Notesale: Turn your study into money

Document Preview

Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above

---

INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY

1

Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
...
27
CHAPTER THREE: EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
...
44
CHAPTER FIVE: CAREERS AND CAREER MANAGEMENT
...
60
CHAPTER SEVEN: UNDER-EMPLOYMENT AND SKILLS UTILIZATION
...
67
CHAPTER NINE: WORK LEISURE AND RETIREMENT
...
87
CHAPTER ELEVEN: CONCLUSION
...
Industrial psychology is also known as work psychology, organizational
psychology
...

The specialty of industrial psychology is characterized by the scientific study of human behavior
in organizations and the work place
...

Industrial psychology is a relatively young field
...

HISTORY OF INDUSTRIAL PSYCHOLOGY
A Brief Overview
Industrial-Organizational psychology has only been in existence for about the last century
...
When factories and assembly lines began
coming into existence, the people who ran the factories wanted to try to get as much money as
possible out of their workers
...
A landmark study of this time period involved a
study to make trolley operators be as productive as possible, and another involved how best to
design a coal shovel to increase production
...

For example, Landsberger wanted to see how low the lighting could be and still maintain optimal
3

productivity
...
It
appeared that no matter what he did, the employees improved their production speed, even if he
only gave them low candlelight to work by
...
Thus, work conditions had been trumped
by employee feelings about someone being interested in what they were doing
...
Because both of these conflicts occurred without
the United States being prepared for them, huge numbers of incoming soldiers needed to be
placed in jobs they were best suited for as quickly as possible
...
When these psychologists returned from the wars, they brought their
knowledge home with them and applied their new knowledge of selections to businesses
...

Human Capital Becomes Important
Studies like Landsberger’s and the new knowledge of how to select employees started to change
industrial psychology
...
The shift wasn’t necessarily an
ethical change where businesses suddenly acted out of an interest in humanism instead of profits
...
All of these changes have led to
where industrial psychology and business have come to be today
...

4

There is hardly a field in industry where human understanding is not required; there is hardly a
problem in industry and business where human aspect is not involved and hence there is hardly
an area in which industrial psychology cannot play its role
...
The principles and techniques of industrial
psychology may be applied to the following areas of management:
1) Recruitment—Appropriate matching of job requirement with the employee's abilities lead to
reduction in the cost of hiring, supervision and production
...
In this way,
psychology may help in recruiting the right man to the right job
...
It develops various devices such as interviews and
psychological tests in order to achieve the objective of the selection
...

3) Executive Development and Training—a psychologist by studying and investigating
managerial problems like delegation, communication and supervision vitalizes the already
practiced managerial psychology
...
Continuous and effective use of the capabilities of
workers necessitates training of the workers and supervisors
...

4) Promotional Schemes—Why should a man be promoted or transferred or demoted or
discharged
...

Performance appraisal is one of the psychological techniques to recognize the peoples' ability
mere seniority should not be the guiding principle for promotions
...
Industrial psychology problems into behaviour of people at work to determine the
conditions in which an individual or people at work to determine the conditions in which an
individual feels motivated and is willing to work whole-heartedly to maximize the productivity
...

6) Attitude and morale—The psychologists have established the relationship between the
attitudes of the employees and their performance
...

7) Wages and salary administration-The wage rates in the industry should be fixed on some
suitable and scientific formula
...
Job
evaluation and merit-rating are the techniques which evaluate the worth of the job and of the man
respectively
...

8) Human relations—Human relations may briefly be described as the relations or contacts
among individuals in an organisation and the group behaviour that emerges from these relations
...
They suggest the possible ways and means to solve the industrial strife
...
The industrial psychologists working in human engineering
provides data on which management can decide to improve the design and the product for the
comfort and to increase the sale to the satisfaction of customers
...
Industrial psychology has
6

humanized the management and opened the way to a much fuller utilisation of the human factor
in industry
...
It means personal or psychological factors play an important role in any
programme of accident prevention
...
Psychologists have made the contribution of signals to the development of safety
programme and the preservation of human factor in industry
...
Economic, Social and Psychological Aspect of the Industry
Industrial psychology deals with human behavior in the entire industrial environment
...
In
the modern age most of economic factors have some psychological influence
...
Industrial psychology studies these factors
...
Study of the Physical Aspect of Work Environment
In an industry the worker is greatly influenced by the working conditions
...
Industrial psychology deals with the physical working
conditions
...
Principles of Human Relationships
Irrespective of the automation introduced in industries, the human element cannot be eliminated
Even most efficient machine needs an engineer to run it, and because the engineer is a human
being the most importance of the psychological element in the running of the factory cannot be
ignored
...

In the previous century most industrialists behaved like autocrats and considered the workers as
nothing more than tools
...

7

It has been seer that an industrialist can achieve a higher rate of production if he behaves
sympathetically with his employees
...
Industrial psychology tries at discover principles for
improving human relationships in an industrial environment
...
Study of Aptitudes and Motives- why people behave the way they do
As in any other circumstances, human behaviour in the industrial environment is influenced and
formed by attitudes and aims
...
Hence it is very
important to study the rules pertaining to correct attitudes and aims
...
An important example of study of this kind is
the study conducted by Hawthorne Works Western Electric Company into the effect of the
attitudes of workers upon production
...

5
...

The workers mental health is influenced by working conditions and by the attitude of other
people towards him
...

Industrial “psychology also gives suggestions for improving the mental health of those who are
suffering from mental disease or are otherwise unbalanced
...
Study of Human Relation-study of human behaviour
Industrial psychology is the study or human behaviour in an industrial context
...
On the basis of these
conclusions it tries to discover general principles which can be used to improve social relations
between the workers and the management
...
Reading a psychology article indicates that you have
intrinsic motivation towards understanding human nature
...

Those workers who love being at work and will do anything it takes for the company to flourish
are most of the time intrinsically motivated
...



Extrinsic Motivation

Commissions, sales incentives and social praise are well-known motivators
...
These rewards can be extremely powerful when looking to
motivate your staff to go above and beyond their current comfort zone of productivity
...
For instance, if an employee loves writing on the corporate blog but the management
decide to financially compensate them for each post
...
Since they have to be bribed into writing, then the task must not be worth doing
for its own sake
...
This can be achieved with a basic understanding of operant
conditioning
...
While this can be seen throughout life, you can apply the concept when
motivating your workforce
...
A few examples of positive
reinforcements in the workplace are social praise in public, sales incentives & bonuses as well as
creative rewards such as early departure from work, casual dress days and in-office
game/personal time
...
Withholding the reward unless performance is continually improved upon will help
shape the productivity
...
But you have found that the 8-hour
timeframe has become the norm
...



Achievement Motivation Theory

The desire to achieve the absolute best results possible is an amazing trait to find in coworkers
...
They favor a work environment in which they are able to assume responsibility for
solving problems
...
They tend to take calculated risks and to set moderate, attainable goals
...
They need continuing recognition and feedback about their progress so that they know
how well they are doing
...
Which means that as a leader you must recognize what makes these workers tick?
The high achievers who strive for mastery of tasks are driven by developing themselves
internally and are rewarded by becoming increasingly skilled
...
They find satisfaction by completing their duties better than their coworkers
...
The lower needs on this pyramid must be fulfilled before one can achieve
the next higher level:

This chart is important for entrepreneurs and leaders to understand
...
You must recognize and create solutions for your
staff to become truly satisfied in their life before you can achieve the results you desire
...
But it has transformed many organizations in
terms of employee motivation
...
Motivator Needs – These produce job satisfaction and are considered higher needs
...
Meeting these
demands will result in job satisfaction
...

2
...
A
few examples of these needs are a company policy, working conditions, wages paid and
other external factors that can directly affect a worker such as their supervisor
...

11

The take away from this concept is that as you oversee your organization, it is important to
emphasize job enrichment
...



Equity Theory

Ensuring that your employees feel equal amongst their peers is extremely important when
creating a motivated workforce
...
” They then (most likely unconsciously)
compare their ratio to the perceived ratios of their coworkers
...
Benevolent – These workers feel satisfied when under-rewarded compared to coworkers
and feel guilty when equally or over-rewarded
...
Equity-Sensitive – These workers believe everyone should be rewarded fairly
...

3
...

The important idea here is that you must keep a careful eye on the workforce’s perceptions in
regards to pay and rewards
...
This theory was developed by Edward
Locke and illustrates that by setting specific and challenging goals for your team motivation will
provoke extreme productivity
...



Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy (VIE) Theory

This theory may be one of the most important concepts for motivation – but is often overlooked
by most businesses
...
Put in other
words, workers who aspire for a better status at work will do anything they believe will get them
their desired results
...

Conclusion
As a leader, understanding your team’s underlying desires and their motivating forces will be
essential for your continued success
...

Individual differences are a cornerstone subject area in modern psychology
...

Individual difference psychology examines how people are similar and how they
differ in their thinking, feeling and behaviour
...
So, in the study of individual differences we strive to understand
ways in which people are psychologically similar and particularly what psychological
characteristics vary between people
...
There are multiple and often conflicting theories and
evidence about individual difference psychology
...
g
...
For example, most of the
people fall in the category of average height and very few are very tall or very short
...


The fact that people are different from each other is a very common observation
...
By ‘consistent’,
we mean that people tend to show regularity in their behaviour and their patterns of behaviour do
not change very frequently
...

People develop their unique traits/ characteristics and patterns of behaviour due to their genetic
make-up and the environment in which they are brought up
...

Knowing about the specific characteristics of a person is necessary in order to extend support
and utilize his or her potential to optimal level
...
We inherit
certain characteristics from our parents through genetic codes
...
This is
the reason why we are not exactly like our parents and our parents not exactly like our
grandparents
...
We also inherit certain cognitive, emotional and
other characteristics from our parents like intellectual competence, love for sport, creativity etc
...
The environment is responsible as how we are reared, the kind of atmosphere at house,
whether it is liberal or strict, the type of education that we get, what we learn from people,
around us, books, cultural practices, peers, teachers and media All these aspects refer to
‘environment’ which help in developing our potentials
...
Our inheritance alone cannot decide what we become but our environment also contributes
to our personalities
...
g Ben Carson who a world is known neurosurgeon
...
At the same time, surrounding environment also
differs from person to person
...

That is why the pattern of development of each of us is different from others
...

Task: Explain the term ‘individual differences

Nature of Personality
We all use the term ‘personality’ in day-to-day life
...
The term personality has been defined in diverse ways
...
Psychologists have approached
personality from different perspectives
...
They include:

15



The trait perspective:

This tries to describe personality in terms of various traits
...
These clusters are called “types”
...



The psychodynamic perspective

This calls attention to the unconscious needs and conflicts as well as the influence of earlier
stages of development on our lives
...
In view of this theory, our
personality and behaviour patterns are acquired through interaction with others and adoption of
social and cultural norms
...
It is a
view which is optimistic and emphasizes-on positive aspects of life and potentialities
...

However, you might find that you have Type D personality traits but still find that you have
some personality traits from another type such as type C
...

Type A personality traits
Type A personalities are competitive, high achievers and have a high sense of time urgency
...
Type A's felt insecure at one point of their lives and so they decided to fight the
insecurity by changing their lives and making achievements as fast as they can
...
They are relaxed, laid back and not easily stressed
...
Type b can
delay work and do it in the last moment, some of them can turn into procrastinators which is
something that a type A can never do
...
Type C are not assertive at all and
they always suppress their own desires even if there is something that they dislike
...
Type Cs are very
vulnerable to depression compared to type A and type B
...
A
small

event

that

is

not

even

noticed

by type

B

can

ruin

type

D's

day
...

Type D's are famous for suppressing their emotions and this makes them the most vulnerable
type to depression
...

Managing Different Personalities - People Management Skills
You will encounter many different types of people during your management career
...
Even if you manage a group of 100, you should still be able to know
the key players personalities
...
When dealing with different personalities, be
tolerant of styles different from your own
...

17

You can’t use a cookie cutter approach with every employee
...
For example, you will not get your
point across if you're too direct and data oriented with a touchy-feely kind of person
...
This
is also important when delegating any projects to individuals or as small teams
...
If a person or team is too sensitive, fewer
decisions will be confidently made
...
They usually have
an optimistic “glass half-full” point of view
...
They might need some help in making
decisions
...
Let
them know calmly, yet directly, what you need from them
...
This would be a good
person to do long-term detailed oriented type of projects
...




The “Aggressive” likes to take control and do things quickly
...
They are usually good at what they do, and know it
...
They can produce a lot of good work for you, but every
once and a while you need to make sure they know whose boss
...
This would be a good
person to use to put out any fires that need immediate attention
...
If you don’t, they will be upset
...
They will also play devil’s
advocate
...
They tend to procrastinate when
18

making decisions
...
This would be a good
person to give projects like finding possible trouble producing trends that requires deep
analytical investigation
...
Don’t waste
either of your time to chat about subjects of little importance
...
They do as they are
told, but do not like making decisions
...
Try not to be too direct with this type of personality
...
This would be a good person to give projects that are more “touchy-feely
...
They have a strong interest about people and are usually
the “social butterfly” of the department
...
Try using a lightened-up approach and some humor to get
your point across to this type of personality
...




The “Brainiac” will use knowledge and sarcasm to get what they want
...
They will also dance around making any type of
decision
...
If needed, make them repeat themselves in terms everyone can
understand
...
”



The “Quiet” is one who very rarely talks at meetings, seems to have low self-esteem,
and is continually sub-conscious of their actions
...
There can be power in the quiet person as they might be the ones with the
most compelling ideas
...
On the contrary, the quiet people are the ones you
need to seek out
...
They feel like they are doing a great job because of meeting an
important goal, however, they are doing a poor job on another aspect of the job
...
You have to stress the importance of the
big picture and to use common sense
...
This person is usually more suited for simple
straightforward tasks that do not require thinking outside of the box
...
They do not like any interaction
with fellow employees
...
It is to their benefit if the team exceeds, not only for job security,
but also for any possible rewards you have in place
...
This does not mean they have to be everyone’s best friend; they just need to
be supportive and reliable
...
This person might be a diamond in the rough and if they just do not fit in
to the current team, see if there is another position that would be better suited for
them
...
You,
and most likely HR, will have to determine the outcome of such a move
...




The “Overly-Confident” feels

like

they

know

everything

and

can

do

no
20

wrong
...
You need to get your point across by being very direct
...
Make them repeat exactly what it is they are
supposed to be doing
...



The “Curmudgeon” thinks of everyone but them self as incompetent, and does not take
supervision well
...
They have a pessimistic “glass
is half-empty” point of view
...
State the facts and let them know exactly what is expected of
them
...




The “Mean-Spirited” makes it known that they are not happy with work or the people
around them
...
If you feel
that it is affecting employee morale, you should talk to this person and make sure they
understand that you need a department that works in harmony
...




The “Bad Attitude” is a major problem
...


How to Successfully Work With Different Personalities
Likeability is a key factor to workplace success
...
Here are five ways to deal with different personality
types:
1
...
You may like speaking your mind, but others may not like to hear
it
...
To ease the situation, try implementing a feedback sandwich
...

2
...
If your colleague wants to achieve inbox zero every day,
email is probably not the best way to communicate
...
Your
colleague may prefer you to ping her on Skype or stop by her office versus sending an email, for
instance
...

3
...
There is a cost every time you engage in a workplace conflict and this
cost is time
...
Decide what your priorities are
and let everything else go—even if you know you're right
...
High performers know success is less about proving
themselves, and more about contributing to a shared vision
...

4
...
While the workplace can and should have multiple
personalities and opinions, it's easy to forget that everyone is working toward the same objective
...
You're all on the same team, working toward the same goal, and strong opinions are the
sign of a passionate team; be grateful you're surrounded by people who care about their work as
much as you do
...
Respect other people's expertise
...
Respect and
acknowledge that your colleagues have an expertise that you don't
...
Try not to undermine people's authority and
instead, ask for their input, feedback, and advice when something comes up in their realm of
expertise
...

Working with different personalities isn't easy, but it's always necessary
...

22

WORK ATTITUDES
How we behave at work often depends on how we feel about being there
...
An attitude refers to
our opinions, beliefs, and feelings about aspects of our environment
...
At work, two job attitudes
have the greatest potential to influence how we behave
...

Job satisfaction refers to the feelings people have toward their job
...
Organizational commitment is the emotional attachment people have toward the
company they work for
...
People who are committed to their company often refer to
their company as “we” as opposed to “they” as in “in this company, we have great benefits
...

There is a high degree of overlap between job satisfaction and organizational commitment
because things that make us happy with our job often make us more committed to the company
as well
...

What Causes Positive Work Attitudes?
People pay attention to several factors of their work environment, including characteristics of the
job (a function of Organizing activities), how they are treated (related to Leadership actions), the
relationships they form with colleagues and managers (also Leadership related), and the level of
stress the job entails
...
Factors
23

Contributing to Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment include:


Personality



Person-environment fit



Job characteristics



Psychological contract



Organizational justice



Work relationship



stress

Job Characteristics
Employees tend to be more satisfied and committed in jobs that involve certain characteristics
...
However, the presence of these factors is not important for everyone
...
These employees tend to be more satisfied when their jobs help
them build new skills and improve
...
People pay attention to
the fairness of company policies and procedures, fair and kind treatment from supervisors, and
fairness of their pay and other rewards they receive from the company
...
At the root of
organizational justice is trust, something that is easier to break than to repair if broken
...
g
...
g
...
Under the psychological
24

contract, an employee may believe that if he or she works hard and receives favorable
performance evaluations, he or she will receive an annual bonus, periodic raises and promotions,
and will not be laid off
...

Relationships at Work
Two strong predictors of our happiness at work and commitment to the company are our
relationships with coworkers and managers
...
Research also shows that our relationship with our
manager, how considerate the manager is, and whether we build a trust-based relationship with
our manager are critically important to our job satisfaction and organizational commitment
...
When establishing effective relations with employees, little signals
that you care about your employees go a long way
...

One of the small things the new management did that created dramatic results was that, in
response to an employee attitude survey, they replaced the old vacuum cleaners housekeepers
were using and started replacing them every year
...

Stress
Not surprisingly, the amount of stress present in a job is related to employee satisfaction and
commitment
...
Some jobs, such as
intensive care unit nurse and military fighter pilot, are inherently very stressful
...

Role ambiguity is uncertainty about what our responsibilities are in the job
...

Generally speaking, the higher the stress level, the lower job satisfaction tends to be
...


26

CHAPTER TWO: APPLIED BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS
What is ABA?
The strategic and intentional application of scientific principles of human behavior and learning
...




Teach or increase desired behaviors



Reduce or eliminate undesired behaviors



Analyze the environmental factors that influence behaviors, learning and motivation
...
This involves directly observing and recording situational factors surrounding a
problem behavior using an assessment tool called ABC data collection
...
ABC refers to:


> Antecedent- The events, action(s), or circumstances that occur immediately before a behavior



> Behavior- The behavior in detail



> Consequences- The action(s) or response(s) that immediately follows the behavior



What is an antecedent?
In technical terms, antecedents of behavior are stimulus events, situations, or circumstances that
precede an operant response (Miltenberger, 2004)
...


Why are antecedents important?


To understand and modify behavior, it’s important to analyze the antecedents and
consequences
...




Since behaviors tend to occur more in situations in which it has been reinforced and less in
situations where it has been punished, having this valuable information helps us to predict

27

the situations and environments the behavior will be more likely to occur
...
Through feedback and an effective rewards program (which may include,
in some instances, punishment), managers can assist employees in getting to the best outcomes
for their own careers and contributing to the performance of the organization
...
It
involves the variation of consequences resulting from a target behavior (contingent
consequences)
...


Positive reinforcement involves giving employees something they value, for example, praising
them for a job well done
...

Punishment also takes two forms: creating a negative consequence for employees (for example, a
manager reprimanding an employee for arriving late to an important meeting); or taking
28

something positive away (for example, a manager taking away the employee's company car in
the face of evidence that the employee used the company car, provided exclusively for business
travel, for personal use)
...
F
...
People tend to repeat
behaviors with favorable consequences and tend not to repeat behaviors with unfavorable
consequences
...
However, if
the manager appears to be displeased with the presentation and points out the information that
was left out, the employee experiences this as a punishment and will try to put more effort and
information into future presentations
...
This may be experienced as an unrewarding outcome and cause the
employee to become discouraged
...

N/B
Employees respond best to positive reinforcement (rewards)
...
To
get the best results, managers need to clearly identify good performance in behavioral terms and
reward those employees who engage in these specific behaviors
...
Identify a time frame and feedback
methods
...




At the time specified, measure the target behaviors again and implement the program
of rewards
...
Is it zero customer complaints in that quarter? Is it positive customer satisfaction surveys?
What rating is considered positive on a five-point scale? Some managers may be happy with 4
out of 5 on the five-point scale, while others may only reward employees who receive 5 out of 5
...
For such employees, the manager
needs to move to punishment, starting with reprimands, and then moving to a write-up, and so
forth
...
Moreover, the manager needs to work with these underperforming
employees to help them see what they are doing wrong and what they should be doing instead
...


Conclusion
Behavior modification has been shown to improve job performance, promote safe behaviors,
reduce accidents, improve customer service, and assist employees in identifying and improving
on a range of more functional behaviors in the workplace
...


30

CHAPTER THREE: EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION
What is motivation
Motivation is internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in people to be
continually interested and committed to a job, role or subject, or to make an effort to attain a
goal
...
Motivation is what causes us to act, whether it is getting a glass of water to
reduce thirst or reading a book to gain knowledge
...
These factors are the reasons one has for behaving a certain
way
...

Components of Motivation
Anyone who has ever had a goal (like wanting to lose ten pounds or wanting to run a marathon)
probably immediately realizes that simply having the desire to accomplish something is not
enough
...

There are three major components to motivation: activation, persistence, and intensity
...
Activation involves the decision to initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a psychology
class
...
Persistence is the continued effort toward a goal even though obstacles may exist
...

2
...
For
example, one student might coast by without much effort, while another student will

31

study regularly, participate in discussions and take advantage of research opportunities
outside of class
...

Theories of motivation
Psychological Theories of Motivation to Increase Productivity
We all want to be more productive but getting motivated enough to actually get things done can
seem impossible
...

Dozens of theories of motivation have been proposed over the years
...
Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
The Two-Factor Theory of motivation (otherwise known as dual-factor theory or motivationhygiene theory) was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg in the 1950s
...
Motivator factors – Simply put, these are factors that lead to satisfaction and motivate
employees to work harder
...

2
...
Examples include salary, company policies, benefits, relationships with managers and coworkers
...
Likewise, the presence of hygiene factors didn’t
appear to increase satisfaction and motivation but their absence caused an increase in
dissatisfaction
...

To help motivate your employees, make sure they feel appreciated and supported
...

To prevent job dissatisfaction, make sure that your employees feel that they are treated right by
offering them the best possible working conditions and fair pay
...

Don’t forget that all of your employees are different and what motivates one person might not
motivate another
...
Then you must focus on the individual and what they want out of their association
with your enterprise
...
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
The Hierarchy of Needs theory was coined by psychologist Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper
“A Theory of Human Motivation”
...

The hierarchy is made up of 5 levels:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

According to the hierarchy of needs, you must be in good health, safe and secure with
meaningful relationships and confidence before you are able to be the most that you can be
...
Perhaps you could offer flexible working hours to give
employees time to focus on their families and make sure they are paid fairly to help them feel
financially stable
...
Hawthorne Effect
The Hawthorne Effect was first described by Henry A
...

The Hawthorne Effect is named after a series of social experiments on the influence of physical
conditions on productivity at Western Electric’s factory at Hawthorne, Chicago in the 1920s and
30s
...
In all cases, employee productivity increased when
34

a change was made
...

How to apply it to the workplace
The Hawthorne Effect studies suggest that employees will work harder if they know they’re
being observed
...

Showing your employees that you care about them and their working conditions may also
motivate them to work harder
...

4
...
In other words, we decide what to do based on what we
expect the outcome to be
...

However, Expectancy Theory also suggests that the process by which we decide our behaviours
is also influenced by how likely we perceive those rewards to be
...
Expectancy – the belief that your effort will result in your desired goal
...

2
...

3
...

Therefore, according to Expectancy Theory, people are most motivated if they believe that they
will receive a desired reward if they hit an achievable target
...

How to apply it to the workplace
The key here is to set achievable goals for your employees and provide rewards that they actually
want
...

Need some inspiration? Check out these 51 inexpensive ways to reward employees from author
of The Toilet Paper Entrepreneur, Mike Michalowicz
...
Three-Dimensional Theory of Attribution
Attribution Theory explains how we attach meaning to our own, and other people’s behaviour
...

Bernard Weiner’s Three-Dimensional theory of attribution assumes that people try to determine
why we do what we do
...

For example, a student who fails an exam could attribute their failure to a number of factors and
it’s this attribution that will affect their motivation in the future
...
g
...
According to Weiner, there are three main

36

characteristics of attributions that can affect future motivation
...
Stability – how stable is the attribution? For example, if the student believes they failed the
exam because they weren’t smart enough, this is a stable factor
...

According to Weiner, stable attributions for successful achievements, such as passing exams, can
lead to positive expectations, and thus higher motivation, for success in the future
...

2
...
If they
believed an external factor was to blame, such as poor teaching, they may not experience such a
drop in motivation
...
Controllability – how controllable was the situation? If an individual believes they could
have performed better, they may be less motivated to try again in the future than someone who
believes they failed because of factors outside of their control
...

Make sure you give your employees specific feedback, letting them know that you know they
can improve and how they can about it
...

You could also praise your employees for showing an improvement, even if the outcome was
still not correct
...
This way, you are encouraging employees to
attribute the failure to controllable factors, which again, can be improved upon in the future
...
While directing his subordinate, a
manager must create and sustain in them the desire to work for the specified objectives:
1
...
A number of studies have shown that motivation plays a crucial role in determining
the level of performance
...
” said
Allen
...
Better utilisation of
resources lowers cost of operations
...
Therefore, higher the
level of motivation, greater is the degree of goal accomplishment
...
Better Image:
A firm that provides opportunities for financial and personal advancement has a better image in
the employment market
...
This helps in attracting qualified personnel and
simplifies the staffing function
...
Facilitates Change:
Effective motivation helps to overcome resistance to change and negative attitude on the part of
employees like restriction of output
...


38

4
...
Industrial disputes, labour absenteeism and turnover are reduced with
consequent benefits
...
e
...
Without motivation the workers may not put their best efforts and may
seek satisfaction of their needs outside the organisation
...
The
utilisation of physical resources depends upon the ability to work and the willingness to work of
the employees
...

Motivation is the main tool for building such a will
...
” It is the key to management in action
...
These are called instincts
...
This approach suggests that we are born to be motivated
...
g
...



The drive-reduction approach

This approach suggests that our body has a tendency to act in such a way that a steady internal
state is maintained
...
For example, if you are hungry, you are
motivated to look for food to reduce your hunger drive
...
g
...

2) Secondary drives – these are related to our prior experience and learning, e
...
achievement
...
In some way, this approach is similar to the drive-reduction approach
...
If our excitement level is too low, we try to increase it by seeking stimulation
...
For example, students want good grades so
they study hard
...

There are 2 types of motivations:
1) Intrinsic motivation; We do things because we enjoy doing them
...

2) Extrinsic motivation; We do things because of the tangible rewards, e
...
good grades, money,
etc
...

We should be highly motivated if we get paid to do what we love, right? This is not necessarily
true because extrinsic motivation can sometimes undermine intrinsic motivation
...
It was found that children who were promised a reward were less likely to draw again
later
...
The model suggests that
we are motivated to satisfy our needs in a “bottom-up” manner
...
When these needs are satisfied, we move up to the second level,
which is our need to be safe, and so on
...

5 Easy Ways To Motivate - And Demotivate - Employees
I’ll put it as simply as I can: There are an awful lot of unmotivated employees out there
...
And
since an employee’s relationship with his or her direct manager is the single most important
factor influencing engagement, the responsibility falls to management to improve motivational

41

levels
...

1
...


But incentive compensation programs that give employees at all levels of an

organization a chance to benefit when a company prospers… can naturally boost motivation
(always assuming solid individual performance in order for one to share in financial rewards)
2
...
Mentoring, coaching, suggesting additional training or coursework - all of these can be
helpful to employees, and highly valued
...
Take a genuine interest in their work-life balance – To the extent that managers can offer
some flexibility in schedules… and be understanding about family commitments, doctors’
appointments and so on – such sensitivity can be greatly appreciated
...

4
...


To employees’ ideas for job

improvement… or their problems, concerns, frustrations, conflicts, dramas, kids’ issues, parents’
issues, grandparents’ issues – you name it, I’ve heard it
...
(If someone is a chronic malingerer, and carps
for the sake of carping, just tell them to knock it off and get back to work
...
)
5
...
But powerful too – still as valid today as it was a few
thousand years ago
...

Now about those easy ways to demotivate someone…

42

1
...
Be chronically
late for employee meetings
...
Ignore their suggestions for how to
improve operations
...
As noted above, small things can make a
big difference in one’s feelings about work
...
Take credit for a project one of your employees actually did most of the work on - This
is guaranteed to make people crazy
...

3
...
It’s just human nature: People
dislike being on the wrong end of this sort of thing
...

4
...
If you don’t,
they’ll remember it
...
Be emotionally stingy - People like praise
...
(Assuming they are doing a good job, of course
...
) But if they are doing well, simple words of
encouragement are easy, inexpensive and can be motivational
...
And this list is by no means all-inclusive
...


43

CHAPTER FOUR: WORK STRESS AND PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING
What is psychological well-being?
Psychological well-being refers to how people evaluate their lives
...
The cognitive part is
an information based appraisal of one’s life that is when a person gives conscious evaluative
judgments about one’s satisfaction with life as a whole
...
The assumption behind this is that most
people evaluate their life as either good or bad, so they are normally able to offer judgments
...
Thus, people have a level of subjective well-being even if they do not often
consciously think about it, and the psychological system offers virtually a constant evaluation of
what is happening to the person
Six Domains of Psychological Well-being
As scholars of the topic know, happiness and well-being are complicated constructs
...
One thing that they got hung up on, which
is an area that scholars have debated much about, is the difference and relationship between
being happy and optimal psychological functioning
...
I have framed her work below in the form of an assessment, so that readers can get a
better sense of applying her “six” to themselves and seeing what areas they are doing better at
than others
...
Many of my personal qualities trouble me enough that I wish I could change them
...
I feel isolated and frustrated in interpersonal relationships
...
When making important decisions, I rely on the judgments of others
...
Often I am unable to change or improve my circumstances
...
My life lacks meaning
...
I have a sense of personal stagnation that often leaves me bored
...


Your response on each of these dimensions reflects your self-functioning and psychological
well-being
...
Your answers to these questions reveal
how well or how poorly you are doing in maintaining your well-being
...
It is important to maintain
balance in all of the areas of your well-being
...


Low scorer:

feels dissatisfied with self; is disappointed with what has occurred in past life; is troubled about
certain qualities; wishes to be different than what he or she is
...


Low scorer: has few close, trusting relationships with others; finds it

difficult to be warm, open, and concerned about others; is isolated and frustrated in interpersonal
relationships; is not willing to make compromises; sustain important ties with others
...


Low scorer: is concerned

about the expectations and evaluations of others; relies on judgments of others to make important
decisions; conforms to social pressures to think and act in certain ways
...


Low scorer: has difficulty

managing everyday affairs; feels unable to change or improve surrounding context; is unaware of
surrounding opportunities; lacks sense of control over external world
...


Low scorer:

lacks a sense of meaning in life; has few goals or aims; lacks a sense of direction; does not see
purpose in the past; have no outlooks or beliefs that give life meaning
...


Low scorer: has a sense of personal stagnation; lacks sense of improvement or
46

expansion over time; feels bored and uninterested with life; feels unable to develop new attitudes
or behaviors
...
When you feel
threatened, your nervous system responds by releasing a flood of stress hormones, including
adrenaline and cortisol, which rouse the body for emergency action
...
These
physical changes increase your strength and stamina, speed your reaction time, and enhance your
focus
...
There is also a “freeze” or immobilization response that occurs if we
become traumatized
...
But when stress becomes overwhelming, it can
damage your mood and relationships, and lead to a host of serious mental and physical health
problems
...
By recognizing the symptoms and causes of
stress, you can take the first steps to reducing its harmful effects and improving your quality of
life
...
In
emergency situations, stress can save your life—giving you extra strength to defend yourself, for
example, or spurring you to slam on the brakes to avoid an accident
...
Stress is what keeps you on your toes during a presentation at work, sharpens
your concentration when you’re attempting the game-winning free throw, or drives you to study
for an exam when you'd rather be watching TV
...

The effects of chronic stress
47

The body’s nervous system often does a poor job of distinguishing between daily stressors and
life-threatening events
...

When you repeatedly experience the mobilization or fight-or-flight stress response in your daily
life, it can lead to serious health problems
...
It can shut down your immune system, upset your digestive and reproductive systems,
raise blood pressure, increase the risk of heart attack and stroke, speed up the aging process and
leave you vulnerable to many mental and physical health problems
...
Depression and anxiety
2
...
Auto immune diseases
4
...
Reproductive issues
6
...
Heart disease
8
...
Sleep problems
10
...

The more signs and symptoms you notice in yourself, the closer you may be to stress overload
...
g
...
We usually think of
stressors as being negative, such as an exhausting work schedule or a rocky relationship
...
This includes positive events
such as getting married, buying a house, going to college, or receiving a promotion
...
Stress can also be internal or selfgenerated, when you worry excessively about something that may or may not happen, or have
irrational, pessimistic thoughts about life
...
Major life changes
2
...
Relationship difficulties
4
...
Being too busy
6
...
Chronic worry
2
...
Rigid thinking, lack of flexibility
4
...
Unrealistic expectations/Perfectionism
6
...
Understanding the different types of stress is the first step to identifying the signs
and symptoms both in oneself and in others
...
Albrecht, in his book titled ''u0098Stress and the
Manager', identifies the four types of stress that occur at the work place
...
Time Stress: This is where individuals lack enough time to complete all of their assigned
duties
...
Hence, they worry and fear that they will, at some point, fail to do
something important
...
Workers under this type of stress worry about deadlines and most of the time rush to
avoid being late (Fried, 2008)
...
Anticipatory Stress: This describes the stress that workers experience regarding the future
...
Albrecht, (2010) asserts that such stress is usually focused on a particular
event or occurrence within the organization which directly impact him/her but for which he/she
has no control or influence over
...
For example, being concerned about a service
an individual is responsible for getting hacked
...

c
...
Most of the time, this occurs due to a crisis that happens in the
organization
...
For instance, consider a situation where admin staffs are asked by
management to make changes to a system at the expense of security safeguards to enable some
functionality
...
Moreover, when individuals make major mistakes in front of the management
and/or their colleagues, it makes them stressed (Albrecht, 2010)
...
Encounter Stress: This type of stress revolves around individual contacts
...
It often occurs in a situation where workers interact with clients or
customers who may be in some form of distress
...
Equally stressful is an
interaction by an employee with the incident handling team following a compromise or security
incident
...
On the flip side, contact overload can also lead to this form of stress
...

Stress tolerance: How much stress is too much?
We're all different
...
Some people even thrive on the excitement
of a high-stress lifestyle
...
Others, however, may find the trip relaxing
because they allow more time and enjoy listening to music while they drive
...



Emotional awareness
...
Feeling stressed feels normal
...
Having the emotional awareness to
recognize when you’re stressed and then being able to calm and soothe yourself can
increase your tolerance to stress and help you bounce back from adversity
...
Social engagement has always
been a human being’s most evolved response to life’s stressors
...
On the flip side, the more lonely and
isolated you are, the less opportunity you have for social engagement and the greater your
vulnerability to stress
...
Regular exercise can lift your mood and serve as a distraction to your
worries, allowing you to find some quiet time and break out of the cycle of negative
thoughts that feed stress and anxiety
...
The food you eat can improve or worsen your mood and affect your ability to cope
with life’s stressors
...


Other factors that influence your stress tolerance


Your sense of control – It’s easier to take stress in your stride if you have confidence in
your ability to influence events and persevere through challenges
...
If you feel like things
are out of your control, you’re likely to have less tolerance for stress
...
They tend to
embrace challenges, have a stronger sense of humor, and accept change as an inevitable
part of life
...
For example, if
you go into surgery with a realistic picture of what to expect post-op, a painful recovery
will be less stressful than if you were expecting to bounce back immediately
...
Unfortunately, many of us try to deal with
stress in ways that only compound the problem
...
However, there are many healthier and more effective ways to cope with
stress and its symptoms
...
Get moving
This is something you can do right now to help yourself start to feel better: exercise
...

53

Rhythmic exercises such as walking, running, swimming, dancing, and aerobic classes are good
choices, especially if you exercise mindfully (focusing your attention on the physical sensations
you experience as you move)
...

2
...
Even just a brief exchange of kind
words or a friendly look from another human being can help calm and soothe your nervous
system
...

3
...
The key is to find the sensory input that works for you
...
Read: Stress Relief in the Moment
4
...

5
...
But by re-examining your existing diet and
experimenting with new ways of eating that promote mental health, you can find an eating plan

54

that not only helps to relieve stress, but also boosts your energy, improves your outlook, and
stabilizes your mood
...
Get your rest
Feeling tired can increase stress by causing you to think irrationally
...
Whether you’re having trouble falling asleep or staying asleep at
night, there are plenty of ways to improve your sleep so you feel less stressed and more
productive and emotionally balanced

CHAPTER FIVE: CAREERS AND CAREER MANAGEMENT
Career management is lifelong, self-monitored process of career planning that involves choosing
and setting personal goals, and formulating strategies for achieving them
...
Career management is a continuous process that
occurs throughout one's career and not just at discrete times
...

Successful career management is accomplished through regular habits of building relationships,
engaging in career development conversations, updating your career development plan, and
setting new goals as life and career needs change
...

What is Career Management Planning?
In the most basic of terms, a career management plan is very similar to a financial plan and
focuses on your assets (skills, strengths, experience, qualifications), your liabilities (weaknesses,
threats to industry), goals (life, career, financial, family) and strategy (timetables, strategic
actions, tactics )
...
Most important, it puts you in control of your career – and is
proactive versus reactive
...
The need for a plan is
heightened by the exposure and risk you take in your career or job
...
The business owner ready to
cash out, sell their business and pursue other options is clearly a candidate; many skilled
craftspeople likely would not have a need as their plan is largely dictated by the profession
...



Discover -Accomplished through 1-on-1 discussion, assessments, situation analysis and
market studies, the initial focus is discovering skills, core competencies and future
opportunities aligned with personal and professional goals
...




Act – It is then time to act
...


Each need is unique and therefore, the process utilized is planned to align with goals and needs
...


Some elect to do this on their own
...

Then it is measurement and accountability – being sure you are hitting your stated goals and
actions
...
You will never have to
worry about the “what if” – you will have a plan to address each and every change and turn that
can be presented to you
...
The key characteristic of short-term career planning is
developing realistic goals and objectives that you can accomplish in the near future
...
What
are career barriers? There are personal barriers (such as lack of motivation, apathy, laziness, or
procrastination), family pressure (such as expectations to work in the family business, follow a
certain career path, or avoidance of careers that are below your status/stature), and peer pressure
...
Finally, career planning is an ever-changing and evolving process — or journey — so
take it slowly and easily
...

Career Planning Exercises:
1
...
Are you happy with your current lifestyle? Do you
want to maintain it or change it? Be sure to identify the key characteristics of your ideal
lifestyle
...
Analyze your likes/dislikes
...

Now take a close look at your current job and career path in terms of your list of likes and
dislikes
...
Analyze your passions
...
Develop a list of your passions
...
Analyze your strengths and weaknesses
...
What are your strengths? What are your weaknesses? Think in
terms of work experience, education/training, skill development, talents and abilities,
technical knowledge, and personal characteristics
...
Analyze your definition of success
...
What is success to you: wealth, power, control, contentment…
6
...
Are you an extravert or an introvert? Do you like thinking or
doing? Do you like routines or change? Do you like sitting behind the desk or being on
the move? Take the time to analyze yourself first, then take one or more of these selfassessment tests
...
Analyze your dream job
...
Look for ideas internally, but also make the effort to
explore/research other careers/occupations that interest you
...
Analyze your current situation
...

Once you’ve completed these exercises, the next step is to develop a picture of yourself and your
career over the next few years
...

Career Planning Steps:
1
...
If you have been examining multiple career paths, now is
the time to narrow down the choices and focus on one or two careers
...
Conduct detailed career research and gather information on the careers that most interest
you
...
Pinpoint the qualifications you need to move to the next step in your career or to make
the move to a new career path
...

4
...
How far apart
are the two profiles? If fairly well-matched, it may be time to switch to a job-search
...

5
...
Make a list of the types of qualifications you need to
enhance your standing for your next career move, such as receiving additional training,
certification, or experience
...

Long-Term Career Planning
Long-term career planning usually involves a planning window of five years or longer and
involves a broader set of guidelines and preparation
...
Long-range career planning should be more about identifying and developing core skills
that employers will always value while developing your personal and career goals in broad
strokes
...

Identifying Career/Employment Trends: How can you prepare for future career changes and
developments? The best way is to stay active in short-term career planning
...


CHAPTER SIX: JOB DESIGN AND NEW TECHNOLOGY
Job design (also referred to as work design or task design) is a core function of human resource
management and it is related to the specification of contents, methods and relationship of jobs in
order to satisfy technological and organizational requirements as well as the social and personal
requirements of the job holder
...
The aim of a job design is to improve job satisfaction, to improve
through-put, to improve quality and to reduce employee problems (e
...
, grievances,
absenteeism)
...
Job rotation
Job rotation is a job design method which is able to enhance motivation, develop workers'
outlook, increase productivity, improve the organization's performance on various levels by its
multi-skilled workers, and provides new opportunities to improve the attitude, thought,
capabilities and skills of workers
...

2
...
Frederick Herzberg referred to the
addition of interrelated tasks as 'horizontal job loading'
...
Job enrichment
Job enrichment increases the employees’ autonomy over the planning and execution of their own
work
...
Frederick Herzberg viewed job enrichment as
'vertical job loading' because it also includes tasks formerly performed by someone at a higher
level where planning and control are involved
...
Scientific management
Under scientific management people would be directed by reason and the problems of industrial
unrest would be appropriately (i
...
, scientifically) addressed
...
Managers would guarantee that their subordinates
would have access to the maximum of economic gains by means of rationalized processes
...

5
...
The common
elements in human relations theory are the beliefs that


Performance can be improved by good human relations



Managers should consult employees in matters that affect staff



Leaders should be democratic rather than authoritarian



Employees are motivated by social and psychological rewards and are not just "economic
animals"



The work group plays an important part in influencing performance

61

6
...
Embedded in Socio-technical Systems are motivational assumptions, such as
intrinsic and extrinsic rewards
...
Work reform
Work reform states about the workplace relation and the changes made which are more suitable
to management and employee to encourage increased workforce participation
...
Motivational work design
The psychological literature on employee motivation contains considerable evidence that job
design can influence satisfaction, motivation and job performance
...

Hackman and Oldman developed the theory that a workplace can be redesigned to greater
improve their core job characteristics
...




Mandating worker(s) to be responsible via having direct contact with clients
...




Allowing workers to be responsible for their job by giving them authority and control
...

Labor that falls under the underemployment classification includes those workers who are highly
skilled but working in low paying jobs, workers who are highly skilled but working in low skill
jobs and part-time workers who would prefer to be full time
...
For example,
someone with a college degree may be tending bar, or working as a factory assembly line
worker
...

This can also occur with individuals who are being discriminated against, lack appropriate trade
certification or academic degrees (such as a high school or college diploma), have disabilities or
mental illnesses, or have served time in prison
...

When highly trained immigrants arrive in a country, their foreign credentials may not be
recognized or accepted in their new country, or they may have to do a lengthy or costly recredentialing process
...
New
graduates may also face underemployment, because even though they have completed the
technical training for a given field for which there is a good job market, they lack experience
...

Karl Marx predicted that mass unemployment would become the salient characteristic of labor
markets in advanced economies as machines were increasingly substituted for human workers
...
But underemployment (working at less
63

than one’s full productive capacities) seems to be the hallmark of the modern workforce
...
Today, some 48 percent of
college-educated men and women have jobs—such as bank tellers, waiters, taxi drivers, and
coffee baristas—that don’t require the skills or knowledge acquired when earning an
undergraduate degree
...
At the same time, the expectations of college-educated workers
have also increased
...
Not only do these grads want high-paying jobs, they
prefer work that is interesting and offers a chance for personal and career growth
...

The chronic underutilization of education, skills, and human capital engenders workplace
frustration and low morale
...

Effects of Underemployment
The effects of underemployment are similar to those of unemployment
...
Without adequate income, families don't buy as much
...
As a result, the nation's Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is
lower, as is job growth
...
They may not be able to return to their former field without training
...

Younger people may find they never get a good start to their career
...
They miss the mentoring needed to
64

get increased responsibility that would update their skills
...

In extreme cases, youth underemployment can lead to civil unrest and violence
...

Psychological effect of underemployment/underemployment
Unemployment is commonly understood as an economic problem, and inquiries into its nature
tend to come from that perspective
...
Humans, after all, are not robots, and the loss of a job
is not merely the loss of a paycheck but the loss of a routine, security, and connection to other
people
...

Job loss is associated with elevated rates of mental and physical health problems,
increases in mortality rates, and detrimental changes in family relationships and in the
psychological well-being of spouses and children
...

Unemployment is associated with depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, low
subjective well-being, and poor self-esteem
...


Unemployment can contribute to reduced life expectancy
...
The effect on
mortality risk declined sharply over time, but even 20 years after these men had lost jobs,
elevated risk of death was found among those who had lost jobs earlier, in comparison to
the stably employed (Sullivan & von Wachter, 2009)
...
Underemployment is associated with decreased selfesteem, increased alcohol use, and elevated rates of depression, as well as low
birthweight among babies born to underemployed women (Dooley & Prause, 2004)
...
Research dating back to the
Great Depression found that men who experienced substantial financial loss became
more irritable, tense, and explosive
...
Such paternal behavior, in turn, predicted temper
tantrums, irritability, and negativism in children, especially boys, and moodiness,
hypersensitivity, feelings of inadequacy and lowered aspirations in adolescent girls

Unemployment may even impact decisions about marriage and divorce
...



Community effects
...
High unemployment and poverty go hand in hand, and the
characteristics of poor neighborhoods amplify the impact of unemployment (Wilson,
1996)
...


Occupational networks are also impacted
...
Those who retain
their jobs in the midst of downsizing may experience comparable physical and emotional
effects to workers who lose their jobs
...
In defining job satisfaction the reference is often made to Locke‟s (1976)
description of job satisfaction as a “pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the
appraisal of one’s job or job experiences”
...
204)
...
And since job satisfaction is merely an employee’s attitude
towards his or job, previously discussed theories regarding attitudes are applicable to job
satisfaction
...
116)
...
Often these two aspects are related
...


Approaches to job satisfaction
In explaining job satisfaction and measuring the level of employees‟ satisfaction three different
approaches have been developed
...
According to this model employees gather information about
the job, the workplace and the organisation and cognitively assess these elements in order to
determine the level of satisfaction
...
It
shifts its attention to the effects of the context and the consequences of past behaviour, rather
than to individual predispositions and rational decision-making processes (Pennings 1986 p
...


Therefore job satisfaction is dependent on how others at work evaluate the workplace
...
The
third approach indicates that job satisfaction relies on the characteristics or the dis-positions of
the employee
...


In summary, job satisfaction can be seen as a function of:
 The features of a job,
 The view of others,
 The employee’s personality
Job satisfaction and commitment
job satisfaction can affect a person's level of commitment to the organization, absenteeism, and
job turnover rate
...
When people are satisfied with the work they are doing, then their
68

job feels less like work and is a more enjoyable experience
...

Job satisfaction also reduces stress, which can affect job performance, mental well-being, and
physical health
...
Satisfied employees, on the other hand, maintain a more positive and
carefree perspective about work
...
There are some indications that job satisfaction
is directly tied to job performance; nonetheless, feeling less stressed can positively affect a
person's behavior
...
—for improvement and job enrichment
...

One proven way to enhance job satisfaction is rewarding employees based on performance and
positive behavior
...
Bommer, Miles, and Grover state:
Social-information processing is predicated on the notion that people form ideas based on
information drawn from their immediate environment, and the behavior of co-workers is a very
salient component of an employee's environment
...
Consequently, the individual is likely to replicate this ‘normal' behavior
...
Managers are tasked with
69

managing this positive culture and understanding how each employee is affected by cultural
influences in the workplace
...

Managers must be insightful and observant, identifying what motivates high levels of job
satisfaction in each individual and ensuring employees get what they need
...
Understanding this dynamic is an important
component of the role of management
...
Job description
narrates the various features and contents of a job
...
It is a document
showing a brief summary of task requirements which explains the constitute elements of job in
an organized way
...
The
data to be included in the job description statement is usually determined by the job analyst to
make the document more reliable and informative
...


Thus, job description is the listing of job tasks, duties and responsibilities which depicts a brief
summary of the job in terms of nature and types
...
Job Title
It explains the title of the job
...


70

2
...


3
...
It is a short paragraph which explains the tasks
and activities to be performed by an incumbent
...


4
...
It is necessary to mention the task of the
employee because it helps him to estimate the percentage of time that is devoted to the
performance
...
Machines, Tools and Equipment
The machines, tools and equipment used by an incumbent for the performance of tasks are
included under this head
...
Materials and Form Used
It includes all input requirements and the method of application in the production process
...
Working Environment
The working environment is concerned with the actual work place
...


8
...

Concept and Meaning of Job Specification and Contents of Job Specification Statement
Job specification is a document or statement which spells out the minimum levels of
qualification, skills, physical and other abilities, experience, judgement and attributes required to
71

perform the efficiently and effectively
...
It specifies the physical, psychological, personal, social and behavioral
characteristics of each job-holder
...
It keeps the selector's
attentions on the list of qualifications necessary for an incumbent to perform the job
...


Therefore, a job specification is the listing of minimum levels of qualification, skills and abilities
that an incumbent must possess in order to perform the required task properly
...


Contents of Job Specification Statement
1
...
It also helps to determine the level or category of job in terms of rank
...
Health and Physical Fitness
Physical fitness and health is a crucial aspect of good performance
...

3
...
The
cleanliness and neatness of an individual shows his/her appearance
...

4
...
If not, the problems may arise at
the work floor
...

72

5
...
An
experienced employee will be preferable in comparison to the fresh candidate
...
According to Marx,
alienation is a condition in which the individual becomes isolated and cut off from the product of
his or her work, having given up the desire for self-expression and control over his or her own
fate at work
...
The genesis of this condition can be traced to changes external to the individual
arising out of the industrialization process, with the creation of large factories characterized by
organizational hierarchies, job specialization, and work supervision reliant on formal authority,
and a shift in life focus away from the home and community to the organization

Human resource management View:
Alienation is a sense of estrangement felt by employees, reflected in their lack of warmth
towards the organization and in believing that their job/work is not meaningful to other aspects
of their lives
...

When workers are disengaged, retention shouldn't be a company's only concern — productivity
and customer service levels also suffer
...
"
How employees are alienated and how to address it


Keeping them in the dark
...
Sharing this will help them feel connected to the
organization
...


Instead: Actively seek feedback from team members
...
They should also reach out to those who may be uncomfortable voicing their thoughts
to ensure their ideas are heard
...


Instead: Businesses should encourage staff members to take on new responsibilities and
projects
...



Ignoring their goals
...
Employers
should talk to their staff about their ambitions and work with them on plans for meeting those
objectives
...


Instead: Leaders need to remind workers to take regular breaks to recharge, and set a good
example by doing so themselves
...
Workplace learning is mainly informal, taking place through workrelated actions, meaning that people learn more from each other and during the process of
74

finding solutions for their day-to-day problems at the workplace
...

Learning at work is a great way to fit learning into your life, and could help improve your career
prospects
...
Incorporating
essential skills into your workplace process and practices allows you to tap into your largest
asset, develop the widest range of talent, and better position your organization to avoid skills
gaps and shortages
...
All of which ensure positive
results for businesses and for individuals
...

Share your success and build on it
...
Communicate your good news
...
Fostering learning in the workplace creates a win-win
situation for you, your workforce and your customers
...


Continuous learning
On a personal level, continuous learning is about the constant expansion of skills and skill-sets
through learning and increasing knowledge
...

On a professional level, continuous learning is about further expanding our skill-set in response
to a changing environment and new developments
...


On a personal level, the introduction of computers made us rethink how we communicate with
people and allowed us to keep in touch with people across the globe with just the click of a
button
...
For example:


Asking for help when something is not understood



Observing more experienced employees at work



Trying new ways of doing things and exploring alternative methods



Practicing what has been learnt already
77



Finding ways to improve such as taking up training programs or online seminars outside
of work

In the organization, continuous learning has to do with shaping a team to adapt to changes in the
business environment
...

Business Sustainability and Continuous Learning
Embracing a culture of "investing in people" has played a major role in companies training their
employees rather than hiring new people which can be much more costly on different levels
...
This also develops a sense of trust and keeps employees
engaged and interested since new skills are constantly added to their 'arsenal'
...
Some see it as an opportunity to escape work
obligations and pursue their own passions
...

The view that retirement has a negative effect on mental health is consistent with decades of
evidence about the impacts of job loss among young and middle-aged people
...

Studies comparing the mental health of retirees with that of working older adults have shown
that retirees (particularly men) tend to have greater levels of depression and anxiety than their
working peers
...
Indeed, it seems more likely that the poor mental health observed among many
retirees precedes and perhaps has driven their workforce exit
...

Not surprisingly, involuntary or unexpected job loss in later life is the form of retirement that has
been most consistently linked to increased depression
...
Retirement has the most positive psychological effects for people with
strong social supports
...
However, contrary to this widely
held idea research shows that early retirees tend to have much poorer mental health than their
working peers and older retirees
...
But these studies also suggest that poor mental health may stem from being out of the
workforce at an age when most of one’s peers are still working
...
Older people
with stressful jobs or jobs that offer little security or autonomy have poor mental health and tend
to retire early
...

Once retired, who does best?
Retirement has the strongest positive psychological effect on people with solid social supports
...
And this is particularly true for retirees, as community
participation has added meaning and importance to one’s mental health once paid work has
finished
...
Knowing the risk
factors for mental health problems as a result of workforce exit in later life is key to these goals
...
They need to stockpile their
emotional reserves, as well
...

Some retirees ease smoothly into retirement, spending more time with hobbies or family and
friends
...
People can go through hell when they retire and they will never say a word about it, often
because they are embarrassed
...

Research by psychologists and others has found that working or volunteering during retirement
can help stave off depression, as well as dementia and hypertension
...
Only those people who are truly
engaged in their post-retirement activities reap the psychological benefits
...
Retirement is not like jumping off a diving
board, it's a process and it takes time," she says
...


80

Working toward well-being
Soon-to-be retirees should consider whether or not to continue to work in some capacity
...
While working has obvious financial perks, it may also offer health and
mental health benefits
...
The Working in Retirement report found that employed retirees report levels of
health, well-being and life satisfaction on par with those who have not yet retired — despite age
differences
...

The 6 Stages of Retirement
Most major life-changing events, such as marriage or divorce, involve an ongoing process of
emotional adjustment
...
Marriage, divorce and other family-related
issues have been the focus of decades of research and analysis by both clinical therapists and
religious institutions
...
However, while research on this subject has barely begun, it is clear
that the psychological process of retirement process follows a pattern similar in nature to the
emotional phases accompanying other areas of transition
...

Retirees must face what is essentially the last transition in their lives
...
Another major transition comes when we join the working
world
...
Then finally comes
retirement, a time when careers are over and the work is done
...
The transition into retirement can be broken down into six main phases
...

81

1
...
Workers know that this stage of their lives is coming, and do everything they can to
save for it, but often give little thought to what they will actually do once they reach the goal the current demands that are placed upon them leave them little time to ponder this issue
...
It's hard for many workers to think seriously
about what their lives will be like in 20 or 30 years when they are trying to stay on top of their
mortgage, put their kids through college and have a little fun in the meantime
...

2
...

This is often marked by some sort of dinner, party or other celebration, and has become a rite of
passage for many, especially for those with distinguished careers
...

3
...
Once the retirement celebrations are
over, a period often follows where retirees get to do all the things that they wanted to do once
they stopped working, such as travel, indulge in hobbies, visit relatives and so forth
...

4
...

After looking forward to this stage for so long, many retirees must deal with a feeling of
letdown, similar to that of newlyweds who must get down the the business of living once the
honeymoon is over
...

82

5
...
Just as married couples
eventually learn how to live together, retirees begin to familiarize themselves with the landscape
of their new circumstances and navigate their lives accordingly
...
Perhaps the most difficult aspects of this stage to manage are the inevitable selfexamination questions that must be answered once again, such as "Who am I, now?", "What is
my purpose at this point?" and "Am I still useful in some capacity?" New - and satisfying answers to these questions must be found if the retiree is to feel a sense of closure from his or her
working days
...
Routine - Moving On
Finally, a new daily schedule is created, new marital ground rules for time together versus time
alone are established, and a new identity has been at least partially created
...

Conclusion
Life planning is an important key to successful retirement
...
Dreams and goals that cannot be achieved with a single trip or project
may translate into long-term part-time employment or volunteer work
...
As with all emotional processes that can be
broken down into separate phases, it is not necessary to completely achieve one phase before
beginning another (except, of course, for the actual cessation of employment)
...
Their ability to
navigate these uncharted waters will ultimately determine how they live the last phase of their
lives

83

Tips for Adjusting to Retirement
When your life is dominated by the daily grind, the idea of one day retiring and simply doing
nothing may seem fantastic
...
Even if it isn’t part of your plans for the near future, the sooner you start preparing
for retirement, the easier it will be to adjust to this huge life change when the time comes
1
...

2
...
After all, will you really need those four bedrooms once the kids have left the nest?
3
...
How Stuff Works suggests that you draw up a budget and then stick to it
...
Don’t Build Your Entire Identity around Your Job
A common emotional pitfall for retirees, according to Everyday Health, is the loss of identity
after a lifetime of calling yourself a doctor, a writer, a computer analyst or whatever your job has
been
...

5
...
To
avoid this, start building friendships with people other than your co-workers
6
...
Make new
friends or reconnect with old ones so that you don’t build your social life only around your
family
...
Find Ways to Reduce Stress
Retirement can be very stressful and Everyday Health suggests that you look into meditation,
exercise, therapy or other practices that can reduce stress
...
Stay Active
How Stuff Works says that you need to stay active after retirement because just sitting around
the house will be bad for you, both physically and mentally
9
...
Build a New Routine
Everyday Health suggests that you build a new daily routine
...
Find Your New Path
Think about what you want to do with all that newfound free time
...
Build Skills You Can Use Post-Retirement

85

According to How Stuff Works, it’s a good idea to keep working in some capacity after
retirement
...

13
...
How Stuff Works
suggests that you find ways of sharing your skills and experience, for instance by teaching or
mentoring
...
Take up New Hobbies
All Women’s Talk suggests that you take up new hobbies to help you stay active, get out in the
world and stimulate your mind
15
...
How Stuff Works
says that you can attend free or very affordable audit classes at many institutions, where you
don’t take exams or earn a qualification
16
...
You’ll also feel useful and, as How Stuff Works says, it may help you live
longer
17
...
Work on Your Relationship

86

As All Women’s Talk points out, retirement means that you’ll be spending more time with your
partner than what either of you is used to
...
Set Boundaries
According to All Women’s Talk, a common problem for retirees is that people may see you as a
free childcare service
...

20
...

Travelling will help you stay active, and you can even make a difference in some exotic location
by doing volunteer work

CHAPTER TEN: PSYCHOLOGICAL NEGOTIATION
5 Psychological Negotiation Methods That Allowed Me to Close Huge Deals
1
...
Let me explain
...
A
person who is viewed by others as possessing integrity will reflect consistent behavior across a
variety of life situations
...
Thus, they have some preconceived notion of how you’re going to
act and talk
...
They
scoped out your LinkedIn profile, read your “about” page on the company website, and viewed a
blog post you wrote
...

They will interpret your behavior in the meeting based on the perception they formed of you
...
There is no other way for your negotiators to see your
integrity other than to identify consistency between your reputation and your behavior
...

Their only benchmark for consistency is what they think they know about you from your online
reputation
...
It is crucial to your success
in business
...
During the entire
negotiation process, you will be working to build integrity or to overcome a poor online
reputation
...
Mirroring
During the 1990s, Dr
...
While evaluating the behavior and neurology of macaque monkeys, he realized that
the primate’s innate sense of imitation was linked to specific brain neurons
...
It is such a powerful mental phenomena that
the neurons are activated simply through observation
...
The concept is simple, and can be described like this: Monkey see
...


88

When you see someone smile, frown, cry, stand, sit, walk, bow, hunch, leap, or any other motor
movement, neurons in your brain start to do the same thing
...

If someone smiles at you, you are more likely to smile back
...
Actually, your brain primed your body for smiling the
instant you saw that person’s face break into a smile
...

If the person across the table from you folds their arms over their chest, you might, a few
moments later, do the same thing
...

If you want to be perceived as responsive, engaging, empathetic, or understanding, traits that
may improve your persuasion potential, then you should make a conscious effort to mirror the
actions, facial expressions, and attitudes of the other party
...
Cross your arms to indicate inflexibility
...

One of the most powerful moves is folding one’s arms
...
Why not? Because it “signals defensiveness and resistance”
according to a Forbes piece on body language
...
If
you’ve given them your final number or a deal breaker line item, cross your arms
...

4
...

Most postures have some level of meaning, although you don’t want to take it too far
...
An open mentality is reflected in an open physical posture
...
Dress to impress
...
” Worn-out as it sounds, there is powerful psychology
behind one’s appearance
...
The better you feel about your
appearance, the better you act
...

Equally important is the impression it makes on the other person
...

Dressing nicely can change the entire tenor and outcome of the negotiation process
...
”

CHAPTER ELEVEN: CONCLUSION
Each of these tactics requires you to say nothing
...

That is precisely why they are so effective
...
It is important to understand how the mind functions in
order to improve your chances of success
...
You Can Negotiate Anything
The first thing you should know about negotiating is that everything is fair game, not just cars
and houses
...
It rarely
90

ever is
...

2
...
They’re getting paid minimum
wage, and your purchases won’t put any more money in their pocket
...
Ideally, you will want to
speak with the owner of a small store, but that is impossible with most bigger retailers
...
Ask him if they will offer a discount if you purchase more than one of the
item, or if you’re a regular customer, ask for a small percentage off retail as a loyalty reward
...

3
...
Always keep your cool
and don’t display any unusual interest in the item
...
Then suggest that you might still be interested for
the right price
...
As a
buyer, you should never fixate on a single product; always shop around and keep your options
open
...

4
...
Why? Because the
other party may offer a price that is a much better deal than what you initially had in mind
...
From there, ask the seller if there is any flexibility and force the seller to offer you a
lower price
...

But once you have made your offer, do not volunteer another price unless and until the other
party has responded with a counteroffer
...

5
...
When you reach an
impasse in your negotiations, an offer to purchase multiple quantities of the item or additional
items might trigger flexibility on the part of the seller
...
But when a seller has the
opportunity to make a much larger transaction, there is a much greater likelihood he will be
amenable to a lower price
...
If
you’re selling your house, for instance, and you have brand new porch furniture that fits the deck
perfectly, offer to include it in the price you want as an incentive to the buyer
...
Barter
Do you have any items that might be of interest to the seller? Could you offer some services that
would be of value to the seller? Consider making a trade to eliminate or significantly offset the
need for actual dollars in a transaction
...
As a starting point, you can find many bartering websites
online
...
Use Silence and Time as a Tactic
Never respond too quickly to an offer
...
Silence can force a
surprising amount of pressure on the other party as well
...
Be Willing to Walk Away
Even if it’s the car, television, or house of your dreams, if the seller won’t come down to the
maximum price you have set for your budget, force yourself to walk out of the store or away
from the deal
...
In flea markets and overseas, for example, I often get my
best price only as I am literally walking away from the shop
...
Keep It Light
You never want to let negotiations become too tense
...
Lightening up the mood can ingratiate you with your opponent while
also conveying your negotiating strength
...

10
...
This solves
language barriers while producing a record of the negotiations
...
Non-verbal communication strips
away all of cues that one’s body language and tone of voice can give away – which is why most
real estate deals are made through realtors and in writing
...
Email is a great medium for negotiating the
purchase or sale of a car or other household goods on websites like Craigslist
...

11
...
In the United States, the closest
things we have to traditional markets are flea markets and garage sales
...
It’s also a great idea to
practice in foreign countries, where bargaining is much more widely accepted and even
expected
...
How do yours compare?
1
...

We often approach negotiation being very guarded and wary of showing our cards
...

As Grant points out, people tend to be matchers and “follow the norm of reciprocity, responding
in kind to how we treat them
...

Studies have shown that revealing some information, even when it’s unrelated to the negotiation,
increases the outcome
...
Simply
putting something of yourself out there – your hobbies, personal concerns, or hopes – can set a
positive tone that’s conducive to gaining agreement
...
Rank orders your priorities
...
For
example, if we’re trying to close a new client, we might say that the price is most important, and
if we don’t agree, there’s no use to continue
...
His research shows that you are able
to achieve better outcomes by ranking and leaving all the issues on the table and being
transparent about it
...

In the above example, perhaps you could make trade-offs in scope or travel requirements if the
client can’t get to your price
...
Go in knowing your target price and your walkaway terms
...
Your target price is what
you’re hoping for
...
This puts us at a huge disadvantage
...
You need your research to be based on firm
data, as not only will it provide more confidence and power to you, but it also reduces the chance
that you’ll throw something crazy out there
...

4
...

This is one piece of advice that clearly defies conventional wisdom
...
We believe it’s best to extract as much as possible from the other
person before tipping our own hand
...
The reason is the psychological
principle of anchoring
...
It sets the stage
...
But
Galinksy notes that this does not play out in the research
...

There’s a reason we have the adage, “you get what you pay for
...
In other words, we find
data that supports this anchor
...
)
Galinsky says that ideally the best first offer is one that’s just outside your partner’s reservation
price, but not so far that they have sticker shock
...
Don’t counter too low
...
Caution: most people go too low, too quickly
...

You may also want to consider re-anchoring, as Grant puts it
...
It also may be helpful to call out what
you’re observing to redirect the conversation, i
...
you may be trying to test my thinking with that
first offer, but here’s more of what I had in mind
...
Counter offers make both parties more satisfied
...
Parties are most satisfied on both fronts if there was some back and forth
...

Galinsky even advises that you shouldn’t take the first offer, even if it meets your needs
...
More satisfied partners are more likely to work harder and be
more committed to the end result, which is the ideal outcome from the start

---