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PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

STUDYS
Beck (1967) - Negative Triad - Explanation for
depression
Ellis (1962) - ABC Model—Explanation for
depression
Mowrer (1960) - Two process model– Explanation
for phobias

Keywords:Statistical Deviation– Occurs when an individual has a less common characteristic
Deviation from Social Norms– Concerns behaviour that is different from the accepted
standards of behaviour in a community
Failure to function adequately– Occurs when someone is unable to cope with ordinary
demands of day to day life
Deviation from ideal mental health– Occurs when someone does not meet a set of
criteria for good mental health
Phobia– An irrational fear of an object or situation
Depression– A mental disorder characterised by low mood and low energy levels
OCD– A condition characterised by obsessions and/or compulsive behaviour
Behavioural– Ways in which we act
Emotional– Ways in which people feel
Cognitive– Ways in which people process information, including perception, attention
and thinking
Behavioural approach– A way in explaining behaviour in terms of what is observable and
in terms of learning
Classical conditioning– Learning by association, two stimulus’ are always paired
together, an unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus
...
This can make them vulnerable to
depression
ABC Model– Ellis (1962) - Idea that depression is caused by Activating event, Beliefs,
Consequences
...

Cognitive behavioural therapy– Method for treating mental disorders based on both
cognitive and behavioural techniques
...

Neural explanations– The view that physical and psychological characteristics are
determined by the behaviour of the nervous system
Drug therapy– Treatments using drugs, i
...
, chemicals that have particular effect on the
functioning of the brain
...
E
...

Lights on&off
Avoidance
in an attempt to reduce
anxiety, avoid anxious
situation

Obsessive thoughts
= unpleasant, e
...
germs
Strategies
help to manage anxiety
e
...
medication
Self insight
aware of irrational
thoughts

Anxiety & Distress
Unpleasant and scary
Accompanying depression
Depressed
Disgust and guilt

DEPRESSION

Major
severe but short term
Persistent
long term
Disruptive Dysregulation
childhood tantrums
Premenstrual Dysphoric
Mood disruption prior to
menstruation

Activity levels
= Lethargy
Psychomotor/ Agitation
= struggle to relax
Disruption to sleep/
eating, self harm, aggression

Poor concentration
unable to stick to tasks
Dwelling on negatives
Absolutist thinker
Unfortunate events are
seen as disasters

Lowered Mood
Emotional element, lethargic, sad, worthless
Anger
Not limited to sadness
Lowered self esteem

PHOBIAS

Fear triggered by an object, place or situation

Panic
crying, screaming, running away
Avoidance
conscious effort to avoid
phobic situation
Endurance
continued anxiety in unavoidable situation

Selective attention
eye contact with phobic
situation, good chance
to react
Irrational beliefs
Increased pressure on
sufferer

Anxiety
Fear, unpleasant state,
long term & immediate
Unreasonable
Strong emotions

NOTES

DEPRESSION:

ELLIS’S ABC MODEL
COGNITIVE EXPLANATION

A01

A03

How irrational thoughts effects behaviour and state
...


ACTIVATING EVENT
a situation that triggers irrational thoughts
an experience of negative events (e
...

Cognitions can be seen before depression develops
= BECK CORRECT ABOUT COGNITION CAUSING
DEPRESSION
PRACTICAL APPLICATION IN CBT
Forms the bases of CBT
All cognitive aspects are challenged
Translates well into successful therapy
DOESN’T EXPALIN ALL ASPECTS
Symptoms are basic, depression is complexed
Can’t explain anger, hallucinations and bizarre beliefs
...


NOTES

OCD:

NEURAL EXPLANATION
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION

A01

A03

ROLE OF SEROTONIN
-Believed to regulate moods
-Some cases of OCD can be explained by a
reduction in the functioning of serotonin

SUPPORTING EVIDENCE
Role of neural mechanisms are supported, e
...
how
antidepressants work on serotonin
Some are effective in reducing OCD symptoms
= no
...
g
...

However, boys and girls have different life experiences that
could cause OCD
SEROTONIN AND OCD LINK MAY BE CO-MORBIDITY WITH
DEPRESSION
OCD patients become depressed
= Co-morbidity involves disruption to serotonin systems

DECISION MAKING SYSTEMS
-Seems to be associated with impaired decision
making
FRONTAL TUBES
- front of the brain responsible for logical decision
making
LEFT PARAHIPPOCAMPAL GYRUS
- associated with processing unpleasant emotions

NOTES

OCD:

DRUG THERAPY
BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT

A01

A03

ALTERNATIVES TO SSRI’S: (SNRI)
- dose can be increased
- TRICYCLES are similar to SSRI’s but with more side
effects
HOW SSRI’S WORK: Increases the amount of
serotonin at the synapse

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

Serotonin is released by neurons, and
released by presynaptic nerve
Travels across the synapse
Neurotransmitter chemically conveys signal
from the presynaptic to postsynaptic nerve
Reabsorbed by the presynaptic nerve, and is
broken down and reused
SSRI’s blocks this uptake, so MORE serotonin is
available

EFFECTIVE AT TACKLING SYMPTOMS
Reduces the severity of symptoms
Soomo (2009) gave pps placebos
= found they had greater effect when combined
Declined by 70% with SSRI’s
30% decline with alternatives/combinations
COST EFFECTIVE
Cheap compared to psychological treatments
Good value for NHS, isn't disruptive to peoples lives
SOME CASES OF OCD FOLLOW TRAUMA
OCD is believed to be biological
However, some cases are caused by traumatic events
SSRI’S CAN HAVE SIDE EFFECTS
Blurred vision, indigestion, less sex drive, reduced
effectiveness
= due to this, people stop taking the medication
UNRELIABLE EVIDENCE FOR DRUG TREATMENTS
Controversy attached
This is because…
...
g
...

MAINTAINANCE: OPERANT CONDITIONING
- Behaviour is reinforced or punished = increases the
frequency of behaviour
=Positive or Negative
-Negative = avoids unpleasant behaviour (DESIRABLE
CONSEQUENCE)
-When we avoid a phobia, anxiety is reinforces, fear is
reduced but anxiety is maintained

GOOD EXPLANATORY POWER
Explains how phobia is acquired and maintained,
important implication for therapies
When patient is prevented from avoiding, behaviour
reinforced is declined = APPLICATION OF THERAPY
INCOMPLETE EXPLANATION
Cannot account for the preparedness to acquire
phobic for some stimuli , for example social anxiety
ALTERNATIVE EXPLANATIONS
Not all acts of avoidance result in anxiety reduction e
...

agoraphobia, avoids phobic to stick to safety
May be motivated by seeking safety rather than anxiety
reduction
PHOBIAS THAT DON’T FOLLOW A TRAUMA
Some phobias follow a trauma and can easily be
explained by conditioning
However sometimes people just acquire a phobia that
isn't related to a bad experience (not explained)
WHAT ABOUT THE COGNITIVE ASPECTS OF PHOBIAS?
Only explains the behavioural elements of phobias
However cognitive aspects are involved as well

NOTES

PHOBIAS:

SYSTEMATIC
DESENSITISATION
BEHAVIOURAL TREATMENT

A01

A03

Designed to gradually reduce anxiety through
CLASSICAL conditioning,
- substitute relaxation response to conditioned stimulus
(counter conditioning)

EFFECTIVE
For specific phobias, can be adapted for each
STRENGTH = reduces anxiety with long lasting effects
Gilroy et al (2003) - research using spiders, supports idea
of SD
...

Therefore, SD is more appropriate
...

RELAXATION
Taught how to relax (breathing techniques etc)
EXPOSURE
Exposed to stimulus whilst relaxed, work down
hierarchy
...

LIMITATION = money and time is sometimes
wasted
...

The cognitive elements, tackles irrational thoughts
...

One session, or a few long sessions
...

- Learned response is extinguished when
conditioned stimulus is encountered without unconditioning
-IN SOME CASES = relaxation is achieved because
phobic becomes exhausted by fear

NOTES



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