Notesale: Turn your study into money

Document Preview

Extracts from the notes are below, to see the PDF you'll receive please use the links above

---

Module: The Social Child
This module is all about what makes the child a ‘social child’
...


Please feel free to use these notes to the best of your abilities for your assignments
and to aid your general understanding
...
co
...


At the end of this module, I used these notes to submit our end-of-module
examination which was a podcast, and the result was a 2:1
...


Personal, Social and Emotional Development
Personal: Being able to take care of themselves and to help children understand their
strengths, weaknesses and limitations, to overall have confidence in their abilities
Social: To help children build relationships with their peers and with adults
...
Self-confidence and self-awareness…
Children are confident to try out new activities
Children are confident to say why they like some activities more than others
Children are confident to speak in a familiar group and will talk about their ideas as
well as choose resources relevant to their chosen activities
Children will express verbally when they do or do not need help
2
...
Making relationships…
Helping children to learn to be more aware of other children, by developing empathy
(taking into consideration other children’s’ behaviour)
Children play cooperatively, taking turns with each other
Children take into account one another’s ideas about how to organise the activity
Children show sensitivity to other’s needs and feelings and form positive relationships

These three key strands are the key building blocks to allow children to develop both
efficiently and effectively
...
It outlines the basic needs for the
child and what the child needs to achieve self-actualisation
...
If none of the
levels of this pyramid is met then the child will not develop personally, socially and
emotionally
...


The age range overlaps as children develop at different rates, however if the child is 2
stages or more behind their age then it is a matter of worry
...
, 2011)”
●
●
●

It is wrong to turn the grids into tick-lists
Otherwise whatever the child has not developed yet will be forced out
Grids are minimally significant and can be used as an aide

“Children’s development is uneven, both within an individual child and between children, so
within the onward march of development there are also some ‘bumps’ and side alleys
(Robinson, 2011)”
●
●
●

A child can be advanced in one area but in other areas they may be falling behind
Children have their own strengths and weaknesses
‘bumps’ and ‘side alleys’ may halt development, e
...
divorce, death…

Cognitive Dissonance
When children find it difficult to understand you can feel two emotions at the same time
...
” (2001)
However difficult it is for children to understand, it is important that the child does not ever
feel unloved, as this can affect the personal, social and emotional development of the child
...
Babies and Toddlers
Babies/Toddlers use Innate Expression of Emotions, Social Referencing and Sensitive
Communication
...
If the adult is angry
and cross, the baby/toddler will not calm down either
...

Tantrums are also a way for babies/toddlers to express their negative feeling
...
They can learn how to control their emotions and calm down when
they are frustrated or angry
...
The adult must
have a lot of patience when dealing with the child
...
Three and Four Year Olds
The main ways in which a child of this age expresses their emotions are:
- Crying easily
- Wanting constant attention
- Are clingy
- Whine and nag
- Fight/quarrel and are disobedient
- Talk back cheekily
- Jealousy
Jealousy is a major impact on the child
...
This is because the
child is used to being the centre of attention in the family and so has a hard time
adjusting when a younger sibling is brought into the picture
...
Five Year Olds
The main ways in which a child of this age expresses their emotions are:
- Increasing their skills in expressing emotions appropriately
- Still likely to lash out in anger
- Impulse control (act first and think later)
- Developing strategies to manage emotional distress
However the most difficult to control is anger
...
The most important
thing that the adult can do is to help and support the child calm down their temper
with various exercises such as count to ten whilst concentrating on their breathing or
to walk away from the situation and tell a responsible adult
...
Under Twos Years Old
The children of this age group have no social desire and desire to stay near the significant
adult
...

However in a study conducted by Lewis et al (1975) cited in Whitebread (2012) when a
mother, child, unfamiliar adult and another child of the same age were put in the
same room, the child touched the mother the most but looked at their peer the most
...


b
...

c
...

d
...

There is development of friendships, helping skills, give and take, and collaboration
...

Piaget thought overall that children regarded other people’s perspective when they are older,
however Gopnik et al (2001) challenges this idea by saying that between 14-18 months old,
there is a change and children can regard other people’s perspective
...
A lot of support is needed
...


Session 3: Attachment

“Attachment is a bond of affection between 2 people in which a sense of personal security
and commitment is bound upon within that relationship”
This was how Lindon (2005) described what an attachment is
...

There are two main types of attachments:
●
●

Secure Attachment – The child can easily form relationships in life
Insecure Attachment – The child has no trust or security and so will face difficulties
when forming relationships in life

The attachment process begins when the primary care giver responds to the child
sensitively
...

As the child starts to feel safe, via sensitivity, empathy and love, the child can use past
experiences to mingle with other adults and will not be distressed as easily as younger
children (this is called ‘emotional regulation’)
...
Hence the attitude of the baby towards a
new setting or something similar is calm and cooperative
...

Some examples are:
-

Crying
Clinging
Cooing
Eye contact
Smiling
Gurgling

The baby will understand that by carrying out these actions the primary caregiver will
respond appropriately and pay attention
...
This is important to the child that
they are not separated from the primary caregiver who they have built up a memory of
...

This starts to build up a secure attachment
...


Attachment Theory – Bowlby (1975)
Bowlby argues that because babies are born helpless they are genetically programmed to
behave towards their mothers in certain ways that ensure their survival
...

However Bowlby proposed three controversial ideas…
1
...
Rutter claimed that ​it is important to distinguish
between Deprivation (when the child has had a close bond which has been broken) and
Privation (when the child has never formed a close attachment with anyone)
...

However there is a danger if the child has never had a bond
...

It is therefore important to understand whether the child has made a bond before or never
have
...
Monotrophy Hypothesis
Infants form only one strong attachment typically with the mother
However Schaffer and Emerson in 1964 challenge this idea
...
They quote:
“There is in fact no empirical support for the concept of monotrophism
...
”
Important: Always use empirical support, which is research results, rather than anecdotal
support
...
Critical Period Hypothesis
There is a critical period for forming attachments
...
After that it isn’t possible to establish a
powerful attachment
...


Attachment Theory – Ainsworth
Ainsworth et al
...
They conducted experiments called
‘The Strange Situation Classification’ which carried out controlled observations of children’s
attachment behaviour
...
A stranger then enters the room and approaches the child
...

The theorists took notes on three things: Separation protest (how the child reacts to being
left in the room), stranger anxiety (how the child copes in the presence of a stranger) and
reunion behaviour (how the child reacts when the mother returns in the room)
...
Judging the reaction of
the child, the theorists could determine which kind of attachment the child and mother had
...
This attachment is associated with unresponsive primary
care (the ‘sensitive’ part of the relationship between the child and the mother is missing)

Insecure Attachment – Resistant/Ambivalent
The following behaviour was shown when the experiment was conducted:
●
●
●

Distressed when the mother left
Fear of stranger
Clinginess mixed with rejection on return

The child is angry at the mother but does not know how to express his anger
...
This was found in 2000 because there is an increase in alcoholism
...


However House in 2010 quotes:
“With institutionalised early childcare rapidly becoming an unquestioned cultural norm, flying
in the face of all we know about the importance of early attachment relationships for
lifelong health, it is crucial that the economy-centred priority of driving parents, and
especially mothers, back into the workforce at the first available opportunity does not
go unchallenged”
This details that House is against child care, as he describes day care for children as an
unquestioned cultural norm
...

He also says that the government’s priority is not for the children but saving money by
putting parents back into work as soon as possible
...


Characteristics of different attachments later on in childhood
1
...
Insecure – avoidant attachment
● Avoid close contact
● More concerned with the environment and objects around them
● No guidance on how to regulate strong emotions
● Find it easier to deny, suppress or avoid feelings and expressions
● Calm or even withdrawn but arousal will still be high
3
...
Disorganised attachment
● Do not rely on having a safe or secure place to return to (learnt that from past
experiences)
● Contradictory behaviour patterns
● Show wariness and apprehension as they cannot predict adult’s response
● Main function is to gain attention from their attachment figure

Session 4: Self-Esteem

“Self-esteem is about having a personal sense of worth and in children is based upon a
developing sense of who they are and what they are like” (Dukes and Smith, 2011)
“Positive self-esteem is the basis of health social and emotional development
...
However, it is quite fragile, especially for children, and can be easily bruised”
(Barber, 2011)
Self-concept – How we see ourselves, and this can be either realistic or unrealistic
Ideal self – What we wish we were like
The more closer the ideal self and self-concept is, the higher the amount of self-esteem the
person has
...

Self-esteem is closely linked to achievement, hence it is very important that children have a
high esteem of themselves so they can achieve and reach their potential
...
Get to know the child
2
...
Provide for those who are less secure
● Familiar toys from home

● Provide one to one support at particular times of the day
● Allow the child to stay near an adult if they need to
● Create a buddy system between younger and older children
4
...

Factors that lower self-esteem are:
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

Negative language used to describe children
Labelling children negatively
Assuming confidence is high self-esteem when in fact the child has insecurities
Not viewing a child in a holistic manner
Inconsistency with key person
Not recognising if the child has cognitive dissonance
Putting down the children over and over again

Session 5: Parenting Styles

Childhood and family life have changed over the last 50 years
...
g
...
She
developed three categories of parents:
●
●
●

Permissive
Authoritarian
Authoritative

However Maccoby and Martin in 1983 categorised parents into one other group called
Neglecting/Uninvolved
...
The children may also turn rebellious due to the controlling nature of the
parents
...
They found that it had a negative effect on European Americans,
however authoritarianism is positively related to behavioural issues for European Americans
(but not for Mexican Americans)
...
In Hong Kong, China, they found that authoritarian parenting had a positive effect
on children’s education
...
In the European American
sense it is conceptualized as strict discipline
...

Impact of Permissive Parenting
Holden in 2010 described some of the impacts of permissive parenting on children as:
●
●

Poor school performance
Lacking in independence

The children are not used to following rules or being told what to do, so have a hard time
adjusting to nursery/school life
...

The child also has had the privilege of having everything done for them, as there are no
demands for responsibility so there is no independence in the child
...

Shaffer in 2009 also raised a few points of the impacts of permissive parenting on children
as:
●
●
●

Impulsive
Aggressive
Lacking self-control

Again the child is impulsive and aggressive due to lack of social skills
...
The child lacks self-control
as there have never been any boundaries set for the child and so the child does not know
how to behave with others
...

Because they have good social skills they can make friends easily and therefore are more
cooperative
...

Summary of different parenting styles…
Permissive

Authoritative

Authoritarian

Few/no demands for
responsibilities

Autonomous self-will and
disciplined conformity

Avoids controlling behaviour

Encourages opinions and
communication

Tells the child to set their
own goals, no punishments

Uses reason, power and
shaping by regime and
regulations to achieve
objectives, sets standards for
future conduct
Directs children’s activities in
a rational, issue-orientated
manner

Uses manipulation to get the
child to do a job, e
...
bribery

Regards household
responsibility as very
important
Does not encourage opinions
or communication –
Controlling (restricts child’s
individuality)
Attempts to control, shape
and evaluate behaviour with
punishments and forceful
measures to supress self-will
Makes the child have no
doubt in their words

Unconditional Parenting
Kohn in 2005 considered the differences between conditional and unconditional parenting
...
According to Davenport, it is the result of
genetic inheritance:

“Right from birth there are quite noticeable differences between babies and this would
suggest that these differences are largely the result of genetic inheritance
...
”
However Thornton in 2008 also commented that temperament is…
“… the component of personality with which we are born, which is evident from birth and
stable for a lifetime
...
”
Temperamental Dimensions
Chess and Thomas in 1996 came up with the temperamental dimensions listed below…
●
●
●
●
●
●
●

Activity Level – how active the child is
Rhythmicity – getting into a routine (how quickly one adjusts to a new routine)
Approach/Withdrawal – how one responds to new peoples or new situations
Adaptability – how quickly one adapts to changes
Intensity – the intensity of emotional responses (one baby may scream for dinner
whilst a different baby may whimper)
Threshold – how much one can put up with before reacting, e
...
whining
Mood – whether one is an up/down person or whether one is a stable person
(stability of mood)

Classification
Children can therefore be classified into three different temperament types:
●
●
●

Easy – 40%
Difficult – 10%
Slow to warm – 15%

The rest of the 35% remaining could not be classified into any group because they could be
high for some dimensions but low for others, e
...
high activity level and adaptability but low
mood and threshold
...
Easy…
This group is categorised by:
● Regularity
● Positive approach responses to new stimuli
● High adaptability to change
● Mild or moderately intense mood (which is positive)
● Quickly develop regular sleep and feeding schedules

●
●
●
●

Take to most new food easily
Smile at strangers
Adapt easily to a new school
Accept the rules of new games with no trouble

2
...
The terms ‘fiesty’ and ‘spirited’ temperament, which suggest
positive attributes, have been suggested
...
Therefore we should use the terms
feisty or spirited because it communicates to us that a child has negative behaviour
but also has positive behaviour as well
...
Slow to Warm…
This group is categorised by:
● A combination of negative responses of mild intensity to new stimuli
● Slow adaptability
● If given the opportunity to re-experience such new situations over time and
without pressure, such a child gradually comes to show quiet and positive
interest and involvement

Personality

There is a difference between temperament and personality
...
”
Different Ideas about Personality
There are two different approaches as described by Chamorro-Premuzic in 2011:
1
...

2
...

Historical Perspectives on Personality
-

Hippocrates (460-370 BC)
Galen (130-200 AD)

The Hippocrates/Galen theory on personality sees ‘personality as both psychological and
biological’
...

2
...

4
...


Openness to experience [high level: inventive/curious, low level: consistent/cautious]
Conscientiousness [high level: efficient/organised, low level: easy going/careless
Extraversion [high level: outgoing/energetic, low level: solitary/reserved
Agreeableness [high level: friendly/compassion, low level: cold/unkind]
Neuroticism [high level: sensitive/nervous, low level: secure/confident]

Erikson in 1963 believed that people face a specific dilemma or ‘crisis’ at each stage of life
...

The table below shows the different tasks and descriptions of children at different ages…
Task
Trust vs
...
Shame

2-3

Initiative vs
...
Inferiority

6-12

Session 7: Gender and Behaviour

Description
Needs to trust caregivers
Needs attention and affection
Toddler explores environment
Needs a secure and trusting base
Autonomy relates to self-belief
Childs needs encouragement and support in initiating
activities
Undue criticism may lead to guilt and inhibition
Task is to develop the virtue of competence (home and
school)

What do we mean by sex and gender?
The World Health Organisation (WHO) state:
“Sex refers to the biological and physiological characteristics that define men and
women
...
”
Nature – The way the child is born
Nurture – The way the child has been brought up
According to Browne (2004)…
“Gender is inextricably linked with all aspects of ourselves, including ‘race’, ethnicity, social
class, language background and disability
...
”
Nature or Nurture?
It is difficult to argue that sex differences between male and female are anything other than
biological
...
Is this gender difference a result of nature or nurture?
If it were due to nature, then the differences would be in the genetics of the child (the traits
they have inherited from birth)
...


Nature…

Gender Differences
Rayment (2006) suggests that certain gender differences can be attributed to nature as a
result of genetic and biological factors
...
This attitude also contributes to determining how the
child turns out
...

According to Rayment (2006)…
“The brain is separated into two halves, or hemispheres, which are connected by the corpus
callosum and information is transferred along these ‘nerve highways’
...
This means that the two halves tend to operate more independently in
males and more collectively in females
...

Girls combine skills from both sides and so girls find that it is easier to negotiation and
talking in role play, whereas boys tend to run around more during role play compared to
girls
...
Frontal lobes help a person to self-regulate
...
”

“Boys have weaker neural connections in their temporal lobes than girls, which means they
are less skilled at listening, especially to the tone of the voice
...
The mother
would call for the child
...
They would go to the edge of the plank, put out their
hand to feel for the plastic, and only when they made a decision of whether it was
safe to cross or not would they then rush to their mother

Hormone Differences
According to Fleetham (2008)…
“Girls have more oestrogen and oxytocin (sensitivity/emotions/expressing feelings) than
boys
...
Boys have more
testosterone, which drives aggression, and more vasopressin, which is linked to a male’s
concern of territoriality and hierarchy
...

Nurture also has a part to play in gender differences in…
●
●
●

Behaviour expectations
Stereotypes in the media
Nursery and school

1
...

This is outlined in the nursery rhyme below, which clearly indicates that there is a clear
difference between boys and girls…
What are little boys made of?
Slugs and snails and puppy-dogs’ tails,
That’s what little boys are made of
...

The traditional nursery rhyme above clearly favours girls over boys…
Rayment quoted…
“While girls are expected to be demure, ladylike and delicate, boys are encouraged to be
strong, adventurous and tough
...
Their fears and
securities stem from the expectations of society as all parents wish for their children
to fit in their society in which they live in
...
But this does not mean
that differential reinforcement by parents is responsible for the behavioural
differences that are apparent between boys and girls
...
”
Kane (2013) commented that the society of a whole is at fault for creating differences
between boys and girls and then for allowing the same society to blame these
differences on nature rather than nurture…
“We dress and ornament boys and girls differently, teach them to behave differently, offer
them different opportunities and obstacles, treat them differently in a host of ways
and emphasise gender to them as a socially important category
...
”
2
...

Scharrer, Kim, Ke-Ming and Zixu (2006) quote…
“Representation of males and females in the media can reinforce gender role stereotypes
...
”
Nathanson, Wilson, McGee and Sebastian (2002) agree with the above quote and
comment…
“Children are considered especially vulnerable to learning gender stereotypes [from the
media] because they lack real world experiences and are still undergoing
socialisation
...
Kane (2013) discusses
a wide range of literature which shows…
●
●

●

Male characters outnumber female characters on TV and are more likely to
be shown in active roles
Across all book types, children’s books continue to reinforce gender
stereotypes by under representing female characters and showing them in
domestic or nurturing roles or traditionally female occupations
Popular music lyrics emphasise men’s power over women, the treatment of
women as objects and violence against women

Erwin and Morton (2008) point out the three major concerns related to children and violence
in media:
●
●
●

Reduced sensitivity to the pain and anguish of others
Increased fearfulness
Greater aggressive or violent behaviour towards others

“Because children are still developing emotionally and cognitively they are likely to imitate
what they see on television without distinguishing reality from fantasy thus becoming
more indifferent and less empathetic about aggression in the real world
...

Ruble, Martin and Berenbaum (2006) quote…
“Portioning the blame for stereotypical attitudes in children on the media is problematic as it
is difficult to prove whether the media has increased gender stereotyping or whether
children who already hold such stereotypes prefer to engage with media that
supports their beliefs
...

3
...
”
The following aspects of an early years setting will either make a positive or negative impact
on a child’s behaviour and their experience of school…
●
●
●
●
●
●

The way activities are structured
The value placed on achievements
The resources available
How much freedom is given
The variety of learning styles catered for
The chances given to succeed

Session 8: SEN (Special Educational Needs) and SEBD (Social,
Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties)
SEBD
It is a learning difficulty where children and young people demonstrate features of emotional
and behavioural difficulties such as:
●
●
●
●
●

Being withdrawn or isolated
Disruptive and disturbing
Being hyperactive and lacking concentration
Having immature social skills
Presenting challenging behaviour arising from other complex special needs

In 2008 the government began to talk about SEBD as BESD
...
They would rather concentrate
on improving the child’s behaviour than supporting the child’s emotions
...
The root cause is usually shown when we understand the child’s emotional state
...
g
...

There are two views of SEN and SEBD:
1
...
The Social Model
Views the child’s difficulties holistically
...
The child must have all three symptoms and
they must be present all the time!
1
...
Impulsiveness
● Acts first and thinks later
● Blurts out answers without waiting to hear the whole question
● Asks irrelevant questions
● Interrupts conversations
● Struggles to control emotions
3
...
Wender (2000)
agrees to the medical treatment…
“The treatment of the ADHD child can often be relatively straightforward… medication is of
the greatest importance
...
”

The next page shows the possible dangers of using drugs to treat ADHD and what other
alternatives there are apart from using drugs
...
”
Children with autism are usually characterised by three different features:
1
...
Limited or impaired verbal and non-verbal communication skills
3
...
g
...
Others consider
the syndrome to be a unique condition in its own right
...

●
●
●
●
●

Engage with repetitive or irritating movement (Brownhill, 2007)
Resistance to change (Wall, 2004)
Need for routine and structure (Wall, 2004)
Uncomfortable with physical contact with others (Kay, 2007)
“Another difficulty experienced by many children with autism is that of understanding
speech in a literal sense
...

All children should be seen as individuals in terms of their learning and development needs
...

It gives every child the same opportunities to succeed
...
Competent,
well-behaved children do not just happen
...
”
This has to be a shared experience, and more success will be achieved if parents and
care-givers both work together to make it work
...
They can also help with managing behaviour and
reducing stress levels
...
It allows the child to be themselves and increase their social skills such as
turn taking
...
Plan the routine with the children
2
...
Warn children in advance when one part of the routine is coming to an end
...
Likewise for children
engrossed in making a spaceship! Many problems and conflicts can be
prevented by giving a five minute time warning
...
Prepare children for changes in the routine

Strategy 2 – Appropriate Expectations
“The expectations we have of children must be in line with their own individual abilities, and
indeed must take into account the expectations that have of themselves
...
Inappropriate expectations for children will only result
in behavioural problems according to the adult
...
Therefore in order for children to develop positively we, as the
teachers or early years practitioners, should set realistic and appropriate
expectations
...
”
Children will show through their external actions what is happening internally
...
g
...
Therefore the teacher/practitioner needs to understand the child and get
to know the child so that the teacher will be able to determine the problem
...
”
To support children in developing emotionally, you need to help them to:
●

Handle and express their feelings appropriately

●
●
●

Learn about their feelings and recognise the needs, feelings and rights of
others
Develop self-motivation
Interact with other children and make friends, as well as interact appropriately
with adults

Children who have developed these skills are more likely to behave appropriately
...
” (Swale, 2006)
Hughes (2010) points out that children need stimulation and if that stimulation is missing
they will attempt to create stimulation for themselves, usually by engaging in
behaviour which is considered inappropriate
...

Child friendly environments should contain:
●
●
●

Accessible, well organised resources which a child can access independently
(Beckley, Elvidge and Hendry, 2009)
Outdoor areas where children can explore freely (Knight, 2011; Else, 2009)
Areas which accommodate different moods for example a quiet area where
children can go to relax (Thorton and Brunton, 2010)

We have to cater for children with different temperaments
...
, 2012)
“Nurturing a child on the journey to becoming a sociable and empathetic being, requires a
warm and sensitive relationship between the child and their key person
...

Practitioners should introduce children to guidelines which define considerate behaviour
(Gartrell, 2011)
...

Who decides what rights children have? – The United Nations Convention on the Rights of
the Child (1989)
...
2
countries who haven’t signed it are Somalia (no government) and America
...

The UNCRC contains 54 articles which set out the rights of the children
...
Provision Rights
Children have:
● The right to life, survival and development
● The right to an adequate standard of living
● The right to health care
● The right to education
● The right to leisure and to engage in play
A UNICEF report in 2007 looked at 6 dimensions of a child’s wellbeing:
●
●
●
●
●
●

Material well-being
Health and safety
Educational well-being
Family and peer relationships
Behaviours and risks
Subjective well-being

The UK ranked the lowest, whereas the top five countries in 2007 were:
●
●
●
●
●

Netherlands
Sweden
Denmark
Finland
Spain

However when the survey was conducted in 2013, the UK had increased in rank The top five
countries also changed as Spain was replaced by Iceland
...
Protection Rights
Children have the right to be protected from:
● Violence
● Injury
● Abuse
● Neglect
● Maltreatment
● Exploitation
● Degrading treatment or punishment
● Discrimination
However the issue of overtreatment has started to emerge
...
Parents also
‘protect’ their children by driving them everywhere, but this is doing more bad than good
as it adds onto the level of traffic on the roads and hence increases the number of
children injured or hurt on the roads
...


3
...

“Children have the right to say what they think should happen, when adults are making decisions
that affect the, and to have their own opinions taken into account
...
(Alderson, 2008)
●
●
●
●

The child’s best interests should always be paramount and it is the adult who can
best determine this rather than the child
Young children’s views are unreliable
To consult young children is to confuse and worry them
...
”

Children’s rights and dealing with inappropriate behaviour
3 articles from the UNCRC…
Article 37:
Children who break the law should not be treated cruelly
...

The laws we refer to are the classroom rules
...

Article 40:
Children who are accused of breaking the law should receive legal help
...

Again the laws we refer to are the classroom rules
...

Article 28:
Children have a right to education
...
Primary education should be free
...

All children should be allowed to go to school
...
Dunce hats should also be condoned and a child should never be singled out or picked
on in class
...

There are many different ways we can deal with inappropriate behaviour that show respect
but the most effective way is to explain to the child what when wrong such as the
consequences of the child’s actions and why the child will then have the punishment that the
teacher is giving out
...
”

Session 11: Challenging Behaviour and Behaviour Modification
Reasons for
disruptive/challenging
behaviour
● Children may be seeking
attention
● Lack of stimulation
● Children are frequently
disciplined and so have
low self esteem
● A result of changes
within the child’s family
● Insecurity
● Abused children
● Low levels of
concentration – attention
deficit
● Children may show
fidgety and unpredictable
behaviour which is
misunderstood as
disruptive
● Child refuses to
cooperate
● Medical needs – learning
difficulties cold/flu

Ways adults can help the
child

Ways that adults makes
things worse

●

●

●
●

●

●

●

●

Avoid labelling children
(part of self-fulfilling
prophecy)
Give lots of praise
Give the child the
attention they are
seeking (in a positive
way)
Routines and predictable
events – give the child
structure
Try to avoid situations
where the child is not
actively engaged
Do not remove the child
from situations or
activities as it does not
deal with the reason for
behaviour
Stay calm and use a
quiet tone of voice so the
child does not have the
satisfaction that they
have ‘wound’ up the adult

●

●

●

●

Give the child their
undivided attention
Adult provides learning
and play opportunities
that are too easy for the
child
Giving the child negative
messages when
disciplining
Gives the child a chance
to make a self-fulfilling
prophecy (fulfil the
negative expectations the
adult has of the child)
Child may feel targeted
because the adult keeps
telling them off

O’Brien (1998) quotes…
●
●
●

The behaviour prevents the child from participating in the curriculum
The behaviour has a detrimental effect on the learning of other children
The behaviour is not considered appropriate to the child’s age and level of
development

These three are the most important for early years’ practitioners and if these three
behavioural factors arise in a child in an early years setting then the child must be assessed
immediately
...

Other points are:
●
●

The behaviour results in the child being continually isolated from their peers
The behaviour has a negative impact upon the child’s independence

●
●
●
●
●
●

The behaviour is placing extreme threats or demands on individual staff, staff teams
or school resources
The behaviour causes the child to be disliked by a significant adult who works
regularly with them
The behaviour reinforces the child’s negative self-concept and low self-esteem
The behaviour is restricting the opportunities for a child to develop new skills
The behaviour is creating a dangerous environment for the child, for other children
and for adults
...
She quotes:
“Every behaviour is an attempt to meet a need
...
Behaviourist Philosophy
Children’s behaviour needs to be managed by adults
...

2
...


Behaviourist Philosophy
Most of the behaviour that children exhibit is learned and is influenced by their environment
...
They must learn them
...

B
...
Skinner (1974) believed that children’s behaviour could be shaped by positive
reinforcement, negative reinforcement and punishment
...

In the first box, there was a lever that, when pressed, would deliver a food pellet
...
Rats then quickly learnt that pressing the lever meant that the rat would
get food
...

The suggestion is that children can be made to behave in a particular way by positively
reinforcing (e
...
rewards, treats, stickers, praise…) the behaviour we want them to repeat
...

When the rat was placed in the box, it would experience the low-level electric shocks
...
The rats soon learnt that when they
pressed the lever, it would stop the electricity
...

Some examples:
●
●
●

Loud buzz in some cars when the ignition key is turned on; driver must put on safety
belt in order to eliminate irritating buzz
...
The cold weather is a negative
reinforcer
Studying for an exam to avoid getting a low grade
...
g
...

Punishment
In Skinner’s third box, the rats were given an electric shock when they pressed the lever
...

Skinner believed that by punishing children we could prevent them from repeating unwanted
behaviour
...


It is important to not confuse negative reinforcement and punishment
...

Punishment involves a ​decrease ​in a behaviour
...

This is called Behaviour Modification
...

-

Authoritarian
Does not take into account of children’s emotional needs
Does not address the reasons behind the behaviour

Although behaviour modification may appear to improve children’s behaviour in the short
term, as soon as the reinforcement is stopped, children’s behaviour reverts back to how it
originally was, or sometimes to a worse state (Hall et al
...
They are testing the boundaries
...


Louise Porter, 2010, constructed a diagram showing the child’s reaction to the adult’s
action…

[How the child reacts: Top 4 boxes
How the adult reacts/adult’s action: Bottom 4 boxes]
Obedience and Compliance
However there are those who have serious concerns about fostering obedience and
compliance in young children as it can make them more susceptible to abuse
...
”

“Children who have been taught to comply are more likely to ‘follow the crowd’ rather than
think and act independently and are therefore more likely to get involved in incidences of
bullying “when directed to do so by a more powerful peer”” (Porter, 2003)
It was unquestioning obedience and compliance that allowed sociopathic leaders such as
Hitler to commit unspeakable atrocities
...
2-3), developing curiosity and enthusiasm in young children (p
...
5) and encouraging critical thinking through
enabling children to develop their own ideas and strategies for doing things (p
...

The causes of inappropriate behaviour
Children are naturally inclined to be naughty
...

If a child misbehaves, behaviourist philosophies suggest that either, the incentives to behave
appropriately have not been great enough, inappropriate behaviours have been inadvertently
rewarded or the punishments used have not been significant enough to prevent the
behaviour, therefore the cause of inappropriate behaviour is too few rewards or insufficient
punishments (Bennett, 2010)
...

In the same way the children need to be supported and encouraged as they learn how to do
developmental tasks such as walking, children need to be supported as they learn how to
behave in appropriate ways
...

Punishments – When children behave in an inappropriate way, punishments are used to try
to extinguish the behaviour
...

Porter (2006) suggests that punishing children in unethical because at its heart, punishment
entails hurting children
...
(Porter, 2011; Miller, 2009)
Punishing children has a negative impact on their emotional well-being and self-esteem
...
We ought to love them for no good reason…
Furthermore, what counts is not just that we believe we love them unconditionally, but that
they feel loved in this way
...
Instead we become (in their eyes) enforcers to be avoided
...
” (Porter, 2006)
Indeed, rather than improving behaviour, punishing children can actually provoke more
inappropriate behaviour
...

The Problem with Rewards
Although this approach appears more acceptable for young children in early years settings
than using punishments, it is equally as harmful as ultimately it is attempting to manipulate

and control young children rather than support and encourage them (Porter, 2006; Kohn,
1999)
...

By increasing external rewards (extrinsic motivation) adults can actually decrease children’s
intrinsic motivation to behave in an appropriate way (Kohn, 1999)
When rewards are used with children in order to encourage a particular behaviour, the
reward “decreases the attractiveness of the behaviour and increase the attractiveness of the
reward” (Porter, 2011) which results in children only behaving in appropriate ways if a
reward is on offer
...
The child may also behave in inappropriate ways to achieve the reward
...
This may lead to
resent from the well behaved children
...

The problem with rewards and punishments
Empirical evidence has been largely gathered in experimentation on animals and applying
principles used in the training of dogs and rats to young children is degrading and does not
recognise each child’s individuality
...
There is
a vast difference between animals and young children, once again not recognising each
child’s individuality
...
Two of
the most common are:
1
...
Guidance Philosophies
Kohn (1999) says the following about behaviour modification:
“The time to worry is when [an] idea is so widely shared that we no longer even notice it,
when it is so deeply rooted that it feels to us like plain common sense
...
”
Just because when one thing is agreed by everyone, it does not mean it is right
...
The strategy has control
...

The Guidance Approach aims to present an alternative way to supporting children’s
behaviour which respects them as individuals and supports them in developing positive
behaviour
...

Guidance philosophies can be seen in two books
...

Features of a Guidance Approach
The locus of control for the guidance approach is internal
...

Therefore, rather than attempting to use external controls to manage young children’s
behaviour, a guidance philosophy proposes that children should be encouraged to
develop their own internal understanding of appropriate behaviour

[Last two points: Gartrell, 2011; Miller, 2009; Porter, 2003]
The goals of a guidance approach are:

●

●
●
●

Supporting children to develop ‘autonomous ethics’ – derived by Piaget, autonomous
ethics are when the child develops independent internal ethics which they believe
and live by
...

However, inappropriate behaviour is viewed in the guidance philosophy as either:
●
●
●
●

Normal childhood exuberance
Normal childhood inquisitiveness
Impaired self-control or lack of skills to regulate behaviour due to the age or stage of
development of the child
The child’s way of reflecting their inner pain or confusion

In guidance philosophy, the child does not exhibit ​bad​ behaviour but ​behavioural mistakes​
...

Given the inevitability of errors during childhood, if we were to punish children for
making mistakes, we would be punishing them for ​being ​children
...

Gartrell (2011) quotes:
“… The role of the adult is not to discipline the child away from evil but to guide the child to
develop personal strength and understanding necessary to make ethical, intelligent
decisions
...

1
...

Preventing inconsiderate behaviour…
● Ensure our expectations of children are appropriate
● Enabling environments
● Positive relationships
● Teach positive behaviour
The first three bullet points are natural, everyday behaviour
...
Every week she would focus on a
different behavioural skill with her class, for a short period of time, such as ten
minutes
...
However the best props are your own made-up
ones
...

Remember: The BEST RESOURCES are those you make yourself!

2
...

In this level, it is all about meeting the child’s emotional needs!
Things that help
● Patience
● Accepts that you might not completely
understand (the child)
● Genuine listening
● Give the child space
● Expertise in the area, e
...
has the
practitioner gone through the same
situation of the child?
● Calm and in control

Things that do not help!
● Rush you to a solution
● Does not understand how you feel
the way you feel
● Not showing an interest
● Do not follow it up

Child is always the priority!!!!!!!!!!!
3
...
When mistaken behaviour occurs, adults
significantly affect what children learn from the experience
...

For example, the adult could discuss with the child:
●
●
●

What went wrong with their behaviour? / What mistake did you make?
Why the behaviour was inconsiderate?
What they could do differently if in the same situation again?

●

Role play behaviour scenario

Treat the child as part of the solution! Do not blame the child – be non-judgemental!
Emotional Literacy
The ability to recognise and monitor feelings, discriminate among them, and to talk about
them, in order to navigate the social world effectively
...

Modern family life is often unstable, inconsistent and hectic, leaving schools as the most
stable place where emotional literacy can be taught
...

Features for an environment for supporting emotional literacy include:
●
●
●
●
●

Nurturing environment
Safe, challenging and learning experiences
Role-play (essential)
Be able to trust the practitioner so that the child can tell them their feelings
Safe and secure

It can be promoted in young children by:
●

●
●

●

●

6 strategies:
Involve parents/carers
Provide experimental play opportunities
Scaffold learning – quality time
Circle time – express feelings
Develop interests and celebrate achievements
Lead by example
Role play – Can pretend to be someone else and talk about their feelings through the
person they are pretending to be
Worry bags – Purpose is to listen the child who has made them
...
When the child wants to talk to someone who is not a
practitioner or teacher, they can retrieve their bags and talk to the character
...
They can decide if they wish
to discuss the problem or not, but the process of them expressing it helps them to
deal with their feelings
Relaxation – Can help children improve concentration, creativity and imagination,
building self-esteem

Tools of a Guidance Approach
Help children to develop emotional self-control
...

“Growing up is a process of learning that while we are allowed to feel the full range of
emotions, we must express our feelings in ways that do not make us more distressed or
upset other people
...

A guidance approach begins by accepting the feelings that children have and involving them
in developing self-control strategies
...


Conclusion
A guidance approach respects and values young children and recognises their need to be
supported in developing considerate and appropriate behaviour
...




---