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A&P Final Exam Study Guide
Chapter 1
Directional Terms
1
...
Inferior (caudal)-away from the head end or toward the lower part of a structure of the
body; below
3
...
Dorsal (posterior)-toward or at the back of the body; behind
5
...
Lateral-away from the midline of the body; on the outer side
7
...
Distal-farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the
body trunk
9
...
Deep (internal)-away from the body surface; more internal

Regional Terms
Axial: head, neck, and trunk
Appendicular: appendages or limbs

Anatomical Parts
1
...
Pedal- foot

3
...
Tarsal- ankle

5
...
Mental- chin

7
...
Coxal- hip

9
...
Inguinal- groin

11
...
Fibular- side of leg

13
...
Hallux- big toe

15
...
Otic- ear

17
...
Lumbar- loin; lower back

19
...
Cephalic- head

genitalia
21
...
Orbital- eye

23
...
Oral- mouth

25
...
Mammary- breasts

27
...
Gluteal- buttock

29
...
Vertebral- vertebrae

31
...
Pubic- genital

33
...
Digital- finger

35
...
Patellar- kneecap

37
...
Crural- leg

39
...
Calcaneal- heel

Body Planes


Saggital- divides body into right and left
parts



Oblique- cuts made diagonally between the horizontal and vertical planes



Transverse (horizontal)- divides body into superior and inferior parts



Frontal- divides body into anterior and posterior parts



Midsaggital (median)- divides body into equal right and left parts

Body Cavities
 Dorsal- has two subdivisions:
Cranial cavity- encases the brain
Veterbral (spinal) cavity- encloses the spinal cord
...




High heat of vaporization- When water evaporates, or vaporizes, it changes from a liquid
to a gas
...
Extremely beneficial when we
sweat; provides efficient cooling of the skin
...
Polar ends orient themselves with their
slightly negative ends toward the polar ends of the solutes, and vice versa
...
Body’s major transport medium
...
Such decomposition reactions are called hydrolysis
(water splitting)
...




Cushioning- forms a resilient cushion around certain body organs, water helps protect
them for physical trauma (i
...
cerebrospinal fluid)
...
At a pH of 7 the solution is neutral
...
pH
above 7 the solution is basic
...
Buffers resists abrupt and large swings in the pH of body fluids
by releasing hydrogen ions when the pH begins to rise (acting as acids) and by binding hydrogen
ions when the pH drops (acting as bases)
...


Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates:
Can be classified according to size and solubility as a monosaccharide (“one sugar”),
disaccharide (“two sugars”), or polysaccharide (“many sugars”)
...


Monosaccharides: simple sugars, are single chain structures containing from three to
seven carbon atoms
...
In this synthesis a water molecule is lost as the bond is made
...
They are large and fairly insoluble
...

Triglycerides (Neutral Fats): Commonly known as fats and oils
...

Unsaturated: fatty acids that contain one or more double bonds between carbon
atoms
...

Saturated: fatty acid chain with only single covalent bonds between carbon
atoms
...

Trans fats: are oils that have been solidified by addition of H atoms at sites of
carbon double bonds
...

Phospholipids: modified triglyceride with two fatty acid groups and a phosphorous
group
...

Steroids: flat molecules with four interlocking hydrocarbon rings
...

Eicosanoids: 20-carbon fatty acids found in cell membranes
...
Basic structural material of the body
...
Have an amine group (–
NH2) and carboxyl group (–COOH)
...

Structural Levels of Proteins

Primary structure: the sequence of amino acids forms the polypeptide chain
...






-Sheet: the primary chain “zig-zags” back and forth forming a “pleated” sheet
...


Tertiary structure: superimposed on secondary structure
...






Quaternary structure: Two or more polypeptide chains, each with its own tertiary
structure, combine to form a functional protein
...

Desmosomes: are anchoring junctions-mechanical couplings scattered like rivets along the sides
of abutting cells to prevent their separation
...
The cells are connected by
hollow cylinders called connexons
...

Phospholipids: Each molecule has a polar “head” that is charged and hydrophilic and an
uncharged, non-polar “tail” that is made of two fatty acid chains and is hydrophobic
...

Glycolipids: are lipids with attached sugar groups
...

Lipid Rafts: Good for cell signaling
...
Make
up 20% of the outer membrane surface
...
Some protrude from one membrane
face only, but most are transmembrane proteins that span the entire membrane and protrude on
both sides
...
Some form channels and others act as
carriers
...
Attach loosely to integral
proteins and are easily removed without disrupting the membrane
...
No ATP is used, kinetic energy
makes it move
...
Such substances include oxygen, carbon dioxide and fat soluble
vitamins
...
Goes against the concentration gradient
...

Secondary active transport: transport is driven indirectly by energy stored in ionic
gradients created by primary active transport pumps
...
The cells retain their
normal size
...
Cells will
lose water by osmosis and shrink
...
Cells take on
water by osmosis until they become bloated and burst
...
They are typically found where
absorption, secretion, and filtration occur and a thin epithelial barrier is desirable
...

 Squamous cells- are flattened and scalelike
...

 Columnar cells- are tall and column shaped
...
Simple squamous epithelium- allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites
where protection is not important; secretes lubricating substances in serosae
...


2
...
Location: kidney tubules and
ovaries
...
Simple Columnar epithelium- absorption and secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other
substances; ciliated type propels mucus (or reproductive cells) by ciliary action
...


4
...
Location: trachea and most of the upper
respiratory tract
...
Stratified squamous epithelium- protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to
abrasion
...


6
...

Location: uterus and bladder
...
They produce hormones, messenger chemicals that they secrete by
exocytosis directly into the extracellular space
...
The unicellular
glands do so directly (exocytosis), whereas the multicellular glands do so via an epitheliumwalled duct that transports the secretion to the epithelial surface
...

 Compound glands- have a branched duct
...

 Alveolar- if the secretory cells form small, flasklike sacs
...

Mode of Secretion


Merocrine- secrete their products by exocytosis as they are produced



Holocrine- accumulate their products within them until they rupture
...

Types
Areolar- Gel-like matrix with all three fiber types; cells: fibroblasts, macrophages, mast cells,
and some white blood cells
...
Location:
surrounds capillaries

Adipose- Matrix as in areolar, but very sparse; fat cells that have their nucleus pushed to the
side
...
Location: around kidneys and eyeballs and breasts
...
Functions: fibers
form a soft internal skeleton that supports other cell types including white blood cells, mast cells,
and macrophages
...


Dense Regular- Primarily parallel collagen fibers; a few elastic fibers; major cell type is the
fibroblast
...
Location: tendons,
most ligaments and aponeuroses
...
Function: withstands tension exerted in many directions; provides
structural strength
...


Elastic- Dense regular connective tissue containing a high proportion of elastic fibers
...
Location: walls of large arteries
...

Location: cartilage of nose, trachea, and ribs
...
Location: external ear
and epiglottis
...
Location: pubic
symphysis, intervertebral discs and discs of knee joint
...
Location: bones
...
Location: blood
vessels
...
Epidermis- Top
2
...
Hypodermis- Bottom

1
...
Stratum Basale
 Deepest layer that contains a single row of stem cells
...

B
...

C
...
Stratum Lucidum

 Clear layer only visible in thick skin to help with friction like on palms and heels
...
Stratum Corneum
 Dead cells that are used for protection and flake off
...
Dermis
Middle layer the biggest layer *highly vascularized* split into two parts
A
...
Reticular Layer
 80% of the dermis
...
Hypodermis
Fat, technically not part of the skin
...
Nerves are burn
and regeneration and healing is excruciatingly painful
...


Complications are infection and fluid loss
...


Sharpey’s fibers- anchor periosteum to the bone
...
Have
trabeculae
...


Cell Types
Osteogenic cells- stem cells
Osteoblast- matrix synthesizing cell responsible for bone growth
Osteocyte- mature bone cell
Osteoclast- bone reabsorbing

Remodeling and repair
Calcitonin decreases the blood calcium level and PTH will increase it
...
It is equal activity
on bone breakdown and bone formation to replace old bone with new bone
...

Example; you start up arm wresting and your right arm will have added bone matrixes to
counteract the stress and make the bone stronger
...
Very common with
osteoporosis
...
Causes weakened
bones that can easily be broken
...


Joints Chapter 8

Three types of joints; synovial, fibrous and cartilaginous
...


B) Syndesmosis- joints held together
by ligaments
...


C) Gomphosis- Peg in socket joint, only
found in teeth
...


B) Symphyses- Bones united by
fibrocartilage, allows for little movement
...


Joint Cavity- Contains synovial fluid
Articular capsule- has two layers the outer fibrous layer and the interior synovial membrane
Synovial fluid- small amounts occupy all free spaces within the joints
...
Also known as weeping lubrication
when it’s squeezed out with pressure then reabsorbed
...

Bursae- flattened fibrous sacs lined with synovial membrane and containing synovial fluid, are
found where ligaments, muscles, tendons, or bones rub together
...

2
...

4
...

6
...


Sarcoplasm- the cytoplasm of a
muscle cell
Glycosomes- Granules of stores
glycogen the provide glucose during
muscle cell activity
...

Myoglobin- a red pigment that
stores oxygen

Myofibrils
Contain the contractile elements of the muscle cells called the sarcomeres
...


Alternating thick filaments and thing filaments give it the stripped appearance
...

Steps of the neuromuscular junction
1
...
Voltage gated calcium channels open
...

3
...
ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the sarcolemma
5
...
More Na flows in than K goes out which causes an action potential
...
The action potential moves along the sarcolemma and down the T Tubules
7
...
Calcium binds to troponin and brings down the tropomyosin revealing the binding site
of actin
...
Myosin attaches and contractions begin
...


Chapter 11


Glial Cells (neuroglia)
o Central Nervous System
 Astrocytes
 Bridge between capillaries and neurons
 Microglia
 Transforms into macrophages
 Ependymal
 Helps circulate cerebral spinal fluid
 Oligodendrocytes
 Form myelin sheath in the CNS
o Peripheral Nervous System
 Satellite cells
 Surround neuron cell bodies
 Schwann cells
 From myelin sheath in the PNS



Ion Concentration
o Negative inside
 K+ and Cl- binding
 Cl Negative proteins
 Leaky potassium gates
o Positive outside
 K+
 Leaky sodium gates
o Sodium
 Graded potentials will open these gates then dissipate
 Influx of this ion during an EPSP is greater than the outflow of other ions
o Chloride
 An increase in membrane permeability to this ion leads to an IPSP
 Present of this ion contributes to internal negative charge of neuron at rest
o Sodium-potassium Pump
 Helps to restore ionic imbalance due to hyperpolarization
o Potassium
 The gradual closing of this gate leads to hyperpolarization
 Movement of this ion through leaky channels aids the neuron in staying negative
internally at rest
 Ion responsible for repolarization wave
 These ions move away from the membrane and neutralize other ions inside the cell
with a graded potential

Chapter 12


Meninges
o Dura mater
 Hard external covering





 Periosteal layer
 Meningeal layer
 Strongest
o Arachnoid layer
 Arachnoid villus
o Pia mater
 Clings tightly to the brain
Ventricles
o Lateral Ventricle
 Connected to the 3rd ventricle by the foramen of Monroe
o 3rd ventricle
 Connected to the 4th ventricle by the cerebral aqueduct
o 4th ventricle
Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)
o Protects the brain and spinal cord from trauma
o Nourished the brain
o Sends chemical signals
o Formation, location, and circulation of CSF
1
...
Flows through ventricles and into the subarachnoid space via the median and lateral
apertures
3
...
Absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via the arachnoid villi






Hypothalamus
o Influences blood pressure, rate, and force of heart beat
o Limbic system
 Perceiving pleasure, fear, and rage
o Regulates water balance and thirst
o Has releasing and inhibiting hormones
Broca’s Area
o This area is responsible for directing muscles of speech
Limbic System
o Center for emotion
o Amygdala
 Recognizes facial expressions
o Cingulate gyrus
 Expresses our emotions
 Resolve mental conflict





Brain Stem
o Midbrain
 Involved in pain suppression
o Pons
 Relays info
o Medulla oblongata
 Decussation of pyramids
 Force and rate of heart contraction
 Rate and depth of breathing
 Vomiting, hiccupping, swallowing, coughing, and sneezing
Reticular Activating System (RAS)
o Helps regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
o Wakes yuou up and keeps you awake
o If damaged you go into a coma
o Filters repetitive signals
 Like the feeling of the shirt on your back

Chapter 13

Pathway
1
...

3
...

5
...

7
...


Ventral root or Lateral root
Ventral rootlets
Spinal nerve
White rami communicates
(Bottom rami)
Sympathetic trunk ganglion
Gray rami communicates
(Top rami)
Ventral ramus
Effector

Cranial Nerves
I
...
Optic
III
...
Trochlear
V
...
Abducens
VII
...
Vestibulococlear
IX
...
Vagus
XI
...
Hypoglossal

Yes (Hearing and Balance)
Yes (Taste)
Yes (Taste)
No
No




Motor Function
No
No
Yes (Extrinsic Eye Muscles)
Yes ( Eye Muscles)
Yes (Ophthalmic Division
Maxillary Division
Mandibular Division)
Yes (Lateral Rectus Muscle)
Yes (Temporal, Zygomatic,
Buccal, mandibular, cervical)
Some
Yes
Yes
Yes (Neck)
Yes (Tongue Muscle,
Speech and Swallowing)

Dermatomes
o Area of skin innervated by the cutaneous branches of a single nerve
Plexuses
o Cervical Plexus
 Phrenic nerve- diaphragm
o Brachial Plexus
 Axillary- Armpit
 Musculocutaneous- upper arm
 Radial- thumb side
 Wrist drop
 Median- middle
 Carpal tunnel
 Ulnar- outside
 Funny bone
o Lumbar Plexus
 Femoral
 Obturator
o Sacral Plexus
 Sciatic

Parasympathetic
Fibers
No
No
Yes
No
No

No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
No



Reflexes
o Stretch Reflex (Knee Jerk)
 Stimulates Protagonist
 Inhibits Antagonist
o Tendon Golgi Reflex
 Stimulates Antagonist
 Inhibits Protagonist
 Stops from tearing muscles, tendons, or ligaments
o Crossed-Extensor Reflex
 Extend one arm while flexing the other arm
 Extend one leg while flexing the other leg

Wallerian Nerve
Regeneration

1
...
Macrophages clean out the
dead axon distal to the injury

3
...
The axon regenerates and a
new myelin sheath forms

Chapter 14

Parasympathetic
 Releases only acetyl choline as a
neurotransmitter
 Nerves take origin from cranial nerves
 Long preganglionic axons and short
postganglionic axons
 Helps maintain a regulate heart rate
 Has short lived localized effects
 Utilized the Vagus Nerve

Sympathetic
 Release acetyl choline and norepinephrine
as a neurotransmitter
 Preganglionic axons synapse in the ganglia
close to the CNS
 Sends preganglionic axons to the adrenal
medulla
 Forms greater splanchnic nerves that
synapse in collateral ganglia
 Preganglionic fibers exit the spinal cord via
the lateral horn
 Uses rami communicants to connect to
ganglia
 Maintain blood pressure
 Controls sweat glands
 Increases the amount of circulating glucose
in the blood
 Maintains body temperature
 Responsible for sexual climax





Adrenergic Fibers (adrenal gland)
o Norepinephrine binds to them
o Beta 1,2 & 3
 Mainly inhibitory
 Beta blockers are used to treat high blood pressure (hypertension)
o Alpha 1 &2
 Mainly stimulatory
Cholinergic Fibers
o Acetylcholine binds to them
o Nicotinic
 Always stimulatory
o Muscarinic
 Can be inhibitory or stimulatory
 Slows heart activity

Chapter 15
The Eye

The External Ear

The Middle Ear

The Internal Ear

Taste Buds
Found in the papillae of the tongue mucosae
...
Sweet
2
...
Salty
4
...
Umami (associated with amino acid glutamate)
Taste Transduction

o Salty taste is due to Na influx which depolarizes gustatory epithelial cells
...

o Bitter, sweet, and umami are coupled to a unique G protein called gustducin

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