Notesale: Turn your study into money

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Example question: To what extent is the history of socialism a betrayal of its core values?
Look at question and pick out question words:
To what extent = evaluation
...
in Russia) were dominated by the aristocracy
- Representative government - right to vote reserved for the middle and upper classes
via a property qualification

-

Marx and Engels, 1848: Europe is haunted by “the spectre of communism” ie there
was growing desire for revolution

Why has social class played such an important role in socialist analysis?
Social class = division based on social and economic factors ie
...
Progressive extension of the franchise - all adults able to vote regardless of income or
property ownership
2
...
Socialism is the natural home of the working class - will be drawn to socialist policies
as they protect their interests
...
Social reform - once these parties are in power, they will gradually bring about
piecemeal change via parliamentary methods
Explain the key ideas of revisionist socialism
...
rich, white,
straight, male
- This is ignorant because it ignores issues of wealth
- Socialists favour politics of redistribution
- Progressive taxation ⇒ Redistribution ⇒ Welfare ⇒ Relative economic equality
- Helps people to overcome disadvantages linked to their class / income
- Allows access to the public sphere for all
- Legal and political equality is only beneficial for those with the economic power to
make use of these rights
- Fundamentalists: we all have broadly the same needs so should not need varying
levels of economic power
- We are all equal so should be treated equally in terms of material reward
- Equality of opportunity furthers the myth of innate inequality
- Based on a survival of the fittest mentality
- Breeds selfish behaviour
In what sense do socialists have a positive view of human nature?
-

We are social, cooperative gregarious creatures

-

Social animals: relationships are built around mutual respect, which will eventually
lead to social harmony
Plastic: our character is molded by our relationships and experiences
Owen: saw human nature as consequent to its environment
...

Roads to socialism:
- Revolutionary: the state is an agent of class oppression
- Acts in the interests of capital and against those of labour
- Elections are a facade at best, created to conceal the reality of class inequality
- Proletariat crippled by early industrialism leading to resentment
- Few other means of political influence for the working classes
- Evolutionary: socialism can come about via parliamentary methods
- Arrival of political democracy
- Govt works in the interests of the majority
- Living standards and wages improve as capitalism begins to work for the working
class
- Socialism can be brought about via education as it is morally superior to capitalism
Attitude to capitalism:
- Abolition of capitalism: it is inherently exploitative
- In order to extract profit the capitalist must pay the worker less than their labour is
worth
- Workers are alienated from their labour, themselves and others
- Capitalism must be overthrown and replaced with classless communism
- Humanise capitalism: only reliable way of generating wealth
- Creates incentive and cannot be abolished once we have had it
- Can be used to ameliorate rather than aggravate class conflict
- Wealth - taxation - redistribution - welfare
Ways of achieving collectivism:
- Common ownership: means of production should be owned by the collective
- See private property as unjust and divisive
- Common ownership ensures fairness
- Absolute social equality can be achieved
- We all reap the benefits of our labour rather than the capitalist
- Social solidarity: we want to work together

-

In line with view of human nature as social and cooperative creatures
Relative social equality
Absolute equality removes incentive - why work if you won’t be rewarded?
Does not reward extent of individual contribution
However, do not approve of vast inequality, as this is divisive and hinders
communitarianism

Why do fundamentalists support absolute equality?
Justice and fairness:
- Capitalism has fostered competitive and selfish behaviour
- Inequality is caused by society and the capitalist model rather than naturally
- Individuals have equal moral worth
- Therefore should be treated equally in terms of their rewards and material
circumstance
- Equality of opportunity perpetuates the myth of innate inequality
Community and cooperation:
- If people have equal material circumstances they will be more likely to identify with
one another
- Will be more willing to work together
- Equality of opportunity is based on a “survival of the fittest” mentality
- Encourages selfish behaviour for personal material gain
- Social inequality leads to resentment and conflict
Needs satisfaction:
- Basis for human fulfilment
- a need is something that demands satisfaction eg
...
Leads to fetishism (persuades us that
certain products are worth more than they truly are) and encourages people to be
materialistic and believe fulfilment can be achieved through the pursuit of wealth
- Divisive: fosters conflict between owners and workers, employers and employees,
rich and poor
...
” Discuss
...

- Socialists believe in this because of their belief in human nature as social,
cooperative, gregarious creatures
- Individual fulfilment can only be achieved as part of a collective
- What happens to the individual has an effect on the collective as a whole
- Leads to social harmony as relationships are built from respect
Para 1: Fundamentalists
- Support classless communism and pure collectivism
- Capitalism is unfair, divisive and breeds acquisitiveness
- The means of production should be owned by the collective, as this would lead to
social harmony and also fairness for workers
- People would naturally want to help and work for the good of the community
- Fully support collectivism and want there to be a revolution in order to achieve it
Para 2: Revisionists
- Believe in the importance of community and support collectivism with the concept of
a mixed economy
- Private sector needed to generate wealth which will be progressively taxed and
redistributed for the good of the community eg
...
they will
create jobs and hire the less wealthy, or buy their goods
Focus more on what binds communities together, aim for a consensus society, stress
the importance of community
Blair: in 2006 launched “respect agenda” which focused on the community eg
...
different to fundamentalists, who believe that no state has a place in socialism

Para 3: Neo-revisionists
- Will bring about socialism through trickle down economics and and
communitarianism
- Trickle down economics: those who are rich will create jobs for and buy the goods of
those who are poorer, thus sharing their wealth
- They focus much more on the individual and want to reward them for their efforts,
so do not support economic collectivism
- However, still want to create minimum wage and support child benefits, so do care
for the community and they support what binds it together
- V
...
Capitalism exploits the workers and does
not properly reward them for their work
- Community and cooperation: if we all have the same material wealth, it will breed
feelings of respect and harmony for one another
- Needs satisfaction: broadly speaking we all have the same needs, so there is no
reason for some people to have more than others
...
PFIs
- Inequality will be lessened through trickle down economics - the rich will employ the
poor and buy their goods, thus passing down some wealth
- Believe in social equality, have supported minimum wage (to get people started) and
positive discrimination in companies for racial minorities and women, school literacy
schemes
- “People are born with talent and everywhere it is in chains” - Blair
- Do not believe in equality of outcome but rather favour equality for opportunity for
all

Conservatism
15 marks
On what grounds do conservatives justify social hierarchy?
Organic society:
- Society is fragile, moral community held together by shared values
- All the parts work together
- The whole is more important than any individual
- Humans cannot exist outside society
- There is natural inequality on which our society is structured
- Inevitable feature of an organic society
- Burke: pre-democratic conservatism, there is a natural aristocracy
- It is inevitable that an elite will rise
Human imperfection:
- Take the Roman Catholic view that humans are born with original sin

-

Humans are morally, psychologically and intellectually flawed
Since we are intellectually limited we like to have stability
We need to know our place
Burke: we should “love the little platoon in society to which we belong”
Authority develops naturally
Must be imposed from above
Counters rootlessness and anomie (weakening of values associated with loneliness)

Noblesse oblige:
- We must recognise the obligations of our status so that society can function properly
- Believe that those born with privilege have a duty to society to look after those less
fortunate
- Inequality of power leads to inequality of responsibilities (Disraeli)
- Helps to prevent resentment from inequality building up too much and leading to
lack of order
- This hierarchy allows for stability and order
- Reform from above is better than revolution from below
How do traditional conservatives and the new right differ in their views of society?
Traditional:
- Society is organic and fragile
- Moral community held together by shared beliefs and values
- Humans cannot exist outside of society
- The whole is more important than individual parts
- Each level of society has a different role to play, but they are not all equal
- Has been compared to the human body
- Whole society has a common interest of order and stability
- There is a natural hierarchy as we are not all morally equal
- This leads to a belief in authority
Neoconservative:
- Also believe in the organic society and the natural hierarchy
- Big advocates of tradition and continuity, so disapprove of radical change which
would upset the balance of society
- We are morally and intellectually imperfect so we need to know our place
- Also support authority and law and order
Neoliberal:
- Society is atomistic
- Thatcher: “there is no such thing as society”
- Much more concerned with the individual
- We are all of equal moral worth
- Society is based on meritocracy
- Support social mobility on the basis of hard work and talent
- Do not think that this will destabilise society as it can withstand radical changes

On what grounds have conservatives defended authority?
What:
- Exercise of power over others for them to act in a manner not necessarily of their
choosing
- Central to conservatism and its need for order
- Manifests itself in strow law and order, policing, prison sentences
- They place security and order above individual freedom
- A life without law would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short” - Hobbes
- Authority is needed to defend order
Why:
-

Provides guidance ie
...
Disraeli
Govt should act in a fatherly fashion as a parent would towards a child
There is natural inequality and the govt knows what is best for people as they are
born to lead
Exercise of authority over others in order to protect them from making silly decisions
Simplifies decision making as we are intellectually limited and need the govt to
decide for us
Traditional conservatism favoured a state which could look after the poor and needy
Society held together by the recognition of obligations
It is the responsibility of the wealthy and privileged to look after those less fortunate
European revolutions of 1830 and 1848 support this
They have a duty to prevent inequality leading to resentment and then disorder
Reform from above is better than revolution from below
Voltaire: “with great power comes great responsibility”

Explain the implications of a conservative belief in the organic society
...

Neoliberalism:
- Updated version of classical liberalism
- Thatcher in UK, Reagan in the US
- Economic freedom is required for political freedom
- Superiority of free market delivers prosperity to all

-

Adam Smith - the market is guided by an invisible hand to positive outcomes
Importance of self-interested individuals
Have a rational view of human nature
Anti state - govt is cause of economic failure
Deregulation of business and finance
“Rolling back the frontiers of the state”
Atomistic view of society and belief in meritocracy
Freedom is only extended to the economy, so do not accept the whole of classical
liberalism

Neoconservatism:
- Emerged in 1970s US as a backlash against extreme permissiveness of 60s
- Answer to social fragmentation was to restore authority in society
- Via strict attitude to crime and tough sentencing
- Acts as a deterrent - people are morally limited
- Emphasise order, family, nationalism, traditional values
- Reject multiculturalism and are eurosceptic
- They threaten the delicate balance of society
- There is a natural hierarchy as we are not all equal
On what grounds have conservatives supported tradition and continuity?
Definition: beliefs, customs, institutions and practices handed down from one generation to
the next
-

Provides a sense of security, continuity with the past
Preserves best aspects of society
Darwinian: institutions which have stood the test of time were meant to survive
Respects religious faith (god’s will)
Monarchy, union, marriage, church, nuclear family, political institutions, patriotism,
military
Promotes social integration and belonging through creating a shared identity
Prefer a gradual approach to change - society is fragile and cannot withstand radical
change in short periods of time
Empiricism - judging actions against past experience
Burke: “Tradition is the accumulated wisdom of the past”

45 marks
To what extent is conservatism a philosophy of human imperfection?
Intro:
- Humans are morally, intellectually, psychologically imperfect
- We need order, stability, to know our place in society and guidance from govt to help
us know what to do with ourselves

-

This is where core values of hierarchy, order, noblesse oblige, paternalism come from
But liberal new right departs from that and take pessimistic but more rational
approach to human nature
So allow freedom, minimal state, atomistic society etc

Para 1: Paternalism
- People are intellectually limited and so need help from the government
- Govt looks after people like a parent would a child
- Helps with decision making: if people are told what to do they will not make silly
decisions and threaten the balance of society
- Eg
...
” Discuss
...
defined by support for capitalism
- Conservative new right perhaps focuses more on being socially illiberal
- Traditional conservatives support capitalism but believe it requires regulation like all
things in life by the govt
Para 1: Human rationality
- Liberal NR believe that humans are rational beings
- They can be left alone to their own decisions and do not require policing
- Unfettered capitalism gives people the most freedom and favours individual
enterprise
- Leads to a belief in the minimal state and unregulated economy
Para 2: Human Imperfection
- Humans are morally, intellectually and psychologically limited
- The free market is incomprehensible to them (intellectually) and they do not know
how to use it to their advantage
- Unfettered capitalism allows for too much freedom and leads to inequality
- Inequality leads to resentment and potentially revolution
Para 3: Meritocracy
- Superiority of free market delivers prosperity to all
- The free market does not discriminate due to race / gender etc, so those with talent
will naturally be rewarded

-

Those deserving will rise to the top
“It is not from the benevolence of the the butcher, the brewer or the baker that we
expect our dinner, but from their regard to their own self interest” - Adam Smith

Para 4: Instability
- Society is organic and it is very delicately balanced
- There is a natural hierarchy and we should not upset that with free market capitalism
- People can quickly becomes rich or poor depending on their market success
- Therefore we should make sure that capitalism is regulated to stop it from being too
unpredictable
Para 5: Private Property
- Supported by both traditional conservatives and the new right
- ON: gives people a stake in society and promotes responsibility and duty
- NR: creates a property and share owning democracy, gives people incentive, reflects
people’s efforts
- Thatcher selling off council houses
- Property ownership is generally beneficial for society all round
Para 6: Authority and Order
- Traditional conservatives and neoconservatives big on law and order
- Placed above individual freedom
- Socially illiberal values and strong state
- Backlash against permissiveness
- Deterrent against crime
- In direct opposition to autonomy: bigger focus than capitalism
Para 7: Minimal state
- Adam Smith saw state as “dead hand”
- “The problem with socialism is that eventually you run out of other people’s money”
- Thatcher
- State interference hinders economy > and therefore hinders individual freedom
- Do not support welfare because believe in the superiority of the free market
- Those who are poor are poor because of their own laziness
Para 8: Pragmatism
- Pragmatism = belief that behaviour should be in accordance with practical
circumstances rather than in line with strict principles
- Belief in free market is dogmatic and does not allow for the realities of inequality
- We cannot simply blindly commit to the free market, we must actually do what is
practically correct
- Eg
...
” - Burke

Para 1: Natural hierarchy
- Society is organic and the balance is easily upset
- Humans cannot exist outside of society
- There is a natural hierarchy which provides stability and assurance
- We like to know our place in society because we are psychologically limited
- “Society is a contract between those who are living, those who are dead and those
who are about to be born” - Burke
Para 2: Meritocracy and atomism
- Society is made up of self interested individuals
- “There is no such thing as society” - Thatcher
- Individuals have equal worth
- Those who have talent will rise to the top, and a natural hierarchy does not exist
- Radical change does not matter
Para 3: Respect for the past
- “Tradition refuses to submit to the arrogant oligarchy of those who simply happen to
be walking around” - Chesterton
- Darwinism - the best aspects of society are the ones that survive, so naturally we
should preserve them
- Gives sense of continuity with the past
- Prefer empiricism - tried and tested methods rather than radical change
- “Neither starting-place nor destination” - Oakeshott
- Respect for ancestors is tradition in itself
Para 4: Private property
- Support handing down of property from one generation to the next
- Encourages people to have a stake in society
- This will therefore make society more ordered and stable, thus more likely to keep in
traditions
- Associated with family values and duty
- Reflects personal characteristics and gives a sense of security with the past
Para 5: Importance of individual
- Individualism suggests a lack of concern for the past and tradition
- What matters is the individual who is alive now
- People can choose to change their lives, and are not bound by their ancestors or
background
- Everyone is of equal moral worth

-

Individual freedom more important than preserving tradition

Para 6: Pragmatism
- Pragmatism = belief that behaviour should be in accordance with practical
circumstances rather than strict principles
- Even traditional conservatives are willing to make small changes to ensure social
order and harmony
- Use tradition and the past to help them make decisions: “The further you look back
in the past the clearer you can see the future” - Churchill
- Ultimately favour order over tradition
Para 7: Neoconservatism
- Want to restore order in society
- Backlash against extreme 60s and 70s permissiveness
- Extremely socially illiberal
- Emphasise traditional values (Victorian according to Thatcher)
- Believe that changing values can threaten order and the balance of society
- Rejection multiculturalism and are eurosceptic
Para 8: Neoliberalism
- Pro-globalisation and pro-euro
- Focus primarily on economy
- Although they are conservative, they are prepared to make changes for the good of
the economy
- Number one priority is free market economics and freedom for the individual
“Conservatism merely reflects the interests of the privileged and prosperous
...

Intro:
- Traditional conservatives: elitist traditions, authority, order, and private property
- New Right: inequality, meritocracy, no state dependency, illiberal values
- But: noblesse oblige, individualism and order favour all members of society
Para 1: Authority
- One nation tories believe humans are psychologically limited
- We therefore need to be controlled and told what to do
- Paternalism is supposedly in our interests, but it could be simply to protect the
interests of those who are in control
- The wealthy and privileged preserve their own interests
Para 2: Order
- It is in the interests of all for there to be order in society
- Order provides stability and is generally reassuring for all members of society
- Eg
...
disabled
- They will not be able to take advantage of the free market
Para 4: Individualism
- The market is difference blind
- Individuals all have equal moral worth and equal ability to rise to the top
- They are not held back by their background as this is just an accident of birth, so they
must not be punished for it
- The whole point is that anyone can make it with individualism, not just the wealthy
and prosperous
- Minimal state means that nobody gets unfair advantage
- Leads to a rejection of welfare
Para 5: Hierarchy
- Society is organic and therefore the balance must be maintained
- Those who are better are already naturally at the top
- We must preserve this hierarchy because people like stability and cannot
comprehend radical change
- This hierarchy serves the interests of those who are at the top
- Leads to a belief in tradition and authority
- Implies inequality is deep rooted
Para 6: Noblesse oblige
- Our birth family is an accident
- If we are born into a privileged or prosperous family, we must use our privilege to
help those below us
- “The palace is not safe when the cottage is not happy” - Disraeli
- Those who are rich must use their wealth to help the disadvantaged
- This is for the good of all of society, as it reduces inequality and therefore resentment
Para 7: Tradition
- Beliefs, customs, institutions and practices handed down from one generation to the
next
- The best institutions are the ones that have stood the test of time, therefore we should
continue to preserve them
- This is elitist: only in keeping with the interests of those who benefit from these
traditions

-

Eg
...
Thatcher selling off council houses to encourage people to make something of
themselves
- However, not everyone can afford private property, so this is ignorant
“Conservatism favours pragmatism over principle
...

Intro:
- Some refer to conservatism as common sense rather than a real ideology
- Pragmatism: belief that behaviour should be in accordance with practical
circumstances, rather than strict principles
- ON: root ideas in traditional conservatism, concerned with social order, see humans
as imperfect, believe in state intervention
- NR: absolute faith in free market, individual freedom and rationality
Para 1: Tradition
Beliefs, customs, institutions and practices handed down from one generation to the
next
- Darwinian: institutions which have stood the test of time are the good ones
- “Democracy of the dead” - GK Chesterton
- There’s no point changing something if it works
- Gives us a sense of security and continuity with the past, stability
- Supports empiricism - actions based on past experience
Para 2: Meritocracy
- This is a principle favoured by the New Right
- People with talent will naturally rise to the top with the help of the free market
- They apply this to everyone, regardless of race / gender / wealth etc
...
but from his own regard to his own
self interest” - Adam Smith
- Radical and dogmatic
Para 7: Organic society
- Society is fragile and arises naturally
- Humans cannot exist outside of society and it cannot be radically and quickly
changed
- Society is God’s will and we must respect that (traditional values)
- Radical change upsets people as they like things to be stable (we are psychologically
limited)
- Gradual change in accordance with changing society is preferable
Para 8: Neoconservative order
- Backlash against extreme permissiveness of 60s and 70s
- Socially illiberal, return to “Victorian” values (Thatcher)
- Tough on crime and punishment
- Required as a deterrent as humans are morally imperfect
- Do not care if this approach does not work, as numerous studies have proven
(reoffending rate of 59% in 2016 after prison)
- Strict and authoritarian
To what extent is the New Right internally coherent?

Intro:
- Radical form of conservatism which came into power in the 70s in the UK
- 2 x strands: neoliberals and neoconservatives
- NL: mechanistic society, free market economics, libertarian, individualism, minimal
state
- NC: organic society, authoritarian, tradition, social order, strong state
- Both: reject equality of outcome, want to repress trade union power, it stood the test
of time, both dogmatic
Para 1: Mechanistic vs Organic society
- NL: society is mechanistic
- “There is no such thing as society” - Thatcher
- Individual is more important than society
- Radical change can be stomached by society as it is not delicate
- Meritocracy: no natural hierarchy
- NC: society is organic
- Humans cannot exist outside of society
- There needs to be a natural hierarchy so that we know our place and there is stability
- Radical change is beyond us (psychologically limited)
Para 2: Private property
- Agree that private property is generally beneficial for both individuals and society
- NL: gives people something to aspire to
- Encourages individual effort and enterprise
- Reflects people’s hard work
- Allows for freedom
- NC: thrift is a value in itself
- Gives people a stake in society and therefore promotes order and stability
- Entails duty and represents family values
- Upholds tradition
Para 3: Economically liberal vs Socially illiberal
- NL: complete market freedom
- The state encumbers the free market - it needs no intervention
- Meritocracy, allows individuals to rise to the top via talents and hard work
- NC: extreme illiberalism in the private sphere
- Backlash against extreme permissiveness of 60s and 70s
- Return of “Victorian” values (Thatcher)
- Nuclear family, religion, tradition
- Strict and authoritarian
- However - is this reconcilable due to the public/private divide?
Para 4: Opposition to trade unions
- NL: trade unions undermine individualism
- They are a collectivist institution
- They also undermine the free market in demanding rights for workers

-

NC: trade unions threaten law and order and undermine state authority
Poll tax riots of March 1990
Upset the balance of society and stir up resentment in the working class

Para 5: Role of the state
- NL: state should be completely minimal
- “Rolling back the frontiers of the state” - Thatcher
- Should have no involvement in the life of the individual
- People are rational so should make their own decisions
- Support negative freedom
- “The govt has no right to meddle in the core of men’s souls” - John Locke
- NC: state must be strong and be tough on crime and punishment
- Deterrent against crime
- People are morally imperfect and so need threat of punishment to keep them in line
- However: both reject state welfare, think that encourages people to rely on handouts
and people should make their own way in the world
Para 6: Dogmatic
- ON: very pragmatic, not an argument but a conversation
- Both strands of new right very principled and unbending
- NL: principles of free market, freedom, individualism, meritocracy
- NC: principles of tradition, victorian values, law and order, punishment for crimes
Para 7: Globalisation
- NL: pro-globalisation
- Allows the economy to open up
- Supports freedom of the individual and expands the free market
- NC: anti-globalisation
- Threatens unity of a country
- Can lead to economic and therefore social instability
- Too much change threatens tradition and order
- Sceptical of multiculturalism
Para 8: Rejection of equality of outcome
- All conservative strands reject equality of outcome
- NL: free market does not create it naturally and it should not be artificially produced
via state intervention
- Meritocracy favours those with talent and hard work
- “The drunk in the gutter is where he ought to be” - Sumner
- NC: there is a natural hierarchy in society
- Equality of outcome would lead to laziness (nobody would want to work)
- Humans are imperfect and so would try to take advantage
- Does not reflect the efforts of the prosperous

Anarchism

15 marks
How far do Marxists and anarchists disagree over the role of the state?
-

Marxists: state is an agent of class oppression
It operates in favour of the dominant class
Acts in the interests of capital and against those of labour
Supports the bourgeoisie in an economic sense
Class is created by economic inequality which is supported by the state
Anarchists: the state removes individual freedom
We are not born with a moral code of good or bad
The state is a corrupting influence
Corrupts those in authority and those subject to authority
Gandhi: it is a “concentrated body of evil”
It cannot be morally justified
If the state is removed people will not be corrupted
Classes exist because of the state and political inequality
Without a state society would, by definition, be classless
Cannot accept any state, even the workers’ state
Bakunin: power given to Marx + followers would be “worse than the Czar”

Explain the link between individualism and anarchism
...
”

In what sense do anarchists hold a positive view of human nature?
Plastic:
- We are not born with a moral code separating good from bad
- We are moulded by our experiences and relationships
- We are therefore corruptible, and corrupted by our environment
- Therefore if a state goes into power with good intentions, it will eventually be
corrupted
- However by the same token in a classless society there will naturally be harmony
- Our relationships are based on mutual respect
Collectivists:
- We are social, cooperative, gregarious creatures, bound through bonds of
compassion
- We achieve fulfilment through moral incentive
- We have natural empathy for others and want to work together
- We can only achieve fulfilment through a collective
- Peace will come about via classless communism
Individualists:
- We are rational creatures, driven by reason
- We are self seeking and will automatically do what benefits us
- Make decisions based on experience
- Can achieve fulfilment through material things and personal gain
- Peace will come about via the free market
Explain the link between anarchism and collectivism
...
Internal and external checks on govt power
Consent: agreement to be governed or ruled
Liberals support this as it allows there to be laws without encroachment on
individual freedom
Express consent: elections
...

-

Utopianism: style of political theorising that develops a critique of the existing order
by constructing a perfect alternative
Other ideologies accuse anarchism of being unrealistic and unachievable
Want to create a society in which there is freedom and harmony without state
regulation
Believe this is possible due to their view of human nature
Collectivists: we are social and cooperative creatures, bound through bonds of
compassion
We want to work together and have solidarity with one another
The means of production should therefore be collectively owned
We will achieve fulfilment through working in a collective, as we are motivated by
moral incentive
There is no need for the state to regulate our labour as we will naturally do what is
best for society
There is no need for the state to regulate our behaviour as social harmony will
develop through our mutual respect for one another
Anarcho communists societies: self sufficient, based on respect, means of production
owned by the collective, direct democracy, voluntary
Individualists: we are rational and reason guided creatures
We make decisions based on past experience rather than on impulse or emotion
We have internal restraint which stops us from being dicks
We are self interested and motivated by personal gain
The free market can provide us with all that is needed, both materially and in terms
of self fulfilment
There is no need for a state to regulate the free market or our behaviour because we
will naturally make good decisions
Property should be owned by sovereign individuals, who may choose to enter into
mutually beneficial contracts
Rothbard: no need for a state to protect people from one another, can use protection
associations
Competition would provide consumers with choice, and would mean they were
getting the best possible service at the best possible prices

How and why has anarchism been linked to communism?
-

Anarchists want to dissolve the state and replace it with classless communism and
common ownership
They both envisage a violent revolution in which the state will be overthrown, thus
dissolving capitalism
The society which anarchists envisage after the dissolution of the state is a
communist one
It will take place in small, self sufficient communities

-

There will be little interaction between communities, therefore there will be little
trade and bartering (which could lead to a form of capitalism)
Decisions will be reached via direct democracy and all decisions will be unanimous
These communities are voluntary and you can leave at any time you want
Distribution will be fair and equal, according to need rather than want
Anarchists believe this will work because of their view of human nature
We are social, cooperative, gregarious creatures, who are bound through bonds of
compassion
We naturally want to work together and will achieve fulfilment through moral
incentive, working with the community
This is the same view that communists have of human nature

On what grounds do anarchists believe in the possibility of a stateless society?
Individualists:
- We are rational and reason guided creatures
- We make decisions based on past experience rather than on impulse or emotion
- We are self interested and achieve fulfilment through personal gain
- We have internal restraint which helps us to self-govern and distinguish right from
wrong
- The state is therefore not required to regulate our behaviour as we will naturally
make the right decision, based on reason
- The free market can provide us with everything that we require, both in terms of
material requirements and in terms of fulfilment
- The state is therefore not required for the regulation of the economy as it regulates
itself
- Adam Smith: market is guided to positive outcomes by an invisible hand
- Anarcho capitalism: public goods will be better if provided by individuals, as there
will be more choice (Rothbard)
- Egoism: the individual is at the centre of their moral universe
- Libertarianism: the individual should be given the greatest possible realm of freedom
Collectivists:
- We are social, cooperative and gregarious creatures, bound through bonds of
compassion
- We achieve fulfilment through our interactions with others
- We naturally want to work together and will therefore do what is best for the
community
- The means of production should be owned by the collective
- The state is not required to regulate our labour, and it will be more fair if we all reap
the benefits of the labour, rather than being exploited by the state
- Working together will lead to the development of relationships based on mutual
respect
- This will then by extension lead to peace and harmony without the need for a state
45 marks

“An anarchist society is both desirable and possible”
...

Intro:
-

Based on the belief in unlimited possibility for human development
Collectivists: we are social cooperative gregarious creatures
Envisage a society in which we live in small, self sufficient communities
The means of production will be owned by the collective
This will naturally bring about peace and harmony
Individualists: we are rational, reason guided creatures
We are motivated by self interest but have internal restraint to distinguish right from
wrong
Peace and harmony will come about via the free market
It can provide us with fulfilment and everything we need
Utopianism: political theory that advances a critique of the current system and
envisages a perfect alternative
Liberals, socialists and conservatives accuse anarchists of being overly utopian

Para 1: Collectivist society
- Want to dissolve the state and replace it with common ownership
- Small, voluntary communities
- You can leave at any time if your values change
- Decisions are reached via direct democracy
- They will be unanimous and the minorities will not be oppressed by the decisions
that are made
- The communities will be self-sufficient, therefore eliminating the need for trade
- Distribution will be fair and equal, based on need rather than want
- Kropotkin: the creatures who cooperate will do best
- This will strengthen the bonds of compassion between people and lead to them
avoiding selfish behaviour
- Based on political equality
Para 2: Individualist society
- We are reason guided and rational creatures
- We are motivated by self interest and achieve fulfilment through personal gain
- The thing that can fulfil us spiritually and and materially is the free market
- It does not require regulation by the state as it is naturally guided to positive
outcomes (Adam Smith)
- The government restricts the ability of the individual to use the free market to their
advantage
- Without a state, we will be free to exert our will over our own lives (Max Stirner and
egoism)
- This will lead to peace and harmony
Para 3: Socialist critique
- Revisionist socialists accept the state

-

It is a valuable mechanism for the collective ownership of the economy
It is perhaps the only viable mechanism of doing so
Can act in the common good providing welfare and public services
Reject the idea that the state is an agent of unmitigated evil
The state is a valuable instrument for social reform
Absolute equality is also unfair: it does not reward the individual for the extent of
their contribution and removes incentive
Anarchist collectivism is too unrealistic and even unfair
Anarchists would refute this, saying that even if a state has good intentions,
ultimately the people in power will be corrupted by authority
Social reform will not be required if we are living in a classless, stateless society, as
peace and harmony will come about naturally
We can reach decisions via direct democracy
Absolute equality is fair because if we distribute on a needs basis, everyone will end
up with broadly the same result, as we all have broadly the same needs

Para 4: Conservative critique
- Humans are morally, psychologically and intellectually flawed
- Morally: people would take advantage of a stateless society and not contribute
without material reward
- If the state is not there to enforce law and order, crime would run riot
- Life would be “nasty, brutish and short” without law (Hobbes)
- Intellectually: we are unable to comprehend the free market
- We are not capable of using the free market to our advantage and need a state to help
us survive
- Psychologically: society is organic and thus very fragile
- Both individualist and collectivist societies are extremely unstable
- We as humans need stability to survive
- The govt needs to look after us and maintain social hierarchy, as we like to know our
place in society
- Burke: we must “love the little platoon of society to which we belong”
- Anarchists would reject this due to their positive view of human nature
- Collectivists: humans are naturally social and therefore would not want to upset the
balance of society by committing crime
- They also naturally want to work together, and are motivated by moral incentive
- There is no need for a state to regulate our labour
- Individualist: humans are reason guided and rational
- We make decisions based on past experience rather than on emotion
- The free market will naturally be guided to positive outcomes by an invisible hand
and we are capable of manipulating it
- We have natural restraint which prevents us from committing crimes
Para 5: Liberal critique
- The state is a necessary evil without which we are unable to survive
- Locke: we enter into a social contract with the govt which makes us give up a little
for our freedom in order to be safe

-

“Where there is no law, there is no freedom” (Locke)
Our self interested nature means that we need a state to act as a neutral arbiter and
ensure fairness
Anarchists would say that we have internal restraint that negates the need for a state
The state is not a necessary evil, and in fact constitutionalism and consent are a
facade that conceals the absolute equality of a govt
The absence of a state is total negative freedom, and allows the individual to exert
their will
Liberals and anarchists are not so different - simply a more extreme version
However, they still see capitalist anarchy as unrealistic

To what extent is anarchism a single doctrine?
Intro:
-

2 x strands of anarchism
Collectivism and individualism: socialist and liberal ideas to the extreme
Socialists and liberals are clearly different so there is obviously lots of disagreement
For example: equality, capitalism vs communism, view of human nature
However as they are both anarchist there is clearly some crossover
For example: rejection of the state, utopianism, rejection of constitutionalism and
consent

Para 1: View of human nature
- Collectivists: we are social, cooperative, gregarious creatures, bound through bonds
of compassion
- Naturally want to work together and are motivated by moral incentive
- We can only achieve fulfilment as part of a collective
- Individualists: we are rational and reason-guided
- We are motivated by personal gain and self interest
- We base decisions on past experience rather than on emotion or impulse
- We have internal restraint which stops us from making bad decisions / committing
crime etc
- Nonetheless both perspectives are positive and mean that we do not require a state
Para 2: Rejection of the state
- Both see the state as a creation of unmitigated evil
- It removes freedom
- Subjects us to unnecessary and artificial regulations
- Gives certain individuals power over others
- It is oppressive and it exploits
- Represents the few who oppress the many
- State is sovereign body and has unlimited authority
- People cannot withdraw their consent to be governed
- “The basic function of govt is always that of oppressing and exploiting the masses” Errico Malatesta
- The state is corrupting

-

Human nature is plastic and is shaped by the environment in which we live
Those who are in power will be corrupted
The state is destructive
Symbolised by “the club, the gun, the handcuff and the prison” - Emma Goldman
Imposes laws and enforces them through the threat of punishment

Para 3: Freedom vs social solidarity
- Collectivist: most important thing is relations between people
- Common ownership and equality lead to peace and harmony as it creates
relationships based on mutual respect
- “Social solidarity is the first human value; freedom is the second” (Bakunin)
- The state reduces the bonds of compassion between us by pitting us against each
other
- Individualist: freedom is the most important value
- The state reduces individual sovereignty
- JS Mill: The state “has no right to meddle in the core of men’s souls”
- The freedom provided by the free market leads to peace and harmony
- It allows us to be satisfied as individuals which leads to a satisfied society
- Individual sovereignty reigns supreme over all
Para 4: Anti-clericalism
- See the church as the source of authority itself
- It represents a supreme being with absolute authority (like the state)
- Thomas Paine: “Take away the law-establishment, and every religion reassumes its
original benignity”
- Only after the rejection of Christianity can humans be free - western laws are based
on its teachings
- Religion is a pillar of the state and legitimises state power
- Conservatives have justified hierarchy by saying that it’s God’s will
- Seeks to impose morality on people and limit their behaviour
- Requires conformity to mass understanding of good and evil
Para 5: Thoughts on equality
- Collectivists: equality will be a natural result in a classless society
- Political equality is established through direct democracy
- Distribution will be on a needs basis, and we all have broadly similar needs, so this
has implications of equality
- This will make us more likely to identify with one another
- It is just and fair
- Individualists: equality is unnatural as we have different levels of talent and hard
work
- Rather than distributing ourselves we should allow the free market to distinguish
and reward hard work
- This gives people ultimate freedom and rewards them for their contribution
Para 6: Rejection of constitutionalism and consent

-

The state is a sovereign body that can do whatever it wants
Even if people go into power with good intentions, eventually they will be corrupted
and use the power to oppress others
This is due to the plasticity of human nature and their tendency towards self interest
Liberals believe that checks and balances on the state will prevent it from becoming
too powerful
This is unrealistic, as these checks and balances are a facade designed to conceal the
true nature of the state
People cannot withdraw their consent to be governed

Para 7: Private property vs common ownership
- Collectivists: the means of production should be owned in common
- We will all benefit from the fruits of our labour
- This is because we naturally want to work together and are motivated by moral
incentive
- It will lead to social solidarity and relationships based on mutual respect
- Individualists: anything can be bought
- Extreme form of capitalism
- We are motivated by material incentive and personal gain
- Laissez faire economics: market is naturally guided to positive outcomes
- We will create peace and harmony with the freedom that the free market brings

“Anarchism is merely an extreme form of collectivist socialism
...

Intro:
- Collectivism: belief that collective endeavour is of greater moral and practical value
than individual self striving
- Anarcho-collectivism takes socialist ideas (equality, cooperation, community,
positive human nature) to their logical conclusion
- They too want to overthrow the state and install classless communism
- However they differ in certain aspects too, such as revisionist acceptance of the state,
Para 1: Anarcho individualism
- This can be immediately discounted
- Completely different view of human nature and values
- We are rational, self seeking, reason guided creatures
- We gain individual fulfilment through personal achievement
- Supreme value is liberty and the free market
- Can achieve happiness through the free market which needs no state regulation
- Peace and harmony will come about through laissez-faire economics
Para 2: Human nature
- We are social, cooperative, gregarious creatures, bound through bonds of
compassion

-

We naturally want to work together and and can only achieve fulfilment as part of a
collective
We are motivated by moral incentive
Common ownership will allow us to create relationships built on mutual respect
Our human nature is plastic and can therefore be corrupted by our environment
Shapes the theory that humans can live in small, self sufficient communities with no
state regulation

Para 3: Workers’ state
- Anarchists and fundamentalists suspicious towards the state
- Marxists: after capitalism has imploded, there will be a revolution of the proletariat
- After this a temporary workers’ state will be needed in order to reduce the risk of a
counter revolution
- This state will naturally wither away when it is no longer needed
- Anarchists will accept no form of state even if it has good intentions
- Human nature is plastic and therefore people will be corrupted by power
- Workers’ state itself will eventually become oppressive
Para 4: Rejection of the state
- Marxists: the state is an agent of class oppression
- It works in favour of capital and against labour
- Alienation: alienated from themselves, others, and their work
- Exploitation: in order to make a profit the capitalist must extract surplus value from
the worker and pay them less than their labour is worth
- The exploitation of the workers by capitalism is facilitated by the state
- Anarchists: agent of general oppression
- They too think it is corrupting
- Class is created through political inequality
- Bakunin: “there is nothing more dangerous for man’s morality as the habit of
commanding”
- Without a state humans would work together for the common good
Para 5: Community and equality
- The means of production must be owned in common
- This works because we are all naturally inclined to do what is best for the
community and would therefore want to work together
- We achieve fulfilment as part of a collective
- This leads to relationships based on mutual respect
- Small, self sufficient communities
- Voluntary and based on direct democracy
- Kropotkin: the means of production “must and will be the common property of
society”
- Equality leads to social solidarity as people can identify with one another
Para 6: Revised socialism accepts a state and capitalism

-

Revisionists reject absolute equality as it is unfair and does not reward individuals
for their contribution
It also removes incentive
They see the state as the only viable option of creating a socialist society
Wealth will be progressively taxed and then redistributed as welfare
Neo revisionists reject equality and wholly embrace capitalism
Anarchists do not accept state interference in the economy or equality
This is slightly like neo-revisionists
For anarcho-collectivists, the usage of the state to create equality is unnecessary

Para 7: Prepared to use violence to overthrow the state
- Marxists: there will be a violent revolution of the proletariat in which many members
of the bourgeoisie will be killed
- This will allow them to create a more fair and equal society
- Anarcho-syndicalists: propaganda by deed
- The workers will grow tired of exploitation and decide to rebel
- This will lead to the state using violence to try and get them to work
- The workers will respond with more violence and this will create a cycle
- The state’s destructive nature will be revealed
“Anarchism is merely free market liberalism taken to its extreme
...

Intro:
-

2 x strands of anarchism
Individualist closest to liberalism
Takes liberal ideas to their logical conclusion
Reject state because it takes away from freedom
Believe in free market etc
But: liberals allow for a state, and modern liberals do not believe in total negative
freedom

Para 1: Anarcho collectivism
- Can be completely discounted
- Takes socialist ideas to their extreme conclusion
- We are social, cooperative, gregarious creatures, bound through bonds of
compassion
- Believe the means of production should be owned in common
- We can only achieve fulfilment within a collective
- Completely different to liberalism
- Believe in equality of outcome
Para 2: View of human nature
- See humans as rational and reason guided creatures
- We make decisions based on experience
- We are self striving and motivated by self interest
- The individual is much more important than any group

-

We have equal moral worth
We achieve fulfilment through personal gain
We have internal restraint which stops us making bad decisions

Para 3: Liberals accept a state
- Due to our self-interested nature we need the state
- It acts as a neutral arbiter in cases of law
- In order to be truly free we must give up a little of our freedom to the state
- Locke’s social contract: govt by consent
- “Where the laws are silent, there is no freedom” - Locke
- Anarchists disagree as would accept no form of state, and think constitutionalism
and consent are a facade
Para 4: Negative freedom
- This is freedom from restraint
- Ultimate freedom is where we are allowed to do anything up to the point when we
are harming others
- Eg
...
” Discuss
...
by taxation and redistribution, laws
about what we can and cannot do
- Taxation is theft: forcing individuals to work for the state without pay
- State represents a few individuals with authority over others
- Humans are rational and should therefore be free to do what they want without a
govt there to rule over them
- However: the govt is a necessary evil
- “Where there are no laws there is no freedom” - Locke
- Need law and govt to protect natural rights
- To prevent abuse of state power we need external checks and balances on govt
How:
- Locke’s social contract: individuals must give up a little freedom in order for their
rights to be protected
- Hobbes: world without laws would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short”

-

The govt is only legitimate if it is subject to checks and balances and has the consent
of people
Govt must be controlled by the law and accountable to people
Bicameralism (having 2 houses of govt)
Fixed term Parliaments (regulates the length of time a govt is in power)
Independent judiciary (above the state and make decisions based on the law rather
than on politics)
Written constitution (sovereign and above govt, restrictions on its power)

On what grounds have modern liberals defended the principle of social welfare?
Developmental individualism:
- Classical liberals accuse them of abandoning individualism
- They claim that they are still rooted in individualism but adapted to a changing
society
- “Hand up rather than hand out”
- Believe qualified state intervention is excusable to allow individuals to help
themselves
- State welfare is a means to an end rather than an end in itself
- Individualism more focused on helping individuals achieve self-actualisation rather
than leaving every man for himself
Positive freedom:
- TH Green: “[Positive freedom] means not simply the freedom to starve in the gutter”
- JS Mill: lack of material well being is unfreedom
- Social disadvantage / harsh inequality is the enemy of freedom
- Free market capitalism with no govt intervention prevents freedom
- State intervention can expand freedom and provides a positive and empowering role
for the govt
- State intervention / social welfare gives people the money that they need to become
their best selves
Explain the link between liberalism and individualism
...

Negative:
- Classical liberal view
- Based on human rationality
- We are able to make our own decisions and should not have to submit to the will of
others
- Absence of restriction on individuals
- Only limit to freedom is when others are harmed
- The govt is a necessary evil / nightwatchman
- CL saw laws as the main obstacle to freedom
- Hobbes: “[Freedom is] the silence of the laws”
- BUT: Locke’s social contract states that we must give up some freedom to protect our
natural rights
- Life without laws would be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish and short” - Hobbes
- Economic freedom: total lack of govt intervention in the economy
- The market is led to positive outcomes via an invisible hand (Adam Smith)
Positive:
- Focused more on the freedom of choice and freedom for self development
- TH Green: social disadvantage / inequality is the enemy of freedom
- Free market capitalism prevents freedom
- State intervention can provide positive and empowering role for govt
- Believe in qualified state intervention to help individuals help themselves
- It is “not simply the freedom to starve in the gutter”
- Maslow’s pyramid of needs: we cannot achieve self actualisation without first
gaining material well being and security
- However, they still prefer individuals to make their own decisions and take on
responsibility

How is liberalism linked to rationalism, and what are the implications of this link?
-

Belief that humans are reason-guided creatures who base decisions on past
experience rather than on emotion / impulse
Arose at the time of the Enlightenment
Rejection of divine right of kings and move towards more scientific and reason-based
govt
Opposition to paternalism - it is not necessary, as people know what is best for them,
not the state
Individuals should exercise their own free will based on rational judgement

Implications:
- Minimal state: “the state has no right to meddle in the core of men’s souls” - Locke
- The state should only be there to protect natural rights and ensure that freedom can
be maximised by giving people security
- Free market capitalism: people are able to make their own economic decisions
- They can manipulate the market for their needs without the need for state
intervention, as they are rational enough to understand it
- Negative freedom: absence from laws
- We do not need loads of laws to protect us from ourselves and to help us to make the
right decision
- We will naturally do the right and reasonable thing due to our rationality
- Individualism: the individual knows what is best
- We should be left alone to make our own decisions and can look after ourselves
- We are also motivated by intellectual incentive: at the top of the pyramid of needs is
self actualisation
- “It is better to be a human dissatisfied than a pig satisfied” JS Mill
Distinguish between economic liberalism and social liberalism
...
introducing law for gay marriage
- People are self seeking, so unless it concerns them, they don’t care
- Economic inequality is only justifiable if it protects the most vulnerable in society
- Growth in welfare states in the 20th century
- They defend this on the basis of equality of opportunity
- Even if we all have the same rights, the best people will not necessarily succeed, as
they may be held back by their economic situation
“Liberal democracy is a contradiction in terms
...

Intro:
- Liberalism created around the time of the enlightenment
- Rejected diving right of kings and moved towards govt by consent
- Locke’s social contract: we give up a little of our freedom so that we can be protected
by the govt
...
Govt based on consent and constitutionalism
- We should all have formal equality
- Modern liberals: believe in the qualified welfare state
- State should help disadvantaged individuals and be an enabler to success
- Believe that humans are capable of altruism

-

Everyone must have equality of opportunity, which includes also (relative) economic
equality
Known as foundational equality
This has departed from the desire of classical liberals to minimise the state, but it’s
for the same reason: they both want to maximise freedom

Para 3: Individualism
- Classical liberals: egotistical individualism
- Focuses on self reliance and self seeking actions
- The individual is the most important human unit above any group or society
- They are rational and should be able to choose what is best for them, not the state
- Sumner: “the drunk in the gutter is where he ought to be”
- You cannot rely on others or the state
- Those who work hard will prosper, those who do not will suffer
- Modern Liberals: developmental individualism
- “Over himself, over his own body and mind, the individual is sovereign” - JS Mill
- Believe in allowing people to flourish as much as they can
- Use state welfare to help people to help themselves
- However, this is a means to an end rather than an end in itself
Para 4: Freedom
- Classical Liberals: negative freedom
- Freedom from restraint
- Based on human rationality - we should be free to choose what we do
- Only limit to this freedom is when you’re harming others
- Laws are the main obstacle to freedom
- “Freedom is the silence of the laws” - Hobbes
- However, need the state to protect natural rights and life
- Locke’s social contract
- Modern liberals: positive freedom
- Isaiah Berlin: two concepts of liberty, distinguished between the two
- Freedom to achieve
- “Not simply the freedom to starve in the gutter” - TH Green
- Believe in state welfare to allow people to maximise their freedom
- Lack of material wellbeing is “unfreedom” - JS Mill
- Maslow’s pyramid of needs: in order to achieve self actualisation we must first have
material security
“Liberalism is defined by the desire to minimise the state
...

Intro:
- All liberals are suspicious of the state
- Was created around the Enlightenment and is characterised by the rejection of govt
without consent
- Classical liberals almost wholly reject the state
- Believe in no state intervention in the economy, individualism, freedom and equality

-

However, modern liberals have a more balanced view of the state
They see a positive and empowering role for it in terms of the economy,
individualism, freedom and equality
They do not accept a wholly interfering state
This intervention must be justified

Para 1: Economy
- Classical liberals: free market capitalism and laissez faire attitude
- Individuals should be allowed to pursue their own self interest
- People will be rewarded by the market for their hard work
- The market is guided by an invisible hand to positive outcomes (Adam Smith)
- For example, if people lower their prices, they will make more sales and attract more
customers
- The govt has no need to interfere in this process
- It in fact encumbers it and slows it down
- Modern liberals: have revised this attitude to the economy
- Believe that the self regulating market is a myth
- Keynesianism: the govt is able to regulate demand
- The self regulating market is a myth
- Believe that qualified govt intervention has a positive impact
Para 2: Freedom
- Classical liberals: negative freedom
- “Freedom is the silence of the laws” - Locke
- Freedom from restriction
- See laws as the main obstacle to freedom
- See govt as a necessary evil / nightwatchman
- Required in order to protect natural rights
- “Where there are no laws, there is no freedom” - Locke
- The individual must give up some freedom to the govt in order that their life and
liberty be protected
- See minimal role for govt
- Modern liberals: positive freedom
- Focus more on the freedom to achieve
- “Not simply the freedom to starve in the gutter” - TH Green
- View social disadvantage as the enemy of freedom
- Believe the state has a role to play in helping people out of social disadvantage and
inhibiting circumstances
- BUT: still want individuals to be responsible and make their own decisions
- Both classical and modern see a qualified and necessary role for the state
Para 3: Individualism
- Classical liberals: egotistical individualism
- Humans are rational and self seeking
- They should be free to pursue their own interests
- They can decide what is in their best interests, not the state

-

Emphasis on self reliance
All forms of state intervention sap initiative and inhibit individual freedom
Sumner: “the drunk in the gutter is where he ought to be”
Those who are lazy deserve to be in their miserable circumstances
The state should not encourage this by helping them
Modern liberals: developmental individualism
“Hand up rather than hand out”
Focus more on the individual achieving happiness, no matter how that happiness is
found
The govt can help this by using qualified state intervention and welfare
State welfare is a means to and end rather than means in itself
Maslow’s pyramid of needs: we need material security before we can achieve self
actualisation

Para 4: Equality
- Classical liberals: equality of opportunity
- Individuals are of equal moral worth bu nit in terms of skills and willingness to work
- Strict meritocracy
- Only those who work hard will prosper and realise their potential
- Those who suffer do so due to their own laziness
- Everyone has the same rights, therefore we start on equal footing
- It stands to reason that the best people do well in such a society
- Therefore natural selection will reward people
- The govt should not get involved
- Those who have failed do not deserve govt support
- Modern liberals: govt can intervene
- Rawls: it is justified in intervening to ensure some kind of social equality
- Eg
...
Nazi belief in Aryan
nation
- Specifically RACE, not culture

-

Joseph Gobineau: there is a hierarchy of races, and whites are at the top
Influenced Nazism heavily
Houston Chamberlain: Jews are degenerate and “the implacable enemy”
We are therefore divided by race and it is impossible for someone from one national
group to blend with another
Racial differences supercede any legal notions of citizenship

Patriotism:
- Attachment to / love of one’s country
- Comes from latin word patria meaning country
- Has its roots around 2000 years prior to the C
...
Britain’s
EU membership
Nations have shared values and need a political voice to protect rights and those
shared values
JJ Rousseau: national rule should be based on the collective invisible will of the
community
People are citizens with inalienable rights, not simply subjects of the crown
This is important in areas where a nation is a minority group and their rights may
not be represented by the majority eg
...


-

Form of “bottom up” nationalism
Seeks to protect the nation’s distinctive civilisation / character
Identified by symbols of national pride rather than ethnicity
For example, USA is made up of many different ethnicities but have a shared cultural
ideal characterised by the American Dream
Focus is on shared language / history / traditions
Example of this is in Wales where Welsh language is mandatory in all schools
Defined by its opposition to cultural shift / changes
Inherently reactionary in nature
Often does not seek political ends
State is viewed as a peripheral entity to the culture of a nation
Goal is to develop an appreciation of national traditions
Emotional rather than rational basis
Volksgeist - Johann Herder, particular spirit or character of a nation
Highlighted the superiority of German culture in contrast to the ideas of the French
revolution
Culturalism: humans are culture-defined beings, culture being the basis for personal
and social identity

Distinguish between nationalism and racialism
...
Nazi belief in Aryan
nation
- The world is not divided up into cultures but instead into races
- All races have specific biological characteristics
- Joseph Gobineau: there is a hierarchy of races, and whites are at the top
- Influenced Nazism heavily
- Houston Chamberlain: Jews are degenerate and “the implacable enemy”
- We are therefore divided by race and it is impossible for someone from one national
group to blend with another
- Racial differences supercede any legal notions of citizenship
Nationalism: 
- Focus on shared culture rather than biological differences
- Ethnic nationalism: people only part of the nation if they share biological traits
- Civic nationalism: need to subscribe to the views of the nation
- Make distinction between different cultures and races but do not necessarily believe
some to be superior to others
- Not necessarily a natural hierarchy
- BUT expansionist nationalists do - enforce their views and culture on others
- Can be flexible in terms of cultural mixing eg
...

Nation:
- Group of people with common circumstance of birth (ethnic) or values (civic)
- These common circumstances may be: language, traditions, shared history
- Common circumstances are strong enough for them to adopt collective goals based
on shared identity
- Nationalism is an emotional phenomenon felt by people
- Palpable yet intangible sense of belonging
- Benedict Anderson (C
...
Nations are a social construct
created by those who perceive themselves as part of that group
- Volksgeist - associated with Johann Herder, means unique spirit and character of a
nation’s people
- Culturism: culture is where people find their identity and have a deep connection to
it
- Reflects the characteristics of that nation
State:
- Political reality - objectively exists or does not
- Defined territory within which there is a centre of sovereignty which is in control of
that region
- Nations can exist without a state eg
...
UK, USA, Soviet Union
Confusion:
- Nation state seeks to bring borders of state in line with the borders of nation
- Sovereign political association within which citizenship and cultural identity
coincide
- Most nations aspire to statehood
- For liberal nationalists eg
...
liberals focus much more on
the state, conservative nationalists focus more on the nation
- Different types of nationalism view the concept of the nation differently
- Liberals: if you subscribe to the values of the liberal state you are part of the nation
- Therefore there is confusion between what is a nation and what is a state
Explain the key ideas of liberal nationalism
...

Nation:
- Group of people with common circumstance of birth or shared values
- These common circumstances may be: language, traditions, shared history
- Common circumstances are strong enough for them to adopt collective goals based
on shared identity
- Nationalism is an emotional phenomenon felt by people
- Palpable yet intangible sense of belonging
- Benedict Anderson (C
...
Nations are a social construct
created by those who perceive themselves as part of that group
- Volksgeist - associated with Johann Fichte, means unique spirit and character of a
nation’s people
- Reflects the characteristics of that nation
Race:
-

Biological fact: not an emotional concept
Nation can consist of several races eg
...

Cultural:
- Form of “bottom up” nationalism
- Seeks to protect the nation’s distinctive civilisation / culture
- Focus is on language / shared history / traditions
- Identified by symbols of national pride rather than ethnicity
- Eg
...

Explain the key features of conservative nationalism
...
monarchy, military, anthems, flags
Nostalgic: tendency to use ritual to commemorate past events
Thatcher used nationalism in order to bring people together to prevent class conflict

-

Opposition to EU integration and immigration
Stable political union cannot be forged out of such diversity
Leads to too much destabilisation
Cultural diversity leads to instability and conflict
All societies must be based on a shared culture and values
Sceptical of supranational organisations as these threaten national unity

45 marks
“Nationalism inevitably breeds conflict and war
...

Intro:
-

Belief that the nation is more important than any group or individual
Nation is a group of people who have a common circumstance and shared identity
This is usually defined by culture, language, history and traditions
However sometimes it is defined by ethnicity and race
Some nationalists believe that their nation is superior to others based on a concept of
racialism and race hierarchy
This is a simplified take on nationalism and the various strands are peaceful and
aggressive to varying degrees

Para 1: Liberal nationalism
- Early form of nationalism associated with JJ Rousseau
- Desire for self determination and sovereignty
- Based on the liberal belief that humans are rational and therefore nations should be
allowed to govern themselves
- Focus on creation of democratic nation state
- Liberal freedoms should be applied to the nation state
- Mazzini: nation state is the highest and most desirable form of political organisation
- Freedom and democracy for nations is paramount
- Based on rationalism: arose at a time when monarchy was the usual political system
- Nations should be free from foreign rule: we cannot impose our values on other
nations
- They should be free to pursue their own self interest
- Inherently peaceful, tolerant and constitutional
- Believe nationalism is a force for good and breeds respect between nations
- All nations are of equal moral worth - they are then less likely to go to war
- Support globalisation and dissipation of power to increase democracy and
cooperation between nations
- This is due to a fear that independent nation states will only operate in their own self
interest
- Supranational organisations are of mutual benefit
- They believe these independent nations will breed peace
- Do not believe in racialism or superiority of some nations
Para 2: Conservative nationalism

-

Since Disraeli conservatives have become more and more nationalist
Key objective is to maintain order and national unity
Emphasis on nationalism and patriotism as a means by which societies can be held
together
Belief in organic society
Defence of national symbols and traditions eg
...
Gandhi in India or violent eg
...
teaching of Welsh has been required in schools in Wales since 1993
- Northern Ireland: seek to defend themselves from both English and Irish cultural
domination
- Content with the political autonomy that they already have
- Very safe and content form of nationalism
- Do not even aspire to political goals which could cause conflict
To what extent is nationalism a forward-looking doctrine?
Intro:
- Political ideology which places the nation over any individual or group
- Nation is a group of people who have a common circumstance of birth
- Chameleon ideology which attaches itself to other ideologies and places a nationalist
spin on their values
- Liberal nationalism: self determination, political equality, freedom
- Conservative nationalism: tradition, unity, order
- Forward looking: concerned with the future and progressive, rather than the past
Para 1: Conservative nationalism
- Since Disraeli conservatives have become more and more nationalist
- Key objective is to maintain order and national unity
- Emphasis on nationalism and patriotism as a means by which societies can be held
together
- Belief in organic society
- Defence of national symbols and traditions eg
...
Gandhi in India or violent eg
...
teaching of Welsh has been required in schools in Wales since 1993
- Northern Ireland: seek to defend themselves from both English and Irish cultural
domination
- Content with the political autonomy that they already have
- Backward looking because it seeks to preserve the culture of history, rather like
conservative nationalism (upholds the status quo)
- HOWEVER: it is to preserve it for future generations through a genuine love of the
nation, so it is also forward looking
To what extent is nationalism a single doctrine?
Intro:
- Ideology which places the nation above any individual or group
- The nation is a group of people who believe themselves to have a common
circumstance of birth
- Characterised by ambiguity and contradictions
- Has been shaped by various historical contexts and attached itself to various
ideologies
- Puts a nationalist spin on the values on the ideology which it has attached itself to
- Key differences include: political vs cultural nationalism, exclusive vs inclusive
Para 1: Liberal nationalism
- Early form of nationalism associated with JJ Rousseau
- Desire for self determination and sovereignty
- Based on the liberal belief that humans are rational and therefore nations should be
allowed to govern themselves
- Focus on creation of democratic nation state
- Mazzini: nation state is the highest and most desirable form of political organisation
- Freedom and democracy for nations is paramount
- Based on rationalism: arose at a time when monarchy was the usual political system
- Nations should be free from foreign rule: we cannot impose our values on other
nations
- They should be free to pursue their own self interest

-

Inherently peaceful, tolerant and constitutional
Believe nationalism is a force for good and breeds respect between nations
All nations are of equal moral worth - they are then less likely to go to war
Support globalisation and dissipation of power to increase democracy and
cooperation between nations
This is due to a fear that independent nation states will only operate in their own self
interest
Supranational organisations are of mutual benefit

Para 2: Conservative nationalism
- Since Disraeli conservatives have become more and more nationalist
- Key objective is to maintain order and national unity
- Emphasis on nationalism and patriotism as a means by which societies can be held
together
- Belief in organic society
- Defence of national symbols and traditions eg
...
Gandhi in India or violent eg
...
teaching of Welsh has been required in schools in Wales since 1993
- Northern Ireland: seek to defend themselves from both English and Irish cultural
domination
- Content with the political autonomy that they already have
- Elements of conservative nationalism as they want to preserve order and to promote
cultural unity
- However they are more inclusive as their only goal is to preserve their culture, not to
keep others out
- Elements of liberalism as they are moderate but they do not have any political goals,
which liberal nationalism does

Feminism
15 marks
On what grounds has feminism been criticised?
Conservatives:
- Undermines key institutions of society such as the family
- Rejects traditional values

-

Have emphasised social and political significance of gender differences
Sexual division of labour is natural and inevitable
Gender gives our society organic and hierarchical character
Highlighting tensions between men and women threatens social cohesion and order

Liberals:
- Undermines importance of individual through breaking down people into groups
- We should not group people together based on gender but should judge them based
entirely on merit
- There is no need to think about gender if everyone has the same rights - the best
people will naturally rise to the top
- Feminism tries to break down the public and private divide
- Women should have the choice of whether to be feminist or not
- They should not have to enter the public sphere if they do not want to
- The state should not interfere in the private sphere even if it is to break down the
patriarchy
Socialists:
- Emphasises divisions between women and men rather than class divisions
- Can distract from class consciousness and the true goal
- Everything bad is a result of capitalism, not gender inequality
- Liberal feminism is only available to wealthy middle class women
- It does not recognise the reality of unequal wealth
- Legal and political equality is only helpful for those who can access it
What is patriarchy, and why is it important to feminist analysis?
What:
-

System of male discrimination against women
Refers to male domination of the father and husband over wife and children
Term is used to describe the relationships between men and women
Dominance of the father mirrors male supremacy in other institutions
Gender is the deepest of all social divides
It runs through the whole of society and is not confined to certain spheres
“Half of the populace which is female is controlled by that half which is male
...
etc
- Socialist feminists: economic aspects
- Patriarchy works in tandem with capitalism
- Man goes to work and is exploited, woman stays at home and looks after the
children for free, bringing up the next generation of workers

-

It is particularly important to radical feminists as the SYSTEM of oppression
This means that it operates on all levels
Society is a reflection of the unequal gender power structures at home
Eg
...

-

Challenge beliefs of liberal feminism
They are too narrow and ignore class inequality
Gender inequality is intrinsically linked to class inequality and is a result of
capitalism
If you deal with the problems of class inequality gender inequality would
automatically go away
The traditional family model (man earns money, woman stays at home) is part of the
patriarchal whole
Inheritance through the son reinforces patriarchal beliefs
Men own property and women look after children
Woman is never able to fulfil her potential
2 for the price of 1: men have to go out to work and work exceptionally hard to
support their families
The female must stay at home to look after the child
The man is content to to be exploited and the women offers unpaid labour
Women are a reserve army of labour
In times of growth, to allow for supply to keep up with demand, women can be
recruited into the workforce
They can also be discarded easily when the economy drops off
In times of war women can perform the jobs of men

In what sense have radical feminists sought to redefine the nature of politics?
-

For liberal feminists the solution to the patriarchy is gradual reform and legal and
political equality
For socialist feminists it is the overthrow of capitalism
Radical feminists believe in the power of “consciousness-raising”
They need to make women aware that they are all in a similar situation and have a
common interest
Through this we can achieve collective action which will lead to liberation
They agree that there needs to be a radical transformation of society
There must be a fundamental shift in both the public and private sphere
“The personal is political” - Millett
Patriarchy begins in the private sphere through the dominance of the father and the
conditioning of children to adopt gender roles

-

This is then mirrored in the public sphere via the system of oppression and male
dominance
We cannot fix the patriarchy without addressing all institutions

Explain the link between feminism and liberalism
...
equal pay, jobs, representation
Why have some feminists criticised the idea of gender equality?
-

Traditionally goal has been gender equality
Removes advantages men have over women
They have justified this on the basis that humans are androgynous
Our sex does not determine our position in society
We should judge individuals on merit
Difference feminists: equality does not lead to female liberation
They see clear and inescapable differences between men and women - they have
different characteristics
Men are aggressive and competitive and women are creative and empathetic
Betty Friedan: women are suited to more domestic roles
Women should accept and celebrate these differences
Cultural feminism: sisterhood and emphasis on women’s crafts

-

Gender equality makes women male-identified and take on male characteristics
Equality is too narrow and forces women to be something they are not

How and why have feminists been critical of “the public / private divide”?
-

Traditionally politics has been in the public sphere and has not been considered in
the private sphere
Liberal feminists believe this: the private sphere is the realm of the individual
The individual must be given as much possible freedom and the state should not
become active in the private sphere
Radicals: politics occurs where there are power structured relationships
In the home the man dominates his wife and children
The public private divide has been used as a tool by the patriarchy to undermine
women
The roots of the patriarchy are in the private sphere as we are conditioned from a
young age to fulfil gender roles
This prevents women from accessing the public sphere
The state needs to become active in the private sphere eg
...

Androgyny:
- Sex differences between men and women are relatively minor and therefore cannot
explain gender or personality differences
- Human nature is thought to be androgynous
- Humans all have masculine and feminine characteristics
- We come from both a man and a woman
- Sex differences are biological facts of life but have no social, economic or political
importance
- The goal of feminism is to establish genderless personhood
- We should judge people on merit rather than sex / gender
- Gender can be altered or even demolished as it has no biological basis
- There is potential for social change through the demolition of gender
Essentialism:
- Difference feminists: there are profound and inescapable differences between men
and women
- Essentialism: belief that biological factors are crucial in determining psychological
and behavioural traits

-

Men are aggressive and competitive and women are nurturing and creative
These are caused by biology rather than social conditioning
Women should recognise and celebrate their distinctive characteristics
They should seek liberation through difference and womanhood, not as genderless
persons
Cultural feminism: led to an emphasis on women’s crafts, art and literature

45 marks
To what extent is feminism a single doctrine?
Intro:
-

3 types: liberal, socialist, radical
Liberal: associated with right to vote and suffragette movement
Legal and political equality ⇒ social equality
Socialist: capitalism is the cause of the patriarchy and works in tandem with it
Radical: go further than liberal feminists
Look to address stereotypes and deeper issues within society eg
...
public / private divide, difference feminists vs equality
feminists
However all have the same goal of equality

Para 1: Liberal
- 18th century to 1960s
- Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Women
- Published in 18th century and established that men and women are entitled to the
same rights
- JS Mill: gender is an accident of birth and should therefore not be used to
discriminate against people
- People are androgynous and have male and female characteristics
- Gender is something which has been created by society and has no biological basis
- Biological differences has no social or political importance
- We should therefore not judge people on their sex
- Individualism: human individual is all important
- People are entitled to equal treatment regardless of gender / race etc
- All should have equal right to political life / education / citizenship
- People should be judged on merit and talent
- Legal and political equality: when women are given the vote people will realise their
potential
- This will naturally spread to other areas of life
- Attracted middle class women who were actually able to use these rights
- Public/private divide: liberal feminists do not wish to overthrow this
- See the private sphere as the realm of individual choice
- The state should not interfere in the private sphere

-

If an individual wishes to remain subordinate in the private sphere then they should
be free to do so
State should have an active role in the public sphere establishing equality eg
...
” Discuss
...
the private sphere
Many differences eg
...

education, equal pay, jobs etc
- Reformist: do not want radical transformation

-

Seek to work within existing structures
Want to open doors to the public sphere through parliamentary methods
Basically just take liberal values and turn them into feminist ones

Para 2: Socialist
- Became prominent in the 2nd half of the 20th century
- Challenge the beliefs of liberal feminism
- Gender inequality is intrinsically linked to capitalism and is a result of class
oppression
- If you deal with the problems of class inequality then gender inequality will go away
- Disagree with liberal feminists that legal and political equality will cut it
- Engels: women’s role changed with the advent of capitalism and private property
- “Mother right” (property passing through the female line) was replaced by male
inheritance
- This is a result of the bourgeois family model
- The traditional family (father earns money, mother rears children) is part of the
patriarchal whole
- The woman is confined to the home and unable to fulfil her potential
- 2 for the price of 1: men have to go out to work
- Work exceptionally hard in order to support their family
- The female must stay at home and look after the children
- The man is content to be exploited, the woman stays at home and offers unpaid
labour
- Socialist feminists say this is wrong but liberal feminists would say that this should
be an individual choice of whether to work or not
- Reserve army: capitalism uses women as a reserve army of labour
- When the economy is going well, women can be used as workers to keep supply as
high as demand
- When the economy drops off these women can be just as easily discarded
- Believe the solution for this is class war
- This would involve collective action - this is in opposition to liberal feminists who
believe in individual action
- Sort of just take socialist values and turn them into feminist ones - a female extension
of socialism
Para 3: Radical
- 2nd wave feminism: 60s ⇒
- Part of a broader social movement called the New Left
- Acknowledged the societal divide based on gender
- Principal aims of liberal feminism did not go far enough
- Only really focused on white middle class women
- Radicals and socialists are in agreement about this
- Gender divisions are the most significant in society
- As opposed to socialist feminists who see class divisions as the most profound in
society
- The private sphere: where gender oppression begins

-

Patriarchy has yet to be overthrown because we have only addressed it in the public
sphere
“Politics occurs wherever there are power structured relationships”
In the private sphere the men dominate economically and sexually
This then spreads to the public sphere
“The personal is political”
“Patriarchy’s chief institution is the family”
Roles of men and women come about via a process of conditioning
From an early age children are expected to conform to very specific gender roles
This comes through art, literature, toys, media
This should be challenged via a process of consciousness raising
Similar to the view of socialist feminists
Agree with liberals that sex and gender are separate
Think that social change will only come about via collective realisation by women
that they are in the same situation
This is opposed to liberal feminists who believe that we only need to work as
individuals
Incompatible with other ideologies fully, because they believe gender inequality is
the most important
Has elements of liberalism and socialism but overall is its own separate thing

To what extent is feminism defined by the quest for gender equality?
Intro:
-

3 types: liberal, socialist, radical
Liberal: associated with right to vote and suffragette movement
Legal and political equality ⇒ social equality
Socialist: capitalism is the cause of the patriarchy and works in tandem with it
Radical: go further than liberal feminists
Look to address stereotypes and deeper issues within society eg
...
public / private divide, difference feminists vs equality
feminists
However all have the same goal of equality

Para 1: Liberal
- 18th century to 1960s
- Mary Wollstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Women
- Published in 18th century and established that men and women are entitled to the
same rights
- JS Mill: gender is an accident of birth and should therefore not be used to
discriminate against people
- People are androgynous and have male and female characteristics
- Gender is something which has been created by society and has no biological basis
- Biological differences has no social or political importance
- We should therefore not judge people on their sex
- Individualism: human individual is all important

-

People are entitled to equal treatment regardless of gender / race etc
All should have equal right to political life / education / citizenship
People should be judged on merit and talent
Legal and political equality: when women are given the vote people will realise their
potential
This will naturally spread to other areas of life
Attracted middle class women who were actually able to use these rights
Public/private divide: liberal feminists do not wish to overthrow this
See the private sphere as the realm of individual choice
The state should not interfere in the private sphere
If an individual wishes to remain subordinate in the private sphere then they should
be free to do so
State should have an active role in the public sphere establishing equality eg
...
” Discuss
...
the private sphere

-

Many differences eg
...

education, equal pay, jobs etc
- Reformist: do not want radical transformation
- Seek to work within existing structures
- Want to open doors to the public sphere through parliamentary methods
- Do not believe this at all, only want to address the public sphere
- Equality will come about naturally when we address legalities and politics
- The private sphere is the realm of individual choice
Para 2: Socialist
- Became prominent in the 2nd half of the 20th century
- Challenge the beliefs of liberal feminism
- Gender inequality is intrinsically linked to capitalism and is a result of class
oppression
- If you deal with the problems of class inequality then gender inequality will go away
- Disagree with liberal feminists that legal and political equality will cut it
- Engels: women’s role changed with the advent of capitalism and private property

-

“Mother right” (property passing through the female line) was replaced by male
inheritance
This is a result of the bourgeois family model
The traditional family (father earns money, mother rears children) is part of the
patriarchal whole
The woman is confined to the home and unable to fulfil her potential
2 for the price of 1: men have to go out to work
Work exceptionally hard in order to support their family
The female must stay at home and look after the children
The man is content to be exploited, the woman stays at home and offers unpaid
labour
Socialist feminists say this is wrong but liberal feminists would say that this should
be an individual choice of whether to work or not
Reserve army: capitalism uses women as a reserve army of labour
When the economy is going well, women can be used as workers to keep supply as
high as demand
When the economy drops off these women can be just as easily discarded
Believe the solution for this is class war
This would involve collective action - this is in opposition to liberal feminists who
believe in individual action
Private sphere is a large element because of the bourgeois family unit
However they are not defined by this
They are more defined by the fact that capitalism is the cause of gender inequality

Para 3: Radical
- 2nd wave feminism: 60s ⇒
- Part of a broader social movement called the New Left
- Acknowledged the societal divide based on gender
- Principal aims of liberal feminism did not go far enough
- Only really focused on white middle class women
- Radicals and socialists are in agreement about this
- Gender divisions are the most significant in society
- As opposed to socialist feminists who see class divisions as the most profound in
society
- The private sphere: where gender oppression begins
- Patriarchy has yet to be overthrown because we have only addressed it in the public
sphere
- “Politics occurs wherever there are power structured relationships”
- In the private sphere the men dominate economically and sexually
- This then spreads to the public sphere
- “The personal is political”
- “Patriarchy’s chief institution is the family”
- Roles of men and women come about via a process of conditioning
- From an early age children are expected to conform to very specific gender roles
- This comes through art, literature, toys, media
- This should be challenged via a process of consciousness raising

-

Similar to the view of socialist feminists
Agree with liberals that sex and gender are separate
Think that social change will only come about via collective realisation by women
that they are in the same situation
This is opposed to liberal feminists who believe that we only need to work as
individuals
Completely defined by the personal is political
This is the primary goal - to address the patriarchy at its roots

Ecologism
15 marks
Explain the key ideas of eco-socialism
...
value in that it can be used to make money
Ecologists would argue that the world has intrinsic value ie
...


-

Murray Bookchin saw a clear correspondence between ecologism and anarchism
Ecological balance rather than a state is the best basis for a stable and happy society
Stateless society: humans are moulded by their experiences and relationships
In a stateless society harmony will develop between humans due to mutual respect
just as harmony develops spontaneously within nature
Ecosystems require no external control and arise naturally
We are a part of that ecosystem, and therefore do not require a govt to police us
Both society and ecosystems are governed by the principles of balance and diversity
Decentralised societies: communities or villages
Self-sufficient and close to nature
Dependent on nature due to their isolation
Leads to understanding of ecology and a more intelligent and loving use of the
natural world
Anarchists: progress is only possible when govt and all forms of political authority
are overthrown
It removes hierarchy in society and therefore the natural world
It will also remove the corrupting influence and consumerism
However some ecologists would say that the govt can be a tool through which
collective action can be organised
Removal of authority may give free reign to industrialisation

How and why have ecologists shown a concern about future generations?
Why:
- Conventional moral thinking is anthropocentric and puts humans at the centre of the
natural world
- All ecologists challenge industrialism and the need to constantly expand markets
- Kenneth Boulding: spaceship earth
- Earth is a closed system whose resources are finite
...

-

Promotes the view that women and nature are inextricably linked
Women and nature are treated as inferior by men
Men > woman, humans > environment
Women have a connection with nature due to childbirth and childcare
They are responsible for the continuation of the species
Oppression of nature and woman began with the establishment of the patriarchy
5,000 years ago
Ecological degradation has its roots in patriarchy
Dualism: worldview is divided into opposing concepts
Men vs women, mind vs body, humans vs nature
Superiority is ascribed to one of the pair
Both women and nature are viewed as “the other”
Both are exploited by men
Androgyny vs essentialism: some think that “soft” qualities of women were imposed
by the patriarchy
Divorces men from the earth by ascribing the roles of nurturing and home making to
the women
Essentialists: women would escape from patriarchy if they aligned themselves with
“female culture” and get closer to the earth

How and why have ecologists challenged conventional moral thinking?
Why:
-

It is anthropocentric and places humans at the centre of the natural world
Orientated around the pleasure, needs and interests of humans
The resources of the world are there for us to use as we see fit
Shallow ecologists: this means that we destroy the earth for future generations
Deep ecologists: tragedy of the commons
The global commons will eventually be subject to complete degradation because
individuals, businesses and states place self-interest before the collective good
Kenneth Boulding: came up with concept of “spaceship earth”
The earth is a closed system (it displays entropy)
It is unable to re-energise itself and its resources are finite

How:
- Shallow ecologists: enlightened anthropocentrism

-

We have a responsibility to use the world’s resources in a sustainable way
Futurity: we should judge actions on their future impacts ⇒ ecological stewardship
Cross-generational justice: we must ensure future generations have at least the same
standard of living as we have
Biocentric equality
All species have equal moral worth
Peter Singer: all animals are capable of pain and suffering
We should do all we can to make sure they avoid that
This includes not destroying their habitats
Animal rights: moral entitlements that class animals as non-human persons
Deep ecologists: intrinsic value of the natural world
It should be protected for its own sake, not just to support humans
Land ethic: it is the right thing to do to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of
the natural world for its own sake
Ecofeminists: women are close to nature
We should realign ourselves with female culture
Ecoanarchists: we do not need a state to regulate humans
We do not need humans to regulate nature
Ecosocialists: capitalism and human development have led to environmental
degradation

On what grounds have some ecologists supported capitalism?
Green capitalism:
- This is the idea that the free market moves with the mood of the people
- Adam Smith: driven by people’s “regard to their own self interest”
- Supply must shift with demand
- As people become more environmentally aware, they will demand eco-friendly
products
- If capitalists want to continue making profit, they must move with the consumer
desire to be ecologically responsible
- This is known as consumer sovereignty
Sustainability:
- If capitalists want to make long term profit they need to use the world’s resources
gradually
- If they don’t, their businesses will burn out
- There will be nothing with which to make products, so they will not make a profit
- Capitalism may offer the solution to environmental protection
- Renewable energy sources are a viable way to generate profit, and will be long-term
enough to interest businesses
Distinguish between ecocentrism and anthropocentrism
...
value in that it can be used to make profit
We have a natural right to use the world’s resources without any cares for animals,
as we are morally superior to them
Our needs and interests are of overriding philosophical importance
Human economic and personal development is more important than the
preservation of the natural world

Ecocentrism:
- Any belief that humans are at the centre of the natural world is not an ecologist one
- We are not at the centre of the natural world
- All species have equal moral worth and equal right to flourish and develop
- This means we cannot destroy their habitats or material gain
- The natural world has intrinsic value
- Has value in and for itself, not just because we can use it as a tool to make money
- Land ethic: it is the right thing to do to preserve the beauty, integrity and stability of
the natural world, not just so that future generations can have what we had
- It should not be undermined
- There should be no distinction between humans are the natural world
- This requires a paradigm shift of consciousness by humans
- We cannot put humans against nature, as they are all part of one whole being
- We must see the world in less dualistic terms
45 marks
To what extent do ecologists go beyond conventional moral thinking?
Intro:
-

3 x strands: shallow, deep, social
Enlightened anthropocentrism vs ecocentrism
Varying levels of regard for human interest
Deep ecologists: want a return to nature, zero growth, small communities
Shallow ecologists: want to tame capitalism, sustainability, preserve for future
generations
Eco-socialism: root cause of environmental crisis is capitalism
Eco-anarchism: stateless society breeds harmony and respect between humans and
the natural world
Eco-feminism: ecological destruction has its roots in the patriarchy

Para 1: Ecosocialism
- Strong socialist strand in ecologism (German Greens)
- Drawn from pastoral thinkers such as William Morris - extolled the virtues of small
communities close to nature
- Rudolph Bahro: root cause of environmental degradation is capitalism
- Private property encourages the belief that humans are dominant over nature
- Market economy commodifies nature

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It only has value as it can be bought and sold
Capitalism breeds materialism and consumerism and leads to relentless growth
Any attempt to save the environment must involve a process of radical social change
Goes beyond moral thinking as usually we are encouraged to have personal
development through the free market
Challenges this liberal perspective
Distinct from socialism and socialist parties as they advocate the exploitation of the
planet for the good of humanity, not just the bourgeoisie
Goes against the idea that the good of humanity is always the end goal

Para 2: Ecoanarchism
- Bookchin saw a clear correspondence between the ideas of anarchism and those of
ecologism
- Ecological balance is the surest foundation for social stability
- In stateless society harmony and respect will develop naturally among humans due
to diversity of rich society
- Like an ecosystem: require no external authority or control
- Rejection of govt mirrors the rejection of human rule over the environment
- Goes against traditional moral thinking in that anarchism itself does
- Support construction of decentralised societies which are close to nature
- Leads to a “more loving and intelligent use of the environment” - Bookchin
- Believe this can only happen with the eradication of all govt
- Even goes beyond ecological thinking: the govt can be a valuable mechanism for the
control of capitalism etc
Para 3: Ecofeminism
- Ecological degradation has its roots in patriarchy
- Patriarchy has distorted the role of men and separated them from the “private”
world of nurturing and home making
- Inclines men to subordinate both women and nature
- Mary Daly: women should liberate themselves from patriarchal culture and return to
female nature
- Biological basis for women’s closeness to nature: bear children and suckle babies
- Traditional female characteristics (nurturing, cooperation) have an ecological nature
- The exploitation of nature is worse for women because they recognise that nature
operates through them
- Personal fulfilment comes from acting with nature
- Overthrow of patriarchy hopes to bring a new relationship between humans and
nature
- Generally humans considered separate to nature: this is therefore going beyond
traditional moral thinking
- Women’s world: natural and creative
- Man’s world: synthetic and man-made
- This leads to a belief in self striving, competition and hierarchy
- This is traditionally accepted as the human goal
- Establishes the supremacy of culture over nature

Para 4: Shallow ecology
- Seeks to advance ecological principles without compromising capitalist modernity
- Limits to growth: CO2 emissions, exhaustion of resources and pollution threaten
human prosperity
- Extends moral and philosophical sensibilities in modest directions
- Associated with liberalism: usually condemned as a stark example of
anthropocentrism
- Modern liberalism: self realisation and developmental individualism leads to
enlightened anthropocentrism
- Encourages people to take long term “higher” pleasures into account
- Maslow’s pyramid of needs
- JS Mill: criticised industrialisation as appreciation of nature is an indispensable
aspect of human fulfilment
- Conservatism: hark back to pre-industrial era
- Want to protect national heritage (woods etc)
- Linked to a defence of traditional values and institutions
- Green capitalism: consumers want more and more ecologically friendly products
- Market will respond to pressure
- Corporate profitability can only be achieved in a sustainable long term way
- Thus this is mainly focused on human development
- Does not advocate any radical change
Para 5: Deep ecology
- Coined by Arne Naess: asks deeper questions such as “why” or “how”
- Concerned with philosophical impact of humans on the atmosphere
- Nature is the source of moral goodness
- Nature has intrinsic value
- Aldo Leopold: land ethic - it is the right thing to do to preserve the beauty, stability
and integrity of the natural world
- Biocentric equality: all things have equal right to live
- Traditionally humans are viewed as superior
- Calls for the adoption of ecological consciousness
- Inter-subjective - calls for no distinction between the self and the other
- Collapses distinction between humans and nature
- Environmental degradation has profound cultural roots
- Mechanistic and dualistic worldview
- Nature is a mere resource for human ends
- Simple living: we should be inwardly rich but outwardly poor
- Anthropocentrism and ecocentrism are mutually exclusive
- Population control: reject aid in the developing world and call for a reduction in birth
rates
- This is v v controversial
To what extent is ecologism opposed to capitalism and its values?

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All ecologists recognise that capitalism is to blame for ecological damage
Shallow ecologists do not fully reject it
It can be used as a tool for ecological protection
Socialist ecologists, however, want to completely overthrow it
Deep ecologists fully reject it and see sustainability as insufficient

Para 1: Zero growth
- Happiness cannot come from material consumerism
- Capitalism convinces us of this
- However in reality growth is not required for human fulfilment
- We can achieve happiness through being rather than having
- This was championed by Erich Fromm who called it a “having state of mind”
Para 2: Sustainability
- The act of using resources in a gradual and responsible way
- With ecologism this comes in the form of balancing environmental protection with
economic growth
- If capitalists want to make a long term profit they should use the world’s resources
sustainably
- This is also due to futurity: we should judge actions on their possible future impacts
- Cross generational justice: we must ensure that future generations must have at least
the same standard of living as us
Para 3: Intrinsic value
- The world arises naturally and does not need human intervention
- We are therefore not above it and cannot use it simply to gain profit
- We should not turn the earth into a commodity
- Private property gives us a feeling of superiority over the earth
- Land ethic: we should preserve the beauty, integrity and stability of the natural
world simply because it is the right thing to do
Para 4: Instrumental value
- Shallow ecologists only want sustainability for future generations
- They see the world as there for us to exploit, but we should do it gradually, only for
the benefit of our children
- The world only has value in that it can help us to make a profit
Para 5: Biocentric equality
- All animals have equal moral worth and have moral entitlements due to their being
“non-human persons”
- They therefore deserve the same treatment as humans
- They can feel pain and we should do all we can to help them avoid that
- Peter Singer: all animals can suffer, not just humans
- Human interests should not be more important than animal lives

Para 6: Personal development
- Anthropocentric perspective
- Individual achievement and fulfilment are of overriding importance
- This is why we should use the world’s resources sustainably
- They place it above environmental protection
- Deep ecologists would say that they are protecting the environment for the wrong
reasons
Para 7: Eco-socialism
- Capitalism exploits the wo

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