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Chapter 17-Blood
Erythrocytes (RBC’s) are small cells, about 7
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Shaped like
biconcave discs-flattened and depressed centers- lighter in color in the center
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Hemoglobin makes RBCs red binds easily and reversibly with oxygen

Component of blood
Plasma makes up most of the blood (55%)
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It is slightly
alkaline with a pH between 7
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45
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Blood Types
Type A: have B antibodies, A antigen and can donate to a person with type AB and A
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Type AB: have no antibodies, A and B antigens and can donate to a person with type AB only
but is a universal recipient
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Universal donor
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They are all roughly
spherical in shape
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Have lobed nuclei and are phagocytes to some
degree
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Lack visible cytoplasmic granules
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Monocyte- large, pale, kidney shaped (U-shaped) convert to macrophages
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3 stages:
 Vascular spasms- immediate vasoconstriction in response to injury
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Stick
to exposed collagen and release serotonin and ADP
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Coagulation- blood clotting
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Chemotaxis
Neutrophils and other WBCs migrate up gradient to injury site
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Chapter 18-the Heart

Chambers and Valves
Include right and left atria, and right and left ventricles
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Aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves
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 Myocardium- composed mainly of cardiac muscle forms bulk of heart
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Internal Structures
 Trabecula Carnae- contractions pull on chordate tendineae preventing inversion of
mitral valve
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 Papillary muscles-prevent prolapse of valves
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 Crista terminalis- c shaped ring separate anterior and posterior regions of R atrium
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 Interventricular septum- separates the ventricles
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2
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4
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The SA node generates impulses
The impulses pause (0
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08 s and results from movement of the
depolarization wave from the SA node through the atria
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0
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QRS complex results from ventricular depolarization and precedes
ventricular contraction
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08 s
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16
s
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If Q wave is visible, marks beginning of
ventricular excitation this is why sometimes called P-Q interval
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Q-T interval lasts about 0
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Systole vs
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For this reason the heart is said to have
vagal tone, and heart rate is generally slower than it would be is the vagal nerves were not
innervating it
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Chapter 19-Blood Vessels
Tunica intima- intimate contact with the lumen
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Tunica externa- outermost layer (tunica adventitia) composed largely of loosely woven collagen
fibers that protect and reinforce the vessel and anchor it to surrounding structures
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Has large lumen that
allows low- resistance conduction of blood
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(distributing arteries)
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More active in vasoconstriction and less distensible (capable of
strectching)
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Carry blood from capillary beds toward heart
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True capillaries- actual exchange vessels
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Postcapillary venule- drains the bed

Precapillary sphincter- surrounds root of each true capillary at the metarteriole and acts as a
valve to regulate blood flow into the capillary
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 Highest in aorta
 Declines throughout length of pathway
 Is 0 mmHg in R atrium
 Steepest change in blood pressure occur in arterioles
 Long as there is a pressure gradient it will still flow
Pulmonary Pressure
The purpose of the pulmonary circulation is to carry the blood which has been through the body
releasing oxygen and collecting carbon dioxide, to the air sacs of the lungs, where the red cells a
recharged with oxygen and the carbon dioxide is reduced to the normal amount
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Pulmonary arteries carry blood from the heart to the
lungs where the blood picks up oxygen
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Arterioles- Important in blood pressure regulation
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Dilated blood flow into capillaries increase
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Venules- carry blood from the capillaries to the veins
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Form
connection between veins and arteries
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Have tight junctions
that are incomplete (intercellular clefts)
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Fenestrated Capillaries- riddled with pores, or fenestrations
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Sinusoid Capillaries- highly modified, leaky capillaries found in bone marrow, liver, spleen,
and adrenal medulla
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Blood flows sluggishly through sinusoids allowing modifications
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Located in the
medulla oblongata of the brain stem, it consists of three distinct regions:
 The cardiac center stimulates cardiac output by increasing heart rate and contractility
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The cardiac center inhibits cardiac output by decreasing heart rate
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 The vasomotor center regulates blood vessel diameter
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The cardiovascular center receives information about the state of the body through the following
sources:
 Baroreceptors are sensory neurons that monitor arterial blood pressure
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 Chemoreceptors are sensory neurons that monitor levels of CO 2 and O 2
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Chemoreceptors are found in carotid bodies and aortic bodies located
near the carotid sinus and aortic arch
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o The kidneys provide a hormonal mechanism for the regulation of blood pressure
by managing blood volume
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In response to rising blood pressure, the juxtaglomerular cells in the kidneys
secrete renin into the blood
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Angiotensin II activates two mechanisms that raise blood pressure:
o Angiotensin II constricts blood vessels throughout the body (raising blood
pressure by increasing resistance to blood flow)
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Angiotensin II stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete aldosterone, a hormone that reduces urine
output by increasing retention of H 2O and Na + by the kidneys (raising blood pressure by
increasing blood volume)
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Some important examples follow:

o Epinephrine and norepinephrine, hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla, raise blood
pressure by increasing heart rate and the contractility of the heart muscles and by causing
vasoconstriction of arteries and veins
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o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), a hormone produced by the hypothalamus and released by
the posterior pituitary, raises blood pressure by stimulating the kidneys to retain H 2O
(raising blood pressure by increasing blood volume)
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o Nitric oxide (NO), secreted by endothelial cells, causes vasodilation
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o Alcohol lowers blood pressure by inhibiting the vasomotor center (causing vasodilation)
and by inhibiting the release of ADH (increasing H 2O output, which decreases blood
volume)
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Muscular pumps- consists of skeletal muscle activity
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Respiratory pumps-moves blood up toward heart as pressure changes in the ventral body cavity
during breathing
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Pressure in chest decreases allowing thoracic veins to expand and speeding
blood entry into the right atrium
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If it picks up a ton of
bacteria the node appears swollen
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Surrounded by a dense fibrous capsule from which
connective tissue strands called trabeculae extend inward to
divide the node into a number of compartments
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Lymph fluid
A clear, watery, sometimes faintly yellowish fluid derived from body tissues that contains
white blood cells and circulates throughout the lymphatic system, returning to the venous
bloodstream through the thoracic duct
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The lymph formed in the
digestive system called chyle is rich in fat, and looks milky white
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Lymphatics
Purpose is aid in immune response and pick up excess fluid and dump it back into the
circulatory system
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Right lymphatic duct drains lymph from the right upper limb and right side of the head and
thorax
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It arises anterior to the first two lumbar
vertebrae as an enlarged sac, the cistern chyli
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Function is to
destroy bacteria and have memory cells
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Thymic corpuscles (Hassall’s)- T cell destruction or may form regulatory T cells
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Since the lymphatic system does not have a heart to pump it, its upward movement
depends on the motions of the muscle and joint pumps
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The cleansed lymph continues to travel in only one direction, which is upward toward the
neck
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Lymphocytes
Main cells involved in immune response
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B Cells
Formed in bone marrow and produce plasma cells, daughter cells that secrete antibodies
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Chapter 21- Immunity
Spleen
Largest lymphoid organ
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“cuffs” and
surrounds central arteries

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Red pulp- blood sinusoids and splenic cords with macrophages; dispose
worn out RBCs and bloodborne pathogens
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Contain follicles with germinal centers
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Cause formation of memory
immune cells
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Ultimate target of all
immune responses mostly large complex molecules
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(can’t see them)
Function of fever
Abnormally high body temperature in response to invading microorganisms
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Fever causes spleen to sequester iron and zinc, making them less
available to support bacterial growth
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Phagocytosis
Phagocyte attempts are not always successful
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Most
bacteria have a external capsule that conceal their
carbohydrate signature to elude capture
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Opsonins are complement proteins or antibodies
that provide handles to which phagocyte receptors can bind
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passive immunity
 Active acquired in two ways: naturally acquired when you get a bacterial or viral
infection, during which time you may develop symptoms of the disease and suffer a little
or a lot and (2) artificially acquired when you receive vaccines
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 Passive differs from active because instead of being made by your plasma cells, readymade antibodies are introduced into your body
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o Conferred naturally on a fetus or infant when the mother’s antibodies cross the
placenta or are ingested with the mother’s milk
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T cell types
Cytotoxic T cells (Tc or Killer T cells)
 Targets include virus infected cells, cells with intracellular bacteria or parasites, cancer
cells, foreign cells from blood transfusions
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Helps CD8 cells become
cytotoxic T cells
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CD8 become cytotoxic T cells that destroy any cells in the body that harbor anything foreign
Some CD4 cells become regulatory T cells which moderate the immune response
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B cells
Secrete antibodies into body’s fluid
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Tissue grafts
 Autografts- tissue transplanted from one body site to another in the same person
 Isografts- donated to patient by genetically identical individual
 Allografts- transplanted from individuals who are not genetically identical but belong to
the same species
 Xenografts- grafts taken from another species
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Nonspecific reacting
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Secrete potent chemicals to enhance
inflammatory response
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Cytokines include interferons and interleukins
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(nonspecific)
 Classical pathway activate by antibody that binds to it or antigen-antibody complex
somewhere in the body
 Alternate pathway-activated by microorganisms cell wall
 Opsonization marks it to be eaten or destroyed (common method)
 Stimulate histamine release enhancing inflammation
 Can kill bacteria directly (perforins) and enhance phagocytosis
Primary vs Secondary immune response
Primary: lag period 3-6 days after antigen challenge (first encounter between antigen and naïve
immunocompetent cell)
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Antibodies levels
then decline
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Antibodies levels peak 2-3 days much higher level
than primary immune response
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Fluctuates with breathing phases, but is always about
4 mmHg less than Ppul
Intrapulmonary pressure inside lungs (alveoli)
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Tidal volume
Normal quiet breathing about 500 ml of air moves into and then out of the lungs with each breath
Dyspnea
Difficult or labored breathing; air hunger
Transportation of CO2 and O2
CO2 transported in 3 ways:
 dissolved in plasma 7 to 10%
 attached to hemoglobin 20%
 transported by bicarbonate 70%
O2 transport- hemoglobin and plasma

Valsalva’s maneuver- help empty rectum and can also splint (stabilize) the body trunk when
lifting a heavy load
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Factors that affect release of O2
Hemoglobin-oxygen is oxyhemoglobin
Hemoglobin released oxygen  reduced hemoglobin
Alveoli

Alveolar walls- 1 layer type I epithelial cells
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Type II secrete surfactant prevents cohesion of water molecules and causes collapse in
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Draw
lung tissue back down
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Atelectasis- caused by blockage of the air passages or by pressure on the outside of the lung
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It enhances oxygen unloading
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CCK, endorphins in lamia propria
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Segmentation- nonadjacent segments of alimentary tract organs alternately
contract and relax, moving food forward then backward
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Structure of liver

Structure of bile and function
Emulsify fats and prep for absorption
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Secreted from the
right and left hepatic duct
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Bile dumped with pancreatic juices
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Chapter 25-Renal System
Kidney and nephron

Parts of urinary tract and their function
The urinary system keeps the chemicals and the water in balance by removing waste called urea
from the blood
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Urinary system parts and their functions:
 Two kidneys - a pair of purplish-brown organs located below the ribs toward the middle of
the back
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Each
nephron consists of a ball formed of small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus and a small
tube called a renal tubule
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Two ureters - narrow tubes that carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder
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If
urine backs up, or is allowed to stand still, a kidney infection can develop
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Bladder - a triangle-shaped, hollow organ located in the lower abdomen
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The bladder's walls relax
and expand to store urine and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra
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Nerves in the bladder - alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder
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The brain signals the bladder
muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out of the bladder
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When

all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs
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More afferent arterioles than efferent creates some resistance producing a back up of blood flow
which increases the pressure in the glomerular cavity
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Function as
chemoreceptors for NaCl or osmoreceptors
Mesangial cells- influence capillary filtration
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Intercalated cells A and B cells- maintain acid-base balance
Principal cells- maintain water and salt balance
Blood supply to kidney and nephron
Nerve supply via renal plexus

Chapter 27- Reproduction
Male parts:
 Scrotum- sac of skin and superficial fascia that hangs outside the abdominopelvic cavity
at root of penis
 Testes

o
o

Tunica vaginalis-outer layer
Tunica albuginea- fibrous capsule of the testis
 Seminiferous tubules- produce sperm
 Rete testis- tubular network on posterior side of the testis
 Penis-copulatory organ designed to deliver sperm to female reproduction tract
 Glans penis- enlarged tip of penis
 Prepuce/foreskin- skin covering penis
 Copus spongiosum- erectile tissue surrounds urethra keep it open during erection
 Corpora cavernosa- erectile tissue that makes up most of penis
 Epididymus- absorb testicular fluid and pass nutrients to sperm
 Urethra- conveys urine and sperm
Female parts:
 Ovaries- primary reproductive organ
 Ovarian ligament- anchors ovary medially to uterus
 Suspersory ligament-anchors laterally to pelvic wall
 Uterine tubes/ fallopian tubes- initial part of female duct system
 Uterus- hollow thick-walled muscular organ that receives, retains, and nourishes a
fertilized ovum
 Vagina-often called birth canal allows passageway for birth and menstrual flow
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” The
specific type of meiosis that forms sperm is called spermatogenesis, while the formation of egg cells, or ova, is called
oogenesis
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Spermatogenesis

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The male testes have tiny tubules containing diploid cells called spermatogonium that mature to become sperm
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This
quadrupling is accomplished through the meiotic cell division detailed in the last section
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In meiosis II, the two daughter cells go
through a second division to yield four cells containing a unique set of 23 single chromosomes that ultimately mature into
four sperm cells
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Oogenesis

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Just like spermatogenesis, oogenesis involves the formation of haploid cells from an original diploid cell, called a primary
oocyte, through meiosis
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There are two major differences between the
male and female production of gametes
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Of the four
daughter cells that are produced when the primary oocyte divides meiotically, three come out much smaller than the
fourth
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The production of one egg cell via oogenesis normally occurs only once a month, from puberty to menopause
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Ovarian
hormones at their lowest normal levels and gonadotropins are beginning to rise
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Spiral arteries

increase in number and endometrium becomes velvety, thick and well vascularized
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Rising levels of
progesterone from the corpus luteum act on the estrogen-primed endometrium
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Mammary Glands
Modified sweat glands 15-25 lobes radiate around nipple
Areola (pigmented skin around nipple)
Suspensory ligaments attach breast underlying muscle fascia
Compound alveolar glands pass milk to lactiferous ducts (prolactin)



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