for a curriculum to teach inductively to promote productive thinking among students, the
major aspects described must be incorporated into such a curriculum
...
Inductive Thinking stands tall in modern educational
instructions
...
Inductive Teaching Model of Taba, (1964) mainly is composed of three
inductive processes of learning; concept formation, interpretation of data and application of
principles
...


19

Inductive Thinking and Inductive Teaching Model should not be confused, they are not two
different models
...
Inductive Teaching Model developed by Taba, (1964) is
composed of the following aspects; the assumptions, Objectives, Structure and Strategies
...
They broad
categories of conceptions that are put together to maximize productive thinking in the teaching
and learning process
...

Figure 2
...

Another assumption on which the model was developed was that all subject contents present equal
thinking opportunities for children and as such data present for thinking among students should be
clear enough
...
The Inductive Teaching Model was developed with the preceded
guided assumptions
...

Although the Inductive Teaching Model was developed with aspects that characterizes structures
and strategies, in actual implementation of the Teaching Model in modern classrooms that target
thinking inductively as products, studies argued that, educationists and theories tend to focus on
the second objective of the teaching model which include the “Inductive Thinking” in itself
...

Considering analysis of the Inductive Teaching Model, it is argued, in most literature, educational
stakeholders and class teachers including researchers tend to focus on the objectives of the teaching
model
...


21

As such, the inductive thinking development process tend to be cut out from the original model,
thus, most researchers, educators and practitioners tend to focus on the attainment of inductive
thinking which in broader sense represents the major aim of the Inductive Teaching Model (Joyce
and Weil, 2004, 2000)
...
This explains
why the works of Joyce and Weil, (2004) tend to focus on only the Inductive Thinking process,
the center of the Inductive Teaching Model
...
These
tasks include; concept formation, interpretation of data and the application of skills (Joyce and
Weil, 2000; Taba, 1964)
...
These breakdowns
appear simpler to all as compared to the original version and phases and concepts used by Taba,
(1964) and her accomplishes
...
The conceptual model of teaching
appeared more applicable in the Contra Costa social studies curriculum developed by Taba when
working with children in California, 1964
...

The Inductive Thinking; The Joyce, et al
...
, (2004, p
...
The researchers acknowledged the fact that, applying the thinking model
teaching to varied concepts may be challenging but on the average, Joyce, et al
...
These planning
processes which can be categorized as ‘strategies’ in view point of Taba, (1964), the researchers
(Joyce, et al
...
The Inductive
Thinking planning process include; focus, conceptual control and conversion of understanding to
skills (Joyce, et al
...

On the other hand, Joyce, et al
...

Composed of the syntax include similar terminologies in the process of developing inductive
thinking; identifying and enumerating data, grouping or classifying them, interpreting them and
converting of understanding to skills
...
, 2004; Taba, 1964)
...
Focus in this regard can be likened to that of the concept formation
in Taba, (1964) original structure of the Inductive Teaching Model
...
, 2004)
...
Data should be presented to students in formats that do not limit them to specific
trends of selection but those that allow enough exploration among students (Joyce, et al
...

For instance, a kindergarten teacher with the knowledge of inductive thinking in planning a lesson
on ‘colors’ as the focus will present to children objects that contains diverse colors and guide
children to observe, examine and describe their attributes which later can be linked to their (colors)
names
...


24

Conceptual Control
The second aspect to consider in the inductive thinking planning process of lessons is assisting
students to develop ‘conceptual’ (abstractions) control of the domain in the focus identified
...
, 2004)
...
They may also learn some similarities
about colors each of them has a name, certain degree appearance among others
...

Understanding Conversion into Skills
This aspect of the inductive process constitutes the application of the knowledge acquired to
children’s daily life activities
...
, 2004)
...


25

According to Joyce, et al
...
Thus, if children conceptualized ‘colors’ to
expectation from the focus developed, they could be able to relate this knowledge to materials
things and their daily life situations
...
, (2004, p
...
Grounded on this conception,
the researchers dissected the structural composer of the Inductive thinking process to simpler terms
that dominated the classification of learning concepts (Joyce, et al
...

Categorized as phases by Joyce, et al
...
As indicated earlier the, syntax (the structure) of the
Inductive Thinking process was categorized into four (4) stages
...
, 2004)
...
, 2004)
Phases of Taba’s Inductive Thinking Model (Joyce, et al
...

Countries;
Ghana

Norway

Samoa

Indonesia

Nigeria

Somalia

Vanuatu

Yemen

Lesotho

Equatorial Guinea

Cambodia

Zimbabwe

Peru

Japan

Thailand

Lebanon

Iraq

Morocco

Applying the Inductive Thinking process and structure according to Joyce, et al
...
This include the various country data that were given
students to examine based on common attributes
...


28

In the third phase, the teacher will guide the students to interpret this data categories and develop
labels accordingly
...
If students have not yet gotten the concept of continent, the teacher will guide
students to recognize and interpret the data by classifying them on continental basis
...
It purposefully will give students the skills of phonology; pronunciation of words
as in the names of countries, calculating and comparing the economic status of countries,
continents among others
...
Although her demise in 1967 left much of her
works unfinished, her accomplishes and associates (Norman E
...
Durkin, Jack R
Fraenkel, Anthony N
...
Sawin) finished up the works in the third grant
(Taba, 1964, 1962, 1967)
...

Within these aspects were categorical conceptions of Taba’s ideas inferred from the cognition
conceptions prior researchers such as Jean Piaget, John Dewey, Jerome Bruner and Associates and
Joy Paul Guilford
...

As indicated, the major purpose or result of the teaching is the production of inductive thinking
among students geared towards problem-solving techniques adopted from her former professor
and teacher John Dewey (Piaget, 1953, 1951, 1972; Dewey, 1953; Bruner, et al
...
Inductive thinking is an important problem
development teaching model mostly advocated in all modern educational settings
...

As much as many other researchers attempted to breakdown the teaching model into teachable
units, prior among them include Joyce and her counterparts who dissected the teaching model into
simpler contents which included also the inductive thinking process and the syntax (structure)
...
On the other hand, Joyce’s, et al
...


30

References
ASCD (1984)
...
ASCD Update 26
...
A Nation at Risk; The Imperative for Educational
Reform, (1983)
...
Washington, D
...

Brunswick, E
...
Systematic and Representative Design of Psychological Experiments
...

Bruner, J
...
, Goodnow, J
...
, Austin, G
...
(1956)
...
New York: Wiley
Dewey, J
...
How We Think
...

Educating Americans for the 21st Century, (1983)
...
D
...
: The National Science Board
Commission on Pre-College Education in Mathematics
...
D
...

Guilford, J
...
Basic Conceptual Problems in the Psychology of Thinking
...
Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, 91, 9 – 19
...
and Weil, M
...
Models of Teaching
...
and Weil, M
...
Models of Teaching (6th ed
...

Joyce, B
...
, and Calhoun, E
...
Models of Teaching (Seventh Edition)
...
Reprinted for People’s
Republic of China by Pearson Education Asia Ltd and China Light Industry Press: Pearson
Education
...
(1972)
...
New York: Basic Books
...
(1951)
...
J
...

Piaget, J
...
T
...
The origins of intelligence in children
...

Piaget, J
...
Logic and Psychology
...

Michelle, C
...
Hilda Taba’s Inductive Teaching Model: A Pioneering Effort in Teaching for
Thinking
...
(1962)
...
New York: Harcourt, Brace and
World
...
(1967)
...
Reading
...
(1966)
...

Washington, D
...
: U
...
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Cooperative
Research Project; No
...

Taba, H
...
Thinking in Elementary School Children
...
C
...
S
...
Education and Welfare, Cooperative Research Project; No
...
, Durkin, M
...
, Fraenkel, J
...
, and McNaughton, A
...
(1971)
...
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley

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