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Student Learning Development Services
Academic Writing
0800 MASSEY (627 739)
www
...
ac
...
Many students, including extramural, internal, and both domestic and international, may find this book
useful, especially as the examples provided are not limited to a specific discipline
...
Another section deals with the basics of report writing, incorporating sub-sections on
business report writing as well as lab report writing
...
As a student for many years, as well as an academic author of research publications, I have designed the
book to help new students with their journey into academic writing
...
Indeed, that is why there are
sections introducing you to marking guides, and lecturers and course co-ordinators’ expectations surrounding
university assessments
...
A final section provides a range of resources focusing
on grammar skills and the spelling of difficult words
...
Sections
of this book derive from Anne-Marie Tokley’s (2002) Academic Writing booklet, and Heather Kavan’s (2003)
revised edition
...
Please forward any comments or suggestions on improvements for future editions to the Student Learning
Centre, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, ph
...
ac
...
For more information on planning, drafting, and revising academic assignments,
Student Learning Centre staff from all three Massey University campuses are available for guidance and
support
...
Hopefully, though, if you are able to read and reflect on the ideas and suggestions
offered in this book, the process will develop into a more manageable and rewarding experience
...
It can be a life changing experience, as mine has been
...
Table of Contents
...
Why Should You Develop Good Writing Skills?
...
Integrating the Ideas of Published Authors
...
Author Citation Tips
...
Summarising
...
Copying and Changing a Few Words – Not Paraphrasing
...
When to Retain SOME of the Original Features
...
Verb List for Academic Writing
...
Steps for Putting Authors’ Ideas into Your Own Words
...
Quotation Tips
...
Integrating Quotations into Your Assignment
...
When Don’t You Need to Acknowledge Authors?
...
Details to Include in Your Reference List
...
Referencing a Chapter within an Edited Book
...
Difficult References
...
Formatting Your Reference List
...
The Importance of Planning an Assignment
...
Common Key Task Words in Assignments
...
Plans, Introductions and Thesis Statements
...
Paragraphs
...
Strategies for Organising Points in Assignments
...
Editing
...
Layout
...
Sample Essay II – 2000 words
...
What Is a Report?
...
Having Independent Sections
...
Deciding on the Report’s Structure
...
Hierarchical Structure
...
Relationship Structures
...
Developing a Report Writing Style
...
Tips on Being Objective in Your Writing
...
Basics on Business Report Writing
...
What Are the Typical Sections of a Business Report?
...
Managing the Introduction section
...
Managing the Conclusions section
...
Qualities of an Effective Business Report
...
Basics on Lab Report Writing
...
What Are the Typical Sections of a Lab Report?
...
Managing the Introduction section
...
Managing the Results section
...
Resources on Lab Report Writing
...
Critical Thinking
Being Critical
...
What is Available for Critique
...
Organising Your Critique
...
Getting an A on Your Assignment
...
Evidence of Reading
...
Presentation
...
Other Useful Tips
Dealing with Feedback on Assignments
...
Perfectionism
...
Common Errors in Grammar and Punctuation
...
Tricky Words
...
Differences between British and American Spelling
...
iv | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
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Academic Writing
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 1
Some Differences between Academic Writing & Other Writing Contexts
Writing is a skill that is required in many contexts throughout life
...
• In these kinds of interpersonal settings (or intrapersonal in the case of a diary record), the aim may be to
communicate the events that have happened in your life to someone close to you, or to yourself
...
• It is expected that in writing about these life events, you will include your personal judgements and
evaluations, which may be measured by your feelings and thoughts
...
• There is no need to follow a structure, as prose on the page or the computer screen appears through freely
associated ideas
...
• In these settings, it is perfectly acceptable to deploy colloquialisms, casual expressions, and abbreviations,
like “that’s cool”, “by the way…”, “slacker”, “Palmy”, “b4”, and “thru”
...
Firstly, some kind of
structure is required, such as a beginning, middle, and end
...
• In the case of an essay, the introductory paragraph informs the reader about the nature of the topic, which
is discussed and evaluated in the middle of the essay, also referred to as the body
...
• Lastly, the end paragraph constitutes a conclusion in which you may summarise the overall points made, but
obviously not every single one, as there is often never the word space to do so
...
• Another type of structure, common in university assignments is that of a report, often organised around the
identification of problems or difficulties and corresponding solutions
...
– Further, unlike an essay, reports allow for bulleted points with respect to the Conclusions and
Recommendations sections
...
A second difference between academic writing and other writing genres is based on the citation of published
authors
...
• Indeed, citing the work of other authors is central to academic writing because it shows you have read
the literature, understood the ideas, and have integrated these issues and varying perspectives into the
assignment task
...
Thirdly, in academic writing you should always follow rules of punctuation and grammar, especially as the
end-user or consumer of your writing, unlike a friend, is likely to be very different from you and will not always
know to what you are referring
...
Punctuation as well as the conventions
of grammar are universally known systems (within English speaking cultures) that maintain clarity and avoid
ambiguity in expression
...
• One example is writing a covering letter for an employment position, or, even, taking minutes in a meeting
...
• Nevertheless, in a covering letter it would be unwise to use colloquialisms for a potential employer to
read
...
Yet, aside from all this, there are still some features of covering letters and meeting minutes that are distinct
from other aspects of academic writing
...
Hence, while minute-taking in meetings and covering
letters for potential employers draw on physical, practical, and functional tasks, academic writing is often
more likely to focus on abstract processes and relationships
...
• Typically, academic writing requires you to clearly describe abstract forms and their component parts, their
links to other abstract forms, as well as where they are positioned in relation to a general, overall system
...
• Therefore, the very nature of academic writing is also different from many practically-oriented or sociallyoriented writing tasks
...
To summarise this introductory section, academic writing is a special genre of writing that prescribes its
own set of rules and practices
...
These rules and practices may be organised around a formal order or structure in which to present ideas,
in addition to ensuring that ideas are supported by author citations in the literature
...
Further, academic writing adheres to traditional conventions of punctuation, grammar, and spelling
...
Finally, in contrast to many other personal writing contexts, academic writing is different because it deals
with the underlying theories and causes governing processes and practices in everyday life, as well as
exploring alternative explanations for these events
...
There are sections on citing
authors, referencing at the end of the assignment, planning and organising your assignment, to being critical
and understanding marking guides
...
Before moving
onto each of these components, I would like to take this moment to focus on why it is important to develop good
academic writing skills
...
• Hence, in order to persuade and convince them of your argument, in which you integrate ideas from the
literature to help ground your argument, it is vital that you have good communication skills
...
• Therefore, developing sound writing, as well as research skills, is an essential part of succeeding at
university
...
Even though assignments may cause a lot of unexpected stress, they are a fact of university life
...
In doing so, you will not only
be rewarded by better grades, but also by more efficient and effective procedures in which to carry out writing
tasks, both at university and in later life
...
• They provide you with the opportunity to explore something in a more in-depth and analytic way
...
• They are a vehicle for demonstrating your knowledge and understanding to the marker, as well as displaying
your ability to reason and write academically
...
• They require thought and planning
...
• They also require you to turn your opinions into a clearly presented argument
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 5
Finally, assignments are NOT just about grades – they allow you to develop and enhance your own thinking,
writing, and evaluation skills, which can have spin-offs in many other aspects of your present and future life
...
It will be worth it!
The following sections in this book have been designed to address how you can do well on an assignment
and conform to an accepted standard in academic writing and structure
...
Before
looking at this topic in depth, it is important to clarify the kinds of sources recommended to be used in university
assignments
...
In an academic setting, an authority is usually someone who has been the author of published material
...
Sometimes, these sources can be grouped into two categories: primary
and secondary sources
...
g
...
Secondary sources draw on these
primary sources of data, but have been produced for public consumption in the form of a journal article or a
chapter in an edited book
...
Secondary sources differ from secondary
citations, which occur when you use a reference that was cited in another source and not the original
...
Academic sources of information, or evidence, differ from……
• Your own opinions
...
• A celebrity’s opinion
...
• Opinion columns in newspapers (as opposed to newspaper articles)
...
Having identified acceptable
academic sources, the next section considers how to integrate these sources into your writing
...
This requires you
to read widely in order to seek out the different sides of a debate within a particular field of inquiry
...
What this means is that you need to demonstrate evidence of your literature exploration by including these
authors in your writing and mentioning their points of view
...
Citing Authors
Within academia, different disciplines have their own conventions for citing authors
...
Other referencing systems used to document authors in your assignments, namely MLA, Harvard, and
Chicago, will be outlined in a later section
...
In the body of your assignment, this involves recording
the author’s surname (or family name) followed by the year in which their work was published
...
It is worth noting that
by using the former, the reference becomes part of the sentence, and, therefore, clarity of attribution is often
increased in the mind of the reader
...
The full “and” is used
...
In brackets
Gender is an important feature in language (Holmes & Smith, 1986)
...
A comma separates
authors and year
...
You will notice that in the body version, the authors are embedded into the sentence, with the year of publication
in brackets
...
The full reference
details for Holmes and Smith (1986) should be found in the reference list at the end of the assignment
...
Author Citation Tips
• There is no rule concerning which citation method – whether citing authors in the body of a sentence or in
brackets – is best
...
However, it is always useful for the reader to provide variety when
citing authors in your assignment
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 9
• To avoid relying on the same verbs when introducing authors into your sentence, as in the case of “McDonald
(1992) says…” or “Anderson (2003) states…”, a list of verbs is provided to add variety to your sentenceembedded citations
...
Example
In the body of a sentence
According to R
...
Holmes (1995) and J
...
Holmes (1995), management principles underlie many organisational
practices
...
B
...
S
...
NB: When listing two or more authors in brackets, use a semi-colon to separate each reference
...
Ensure the same detail is reflected in your Reference List
...
• When stating the same author twice in a single paragraph, the year only needs mentioning the first time
in the paragraph (unless it could be confused with another reference, such as in the case of publications
written by the same author in the same year)
...
Indeed, Wilkinson points out that…
...
d
...
Example
The notion of anger has been debated for centuries (Wilkinson, n
...
• When citing a publication written by three to five authors, for the first text citation, include all names
...
”, which is a Latin abbreviation for “et als”,
meaning “and others”
...
(1978, p
...
In brackets
It is important to establish the grounds of the argument (Slater et al
...
120)
...
”
• In the case of secondary citations, that is when a source you are using cites someone else’s work – which
is the work you want to include, but you do not have access to the original document – it is important to
acknowledge both the original source and the source you have access to
...
Example
Riechter’s (1984, as cited in Smith, 2003) study highlights how business models offer a framework for
understanding commercial mechanisms
...
• On occasion, you may be in a situation where an expert, such as a lecturer, or a consultant working within
an organisation, communicates a point, which happens to be relevant to your assignment
...
In such cases, the information can still be included in your assignment as a personal communication –
although only include these in your assignments if absolutely necessary
...
J
...
It is important not to rely on personal communications in your writing, as these do not demonstrate your
interpretation of the literature
...
Consequently, they are not included in your Reference List at the end of the assignment
...
Putting Authors’ Ideas into Your Own Words
It is important to be able to explain the ideas of authors in your own words because this shows you understand
the concepts and opinions
...
You may find though that, with practice, it becomes
easier
...
Indeed, the more word resources you have at your fingertips, the greater flexibility you have in reshaping the
words of others, while still retaining as much of the original meaning as possible
...
Summarising will be dealt with
first, followed by paraphrasing
...
Of course, in your assignment, you need to ensure that there is enough difference in form
between the original version and your own summarised version
...
Examples
“Children spend a very large proportion of their daily lives in school
...
Schools provide the setting in which such learning takes place
...
(1985)
...
London: Croom Helm, page 38
...
Author citation in brackets
Schools are places for children to learn about life, themselves, other people, as well as academic
information (Leyden, 1985)
...
This is often
the case when you are creating your own version of the author’s words because many concepts and ideas
cannot be broken down to a more basic level, without losing a sense of their original meaning
...
12 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Secondly, the very selection of ideas from the total pool available within the original version has also contributed
to the difference between my version and the author’s version
...
” Instead I have summarised the ideas contained in the last two sentences
...
Further, instead of allocating a whole sentence to the point that “schools provide
the setting in which such learning takes place”, I have condensed this idea and merged it with the ideas in the
second sentence, as evident in “schools are places for children to…”
Thirdly, difference from the original version has also been created through the order in which the ideas are
presented
...
In contrast, my version
presents the broader context of issues first followed by the academic focus of learning
...
Firstly, you can identify
some key words and link these with other words to create a different combination
...
In this way, you are actively
summarising the information
...
All this can be achieved without significantly altering the
meaning of the information
...
Paraphrasing
Before you begin to paraphrase, it is REALLY IMPORTANT to build-up your OWN IDEA of the information or try
to develop a picture in your mind, and then use this as a model to help FRAME or GUIDE your paraphrase of the
author’s idea
...
Unlike summarising though, paraphrasing
focuses less on shortening and condensing the information
...
Examples
“Children spend a very large proportion of their daily lives in school
...
Schools provide the setting in which such learning takes place
...
(1985)
...
London: Croom Helm, page 38
...
Beyond merely going to school to learn academic information, Leyden argues that learning occurs within
a far wider context as children also learn about who they are, by being in groups, their local community,
as well as the wider world which surrounds them
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 13
Author citation in brackets
Schools are places where children spend a significant amount of time (Leyden, 1985)
...
Hence, schools offer the settings to facilitate children’s learning about
a great many things
...
The paraphrased version rewrites each of the three sentences that
make up the original version from Leyden
...
A second difference between the summarised version and the paraphrased one is that the same order of
ideas is retained in the paraphrased version
...
Moreover, the paraphrased version also represents more closely the specific
points addressed by Leyden
...
However, the paraphrased version does have at least one thing in common with the summarised version
...
Further, even though the order, in which these ideas are presented, is the same as Leyden’s
order, the choice of phrases is significantly different
...
Commonly, however, many students do not make enough of a difference between their words
and the author’s
...
Example
“Capital represents human creations that are used in the production of goods and services
...
Human capital consists of the knowledge and
skills people develop (through education and formal or on-the-job training) that enhance their ability
to produce, such as the taxi driver’s knowledge of the city’s streets or the surgeon’s knowledge of the
human body
...
Physical capital includes the driver’s cab, the surgeon’s scalpel,
the ten-ton press used to print Newsweek, and the building where your economics class meets
...
A
...
Economics: A contemporary introduction (2nd ed
...
Copying and changing a few words – Unacceptable paraphrasing
Capital signifies human products that are utilised in the creation of goods and services (McEachern,
1991)
...
In contrast, physical capital comprises buildings,
machinery, tools, and other manufactured items that are utilised to produce goods and services
(McEachern)
...
Although
acknowledgement of the author is made in the bracketed citations, this is not enough to distinguish the
author’s version from your own version
...
The
paraphrased version has only substituted individual words, as follows:
represents = signifies
creations = products
production = creation
ability = capacity
used = utilised
consist of = comprises
This leaves the structure of the original version intact
...
Including linking phrases, like “In contrast”, on their
own do not adequately restate the author’s idea
...
The example below demonstrates this
...
We often
distinguish between human capital and physical capital
...
Physical capital consists of buildings, machinery, tools, and other manufactured items that
are used to produce goods and services
...
”
McEachern, W
...
(1991)
...
Cincinnati, OH: SouthWestern, page 3
...
3)
...
Indeed, human capital focuses on the products
pertaining to individuals’ skills and expertise, which function to improve individuals’ production capacity
...
In contrast, physical
capital involves the kinds of tools and equipment, including buildings that are central to providing goods
and services
...
1
...
Hence – even at the basic word level – I have drawn on
my own understanding to help guide the process of rewriting the author’s idea
...
Instead of distinguishing between two types of capital, as the original version does, I have talked about this
in terms of dividing the “broad concept” of capital into two
...
3
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 15
4
...
” have been applied
...
Hence, I have tried to draw on phrases I am more familiar
with to express the author’s ideas
...
Individual words have also been replaced by other words, such as “things humans make” for “human
creations”, and “individuals” instead of “people”
...
6
...
When to Retain SOME of the Original Features
Sometimes with paraphrasing, there may be a need to retain some of the features of the original
...
However, the author’s words are acknowledged, as evident by
the quotation marks around the quoted material, in addition to the author’s name, year of publication, and page
number where the quote is located
...
In addition to using a quotation, a few phrases have been retained from the original, including “physical capital”
and “human capital”
...
More importantly, “physical capital” and “human capital” are the names
of concepts, which cannot be changed
...
Consequently, I
felt it was not necessary to use quotation marks around such terms
...
Better still, try to restate
the idea in your own words
...
It’s worth investing time to develop this SKILL
...
What follows is a list of verbs organised in different
groups, because of their similarity in meaning, which can be integrated into your writing
...
They may also be helpful when paraphrasing appropriately the words
of other authors
...
articulate, comment, mention, maintain, note, point out, say, state, suggest, indicate, refer,…
hypothesise, predict, theorise, conceptualise, understand, demonstrate, show, convey, portray, support,
substantiate, corroborate, verify, confirm…
...
acknowledge, assert, claim, …
argue, challenge, compare, contradict, contrast, counteract, debate, defend, refute, hold, …
...
16 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
synthesise, coordinate, cooperate, correspond, collaborate, contribute, share, …
reveal, conceal, …
...
convince, compel, justify, explain, clarify, reason, account, …
signify, highlight, specify, specialise, symbolise, …
accumulate, calculate, maximise, minimise, formulate, …
relate, connect, link, associate, correlate, …
exclude, include, situate, locate, place, …
condemn, deny, decline, negate, …
dominate, segregate, subordinate, …
affect, influence, transform, …
conclude, summarise, …
Changing the Sentence Structure and Form
In addition to building up your repertoire of academic words, another method for creating difference between
the author’s version and your version is by altering the structure in which information is presented
...
1
...
EG: McDonald (1992) highlights; According to McDonald
(1992); As highlighted by McDonald (1992)
...
Embed the author at the beginning of the sentence, the middle, or at the end
...
3
...
This means…
It is comprised of… / constitutes…
A central feature underlying this concept is…
This functions to… / serves to… / works to…
4
...
5
...
As an example, Collins Essential English
Thesaurus may be a useful resource
...
Draw on different linking words and phrases to begin sentences as well as to link different ideas within the
same sentence, such as the following:
Being specific
In particular…
...
Can you expand and elaborate on what the author is saying?
8
...
Include a value judgement as you put the idea into your own words
...
10
...
EG: Based on the ideas of Johnson
(1979), McDonald (1988), and Wright (1999), it can be argued that… Similarly, when summarising the findings
from different studies, the same structure can be applied
...
Write down or paste a photocopy of the passage you wish to put into your own words
...
2
...
Where possible, note down alternative phrases or
synonyms for each of these
...
Identify the author’s main point(s) in your words
...
Can you simplify your words further?
(This may not always be possible
...
Now, use your words and phrases in steps 3 and 4 to restate the author’s main point, without looking
at the original text
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 19
Steps for Putting Authors’ Ideas into Your Own Words
1
...
Underline the author’s
main points
...
Yet few women talked about choosing to get married (although choice may be
a misnomer) in the same way they talked about career choices
...
The decision to marry is
not usually something to be analysed or explained, nor is the choice of a particular man
...
Women did
talk about how they met their future husbands, however
...
(Ed
...
Ladies a plate
...
Key
points have been underlined
...
List some key ideas, concepts, and phrases
...
marriage, getting married – selecting a life partner
marriage was a great influence – significant impact, influential factor
decision to marry – choice, marriage options, choice of partner
not usually something to be analysed or explained – typically not talked about, not a topic of discussion
getting married and marrying a particular man often appeared to be inevitabilities rather than choices – the
process of marriage and choice of partner were more a matter of course, something inevitable, compared
to individual choice
...
Identify the author’s main point(s) in your words
...
This was more so than other factors
...
Few women actually discussed the subject
...
4
...
Indeed,
it was more a matter of course compared to individual choice
...
Now, use your words and phrases in steps 3 and 4 to restate the author’s main point, without looking at the
original text
...
Few women discussed the topic of marriage, including
choice of partner
...
20 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Quoting Authors’ Ideas
In addition to using authors’ ideas in your writing by putting their ideas into your own words, via summarising
and paraphrasing, you can also embed authors’ ideas using quotations
...
These words are placed within quotation marks “ ”, which are
also referred to as speech marks
...
Example
“Computer game use is likely to remain part of children’s media experiences and may well increase as
new developments in the medium arrive
...
(1995)
...
Sydney, NSW: Office of Film and Literature
Classification, page 70
...
The capital “C” in “Computer” has
been replaced with a lower case
“c” to suit the sentence form
...
70) highlights that “computer game use is likely to remain part of children’s media
experiences and may well increase as new developments in the medium arrive
...
In brackets
The capital “C” has been retained
because the sentence begins here
...
70)
...
Quotation Tips
1
...
2
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 21
Example
Braum (1999, p
...
”
3
...
”
Example
As noted by Handleman and Brown (1995, para
...
If you need to add words into a quotation for clarification, place the additional words in square brackets
...
501)
...
If you need to remove details from a quotation, replace the words removed with three dots, referred to as
ellipses
...
Example
Jones (2001, p
...
”
6
...
Example
In respect of social behaviour, there are interesting American findings that computer game play can
promote high levels of family involvement, reviving patterns of family togetherness in leisure that, for
many, seemed to have diminished or died out with the advent of television
...
71)
For block quotes, the bracketed
information appears outside the full stop
...
For secondary quotations, or quotations that are cited in another source, providing that the original is not
available, both sources must be mentioned
...
Example
In the body of the sentence
Smith (2003, p
...
99), highlights how
“commercialisation leads to four major outcomes
...
99, as cited in Smith, 2003, p
...
”
22 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
In the Reference List at the back of the assignment, only list details for the source that you have been able to
access, which is the source by Smith in the examples given above
...
Hence, you are
far better off to demonstrate to the marker, in the word length available, your understanding of the author’s
words, rather than relying on the words of others
...
Ensuring frequent use of your own
words, as opposed to the words of others, also helps retain a consistent style of writing within your assignment
...
For an estimate of the number of quotations to use per assignment length, four quotations is a fair number
for a 2000 word assignment
...
It is important to exercise good judgement when deciding on whether or not to use a quotation
...
Integrating Quotations into Your Assignment
Any quotation needs to be integrated into your text
...
For instance, it is acceptable to use a quotation to begin your assignment, perhaps, because
the quote is from a well-known author in the research area, or the quote may introduce the problem very clearly
or poignantly
...
This will often involve deciding whether the quote supports the points you want to make in some way, supports
with some qualification, or disagrees with whatever points you are making in your assignment
...
The following examples demonstrate how quotations that support a particular point of view
can be integrated into an assignment
...
”
Vaughan, G
...
(1995)
...
Sydney, Australia: Prentice Hall, page 2
...
Integrating
Quotation
The topic sentence introduces observable events, which provides
a lead into the quotation on social psychologists studying
observable behaviour
...
According to Vaughan and Hogg (1995, p
...
” This gives strength to the claim that psychology
is a science rather than an art because the scientific method constructs knowledge from observable data
...
Example 2
“Such…change cannot help but have a fundamental, permanent effect upon the world’s industries and the
people who work in them
...
H
...
S
...
The virtual corporation: Structuring and revitalizing the corporation
for the 21st century
...
Essay question: Businesses should embrace the information age
...
Integrating
Quotation
The topic sentence provides a general statement about the
issue, which functions to help clarify the change referred to in
the quotation
...
“Such…change cannot help but have a fundamental,
permanent effect upon the world’s industries and the people who work in them” (Davidow & Malone, 1992, p
...
This suggests that if businesses fail to recognise the impact of this technological change, they may be left
behind
...
These last two sentences link the quotation back to the essay
topic
...
The second
sentence takes this idea further and explicitly links it back to the
essay topic with respect to the need for businesses to embrace
the information age
...
When you bring in opposing
points of view and then contest or refute them, this can make your essay more convincing and stronger to
the reader
...
Ultimately, this
24 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
shows you have read widely, and, more importantly, you have been able to integrate diverging points of view
into your assignment
...
The following examples demonstrate how contrasting quotations can be utilised to open up debate
...
11)
...
55) contention, that “bulk funding, management models of school governance and the
promotion of so-called ‘choice’ will do more to destroy decent education than any defective curricula”,
is open to debate
...
Failure to acknowledge a source of information (adequately), or using other people’s ideas as
your own is called plagiarism, and is a serious form of academic dishonesty
...
It is better to give too many citations to your
sources than too few
...
• You support your own ideas
...
• You show the marker you have read widely
...
• You follow the conventions of academia
...
By law, published information is copyright, which may mean you
have the right to copy as long as you acknowledge the source
...
Consequently, this forgoes the need to acknowledge the author of that information
...
This
common knowledge is often culture bound, however
...
Examples of common knowledge within New Zealand
•
•
•
•
Beijing is the capital of China
...
The Treaty of Waitangi was signed in 1840
...
Most university assignments do not require you to focus on common knowledge
...
26 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Reference Lists
Having referred to sources by author in the body of your assignment, you will also need to provide a detailed
list of these sources at the end of your assignment
...
In some disciplines, you may also be asked to include a
Bibliography, which is a list of sources you used to develop ideas around the assignment topic, but which you
did not actually cite or include in the body of your assignment
...
While the general procedure is presented on the following pages according to APA guidelines for listing
references at the end of your assignment, CHECK WITH YOUR STUDY GUIDE, since lecturers and course coordinators may develop their individual preferences
...
Details to Include in Your Reference List
1
...
This involves placing
the authors surname first, followed by initials
...
The publication date appears in brackets, with a full stop after it
...
, Swatson, D
...
Y
...
(1999)
...
An ampersand is included
before the last author
...
2
...
for the remaining authors
...
, Johnson, P
...
K
...
, Masters, Y
...
, et al
...
3
...
Example
Ministry of Consumer Affairs
...
Pyramid schemes
...
When the author is also the publisher, avoid
duplicating information by substituting the
name of the publisher with “Author”
...
When no author information is available, place the publication title in the author position, followed by year
of publication, location, and publisher’s name
...
Example
Significance of the Human Rights Act 1993
...
Wellington, New Zealand: Human Rights Commission
...
P
...
What a word! London: Methuen
...
Book titles are italicised
...
For well known cities, like London, Los Angeles, New York, Amsterdam, Milan, Moscow, Paris, Rome, Tokyo,
this is all that is needed
...
All US states have
abbreviations, e
...
AL - Alabama, CA - California, DC - District of Columbia, TX - Texas
...
B
...
Saint Joan’s appeal
...
A
...
), Sociology and literature
(pp
...
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall
...
• List the names of the editors in the order of first initial followed by last name, and place the abbreviation (Ed
...
) after the editor or editors’ names
...
• Include the page numbers of the chapter in brackets after the book title, but before the full stop
...
Velde, M
...
Sharing is best
...
Author
•
•
•
•
Title of article
Date of publication
Title of journal
Page numbers
When referencing journal articles, italicise or underline the journal title and its volume number
...
Put the issue or part number in brackets, immediately after the volume number
...
28 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Difficult References
Newspaper Articles (author and no author)
Brown, K
...
Health Ministry at loggerheads with Pharmac
...
2
...
(1993, July 15)
...
A12
...
, & Tuffin, K
...
Users with disabilities’ social and economic development through online access
...
Boumedine (Ed
...
122-127)
...
Book Reviews
Schatz, B
...
(2000)
...
Science,
290 (5498), 1910-1917
...
)
Hudson, J
...
(1994)
...
Palmerston North, New Zealand: School of
Language Studies, Massey University
...
(1997)
...
100 Introduction to industrial
psychology
...
Online Documents
Article in Internet-Only Journal
Breen, M
...
Information does not equal knowledge: Theorizing the political economy of virtuality
...
Retrieved March 4, 2001, from http://209
...
1
...
html
• For online documents, always include the date of access, in terms of month, day, and year, and the full web
address
...
(2004)
...
Retrieved June 23, 2005, from http://www
...
govt
...
Webpage
Te Papa
...
Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa (What’s on)
...
tepapa
...
nz/TePapa/English/WhatsOn/
• To indicate a particular page or section within a website, include the chapter number or section title in
brackets, without italics, after the website title
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 29
Formatting Your Reference List
• References are in alphabetical order according to the first author’s surname
...
• The second line of each reference (and thereafter) is indented by about 5 spaces
...
30 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Essays
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 31
The Writing Process
Writing is a long and winding process
...
These steps will help to maximise your efforts and make meaning out of
the chaos and disorder that often appears when first embarking on any assignment
...
What follows are some guidelines on how to go about essay writing
...
Think about topic
It is essential that you interpret the topic correctly
...
Some people have found that reading around the assignment topic, by
looking up some of the key words in their course materials and textbooks or glancing
through relevant readings in their study guide, is helpful in familiarising themselves
with the question
...
Then look in the library, or access the online catalogue, to see
if there are other useful materials, but only look at information relevant to the topic
...
For 100 level papers, 3-5 references may be enough
to do well, as long as you explain the ideas thoroughly and relate them effectively to
the essay topic
...
Also, remember that you will
be marked on what you write, not what you read
...
Simply writing something
down in your own words will help clarify your understanding of the topic
...
With your argument in mind, write down the main
points that support it
...
These sentences can function as an essay
plan
...
Write your essay
Remember, writing often does not come easily
...
After the first draft, you can work on refining them
...
However, if you are having difficulty, try writing some headings that are relevant to
the essay topic – perhaps they summarise each of the main points you want to make
– or perhaps they are just words that have some relevance to the topic
...
Suspend the need to connect your writing to other readings or parts of the essay
...
Trying to control the way your essay will look and its structure early on can
waste time because, as you write more and read more, you end up developing groups
of information that you can link together due to similar features they have in common
...
Uncertainty at the beginning is perfectly acceptable and
32 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
normal
...
What is important though
is writing down information in your own words, so that you have something to show
at the end of your reading and analysis
...
Have you stuck to the topic?
Have you left out anything vital?
You may have to revise your essay several times before it effectively addresses the
topic and question
...
This will allow you time to distance yourself from the topic and reflect on it with a
critical eye
...
If
they understand it, then your marker should understand it
...
Providing such extra detail can only reinforce what you
know and understand to the marker
...
Is your presentation OK? Can it be improved?
Is the referencing correct?
The Importance of Planning an Assignment
Overall, writing university assignments takes a lot of time
...
Ideally, four weeks is a good amount of time to allocate for the preparation, planning, writing, and revising
of an assignment
...
During this first week, you
may also evaluate what course materials are useful for answering the assignment and what you can leave out
...
Remember, if you are an extramural, you have to factor in extra time for the delivery of library books, as
well as the time it takes for the completed assignment to reach its destination
...
Once you have been able to prioritise the most useful resources for your assignment, Week Two may involve
reading to make notes and summaries
...
During these weeks, you may also begin to develop a firmer idea of
your argument or point of view in response to the assignment topic
...
The last few days before you submit it may give you time to check spelling
and grammar as well as get someone you know to read it through to ensure that it is understood by someone
independent
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 33
Interpreting the Topic
• In order to get good grades, you must be able to interpret an essay topic accurately
...
• There are 3 things you need to look for when interpreting an essay topic:
- tells you what to do
- the general area of discussion
- the specific area of discussion
Command
Topic
Focus
Universities should not be run like businesses
...
The specific area
of discussion is whether or not it is OK for universities to be run like businesses
...
”
• You can also turn the statement into a question
...
Should universities be run like businesses?
All you need to remember when writing your essay is to answer the essay question directly
...
Essays are one of the hardest assignment tasks to get a handle on
...
Typically, they involve you constructing a debate around the
different arguments in favour of or not in favour of a particular issue
...
As a lawyer, you have to
be able to persuade and convince the jury of your point of view, while also acknowledging the opposition’s
arguments, but then downplaying them in some way by mentioning their weaknesses or disadvantages
...
It is always good to be aware of alternative views, interpretations, and
evidence surrounding an assignment topic and to acknowledge them in your assignment
...
At least, by mentioning them you
show the marker that you have read widely, you are well informed on the issue, and you are not biased
in your position
...
To break the subject up into its main ideas, and evaluate them
...
Comment on:
Compare:
Criticise:
To discuss, explain, and give your opinion on the ideas expressed
...
To make your judgement about the views expressed and support your
judgement with evidence
...
To give a detailed account of the characteristics of a subject
...
To appraise or estimate the worth of something, to some extent an explained personal
opinion
...
To account for a subject’s character, causes, results, implications, etc
...
Generate:
To propose new ideas or new interpretations of available subjects
...
Illustrate:
Integrate:
Interpret:
To explain or clarify a problem using concrete examples, diagrams, or figures
...
To explain the meaning of something, to make it clear and explicit, and to evaluate it in terms of
your own knowledge
...
Outline:
To give the main features or general principles of a subject leaving out minor details
...
Relate:
Review:
To establish the connection between one thing and another
...
State:
Summarise:
To describe the subject in precise terms, or set down an exact meaning
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 35
Essay Structure
All essays share the same basic structure, although they may differ in content and style
...
Opening sentences are broad and
general, gradually focusing the
reader onto the topic and finally
onto the proposition
...
Paragraph 1
First Supporting Statement (SS1)
Sentences developing SS1 (definition,
explanation, evidence, illustration)
...
Conclusion =
5-10 % of
total paper
36 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Summarising argument leading to
final broad statement on the
implications or significance
of your argument
...
Planning will save you time later
...
The thesis statement is the
obvious place to start from as this is the answer to the essay question
...
After you have a basic idea of what you want
to talk about, you can begin to write the essay
...
So, instead of developing a thesis statement early on, you may choose
to read up on the assignment question and make notes on the relevant concepts, theories, and studies that
support different points of view
...
The notes you have already written will not go to waste because these can be the building blocks for your
paragraphs that support your thesis statement
...
Irrespective of the approach you use, it is important that you have a good structure to your essay
...
Introductions and thesis statements
• An introduction should begin with a broad opening statement that establishes the context of your essay
...
You can include why the topic is important
...
• By the end of the introduction, the focus is narrowed down to the thesis statement
...
)
Broad opening statement
More focused middle
Thesis statement
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 37
Guidelines for writing a thesis statement
Try to state the outcome of your analysis, rather than announcing your intention to investigate, as in the case
of “this essay will,” “this essay intends to,” or “I will” statements
...
• Make sure you are very clear
...
• Make sure your claim is realistic so that your essay does not sound ridiculous, or fanciful
...
• A thesis statement generally does two things: it answers the essay question and provides a reason or
explanation for the answer chosen
...
Sample introduction
Every teenager is thrilled at the prospect of sitting behind the driver’s wheel of a car
...
Many of these bad
habits have little effect on safety
...
Many campaigns, though,
are not successful because they are easily ignored
...
Although the number of speeding drivers will never be reduced to zero, the
advertisements targeting them are having a positive effect because people are taking notice of the
gruesome consequences of excessive speed
...
• Generally, each paragraph should develop one idea only – referred to as the controlling idea
...
The controlling idea should be developed in the rest of the paragraph
with relevant factual details, examples, explanations, definitions, or research data
...
• Sentences within the paragraph should be well linked so connections between them are obvious
...
Ideally, a sentence should be no longer than three lines
...
g
...
• Paragraphs should be arranged in a logical sequence and should also be well linked
...
Highlighting a point
Importantly, …
More importantly, …
It is also important to highlight…
Indeed, …
Furthermore, …
In fact, …
Moreover, …
Changing direction and creating comparisons
However, …
In contrast, …
Nevertheless, …
On the contrary, …
Rather, …
On one hand, …
Compared to…
In comparison, …
Conversely, …
Unfortunately, …
On the other hand, …
Another perspective holds…
Adding another point
In addition, …
Secondly, …
Further, …
Thirdly, …
Another point to consider is…
Also, …
Adding a similar point
Similarly, …
Likewise, …
Again, …
Summarising
Finally, …
To conclude this…,
In sum, …
Lastly, …
To summarise, …
Overall, …
In conclusion, …
In summary, …
The three main points are…
• Signposts tell the reader
- What is going to be said, what is being said, and what has been said
...
- How each group of ideas follows from the one before
...
• More signposts are provided within the section on Techniques for putting authors’ ideas in your own words
(see page 16)
...
For one thing, ownership
is easy to transfer
...
In addition, the stockholders of a corporation are not held responsible
for the business’s debts
...
Incorporation also enables a business to obtain
professional managers with centralised authority and responsibility; therefore, the business can be run
more efficiently
...
For example, it can enter
into contracts, owning property, and borrowing money
...
They remind the reader of all your main points and explain the significance
of your argument
...
- A restatement of the proposition or thesis statement
...
- A final, broad statement on the significance of the argument, and, if appropriate, its implications
...
Link to previous paragraph
Restatement of thesis
Summary of argument
Broad closing statement
Example
By promoting a caring atmosphere in schools, teachers can reduce the likelihood of bullying
...
By educating themselves about bullying, teachers and parents
have the knowledge to set up effective programmes and structures both within the classroom and for
the whole school
...
Although bullying will never be fully eradicated and must be dealt
with as soon as it occurs, increasing awareness of the problem is making schools a safer and more
enjoyable environment in which children can learn
...
Mock essay: Discuss the social effects surrounding an Act of Parliament
...
Paragraphs could be structured around one or more sub-effects that
comprise a main effect
...
Effect A
1
...
Sub-effect (2nd paragraph)
3
...
Sub-effect (joined onto 3rd paragraph)
Effect B
1
...
Sub-effect (6th paragraph)
3
...
Mock essay: Compare and contrast Smith and Brown’s theories about human development
...
Imagine
you have read up on both theories, but have found that there are more differences than similarities
...
Introduction
Introduce Similarities and Differences
Similarities
Feature A
1
...
Example from Brown’s theory
Feature B
1
...
Example from Smith’s theory
3
...
Differences
Feature C
1
...
Feature D
1
...
2
...
Example from Brown’s theory that is not in Smith’s
...
Reason why Smith’s theory does not include the stage in Brown’s
...
Mock essay:
Discuss cross-cultural communication issues in business organisations
...
Introduction
Introduce the topic of cross-cultural communication and its influence upon business environments
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 41
Issue 1
1
...
Outline causal factors
3
...
Issue 2
1
...
Outline causal factors
3
...
Issue 3
1
...
Outline causal factors
3
...
Issue 4
1
...
Outline causal factors
3
...
Conclusion
The Process of Revision
• Revising occurs when you have finished your draft
...
• Here is a revision checklist for essays, which can be adapted for other assignments
...
Editing involves checking your assignment from the paragraph
level right down to the word level, and, even, to individual punctuation marks
...
• Write as simply as possible
...
It has been posited that a high degree of curiosity proved lethal to a feline
...
Curiosity killed the cat
...
• Try to avoid clichés (a word or expression that has lost its impact because it has been used too much e
...
avoid clichés like the plague) because they are boring
...
• Try to keep your writing as active as possible……
...
This could be more simply and directly expressed as……
...
• Aim to vary your sentence length
...
• Make sure your writing is formal – avoid personal pronouns (I, we, you), unless assignment instructions
advise otherwise
...
Keep it simple
and clear
...
You could even tape record
yourself as you read and replay the tape to check for sentence and paragraph flow
...
• Check spelling carefully
...
It cannot pick up where you have used an
incorrect word
...
It plainly marks four my revue
Mistakes I cannot sea
...
Layout
• Layout is important too
...
• Line spacing should be at least 1
...
You need to leave space for the marker’s comments
...
Space also makes your
essay easier to read
...
• Mark new paragraphs consistently – preferably, leave a line between each paragraph
...
• Ensure that your References page is formatted correctly
...
Command – how can
Focus – the best use
Word limit: 800
Analysis: This question requires you to go beyond merely identifying schools’ use of information technology in
the classroom, in order to develop an argument around how schools can make the best use possible of such
technology in the classroom
...
However, the focus of your essay needs to be based
on examining and explaining the best usage of information technology
...
Hence, you could then proceed to explain each of these and how they can be implemented
in the classroom
...
Keywords and phrases which may be useful in searching for information: computers and education,
computers in schools, computers in classrooms, internet in classrooms, online technology and education,
computer-mediated communication and classrooms, online classrooms, online schools, e-learning
...
Essay on how schools can make the best use of infor mation
technology in the class room
Education means considerably more than just teaching a student to
read, write, and manipulate numbers
...
How this
new technology is utilised in the curriculum and managed by
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: General lead into the broad topic by
indicating the inadequacy of traditional teaching
alone
...
Technology affects the way
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
teachers teach and students learn
...
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
integrate it into all aspects of the curriculum so students are taught
how, why and when to use technology to further enhance their
Comment: Information technology is followed
with its abbreviated form, i
...
IT, in brackets,
indicating to the reader that the next time this phrase
is mentioned, it will be abbreviated to IT
...
Comment: Thesis statement
...
In schools today,
nearly all classrooms have access to a computer
...
This point follows-up on the first
point made in the thesis statement: schools need a
workable plan
...
School staff need to research what IT is available
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: Example backing up the topic
sentence
...
There should be a policy stating how
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: Statement about what schools need to
do in order to develop a plan
...
Staff members need to be clear
about what they want IT to do for them before they can start
incorporating it into their lessons
...
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: A summary sentence, which restates
the idea in the topic sentence
...
It is the
principal’s responsibility, and should be part of the school’s plan, to
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: Another topic sentence
...
ensure that all staff are consulted about the changes, and that the
change is carefully organised
...
Staff members must feel involved in the process of
acquiring technology, and in learning how to operate it, in order for
them to increase their confidence in using IT as a curriculum tool
...
Teachers are only going to be able to incorporate IT into their
lessons if they are competent users themselves (Reksten, 2000)
...
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: A useful linking word to start a new
paragraph, which indicates another relevant point
...
The skills a child learns are the important part
of any lesson, and it is the same with technology
...
More specifically, this topic sentence
indicates that the paragraph will serve to support the
point made in the thesis statement about fully
integrating IT into all aspects of the curriculum, as
mentioned in the third sentence
...
15)
...
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: This sentence brings the detail
mentioned in the paragraph back to addressing the
essay question by focusing on “the best way
to…use…IT in the classroom”
...
It is vitally important for students to be taught the strategies for using
IT
...
Pupils should be aware that the
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: This topic sentence deals with the final
points made in the thesis statement, with respect to
teaching students how, why, and when to use
technology
...
Whilst it is
important that children learn to use IT effectively, teachers must
emphasise that IT is not always suitable
...
According to Apter (1968), the danger is that the
“computer dehumanises people and inevitably leads them to act like
machines themselves” (p
...
Teachers must make sure they plan to
use variety in their lessons
...
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: Another author citation, followed by a
quote
...
The usefulness of IT in the classroom, as with any learning tool,
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
depends on the innovation and imagination of the teacher
...
The sentence acknowledges
that the teacher’s skills are central to this
...
The current information explosion makes it
essential that IT be used extensively within the classroom so
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 47
children know how to use IT appropriately and effectively
...
School boards and teachers must therefore ensure that all staff
have a clear plan about what they want their students to achieve
through IT
...
48 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
nbowker 15/12/05 8:56 AM
Comment: The final paragraph functions to
reaffirm the points made in the body of the essay,
which, in turn, support the thesis statement
...
(2000)
...
London: David Fulton
...
J
...
The new technology of education
...
Reksten, L
...
(2000)
...
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press
...
Certainly, it is good at the beginning of the essay, whether in the introduction or the body,
to acknowledge that people do alter their identity
...
It may be that identity alteration occurs in different contexts
...
Alternatively, some groups may alter their identity to a greater degree than other groups
...
Keywords used in searching for information: identity, social identity, alter ego, persona, internet, online,
chatrooms, IRC, multi-user dungeons, MUDs, computer-mediated communication
...
These notes were then grouped together according to similar ideas and
points of view to create topic units, in which I was not concerned about their size as long as they were distinct
...
The introductory
paragraph was then written, with a thesis statement crafted which functioned to summarise the ideas in the
essay
...
Then the paragraphs forming the
body of the essay were polished up from their rough shape and were checked to ensure that they were in
line with the thesis statement
...
Finally, the concluding paragraph was elaborated on from its original
form, ensuring that it adequately summarised the whole essay, but also managed to move the essay forward
to the future
...
50 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Essay on the extent to which onl ine users alter their ident ity
By Natilene Bowker
The online medium offers many opportunities for people to explore their identity
...
particular, text-based communication enables users to present themselves in ways that
may not be possible in face-to-face contexts because of the lack of physical
appearance cues
...
IRC offers users
nbowker 20/10/05 3:43 PM
Comment: Begins narrowing the topic down to a
closer focus for this essay
...
nbowker 21/10/05 4:51 PM
access to hundreds of chatrooms on a vast range of topics
...
Hence, the
writer is not having to cover all online contexts
...
63)
...
This means that the full term does not need to be
repeated in the body of the essay
...
gender including neuter and plural, and a description of their physical appearance
(Curtis, 1997)
...
However, online users’ capacity to alter their identity
is also constrained by gender norms, including gender socialisation differences in risknbowker 22/10/05 12:40 PM
taking online
...
Comment: These final two sentences in the
introduction present the thesis statement for the
essay
...
Due to the number of aspects
involved, the thesis statement has been broken into
two sentences, which summarise two distinct
positions
...
identities
...
Similarly, on IRC users have the ability to take on
nbowker 21/10/05 4:56 PM
multiple identities, signified through user nicknames, simultaneously (Reid, 1993)
...
Comment: A second piece of evidence is given
...
This evidence indicates that the capacity for identity alteration online is vast
...
nbowker 22/10/05 12:40 PM
Underlying users’ capacity for identity alteration may be the anonymity of online
communication
...
This helps to bring the
reader back to the essay topic, as the essay has
moved from specific examples to reaffirming the
essay’s first line of argument
...
nbowker 21/10/05 5:03 PM
unavailable
...
For instance, Reid (1993)
Comment: Topic sentence moves to a reason for
identity alteration
...
argues that the anonymity “and therefore invulnerability” (p
...
Literature exists about men and women
masquerading as the opposite gender online (Curtis, 1997; Reid, 1996; Turkle, 1995)
...
Comment: Whenever authors are introduced into
the sentence, the year follows in brackets
...
nbowker 21/10/05 5:06 PM
Comment: A claim is made about the literature,
which is then backed up with citations of the
literature in brackets
...
Note that these references are in
alphabetical order
...
Further, the physical distance between IRC participants, combined with the anonymity
surrounding users’ real life identities, means few consequences exist for acting
inappropriately and breaking social norms (Reid, 1993)
...
themselves, compared to real life
...
Also, Calvert suggests how assuming other identities online may offer users,
particularly adolescents who are less popular in real life, the chance to gain social
nbowker 22/10/05 11:18 AM
Comment: As Reid has already been mentioned in
the paragraph, further references to Reid do not need
a year, likewise for Calvert
...
importance
...
So far then, the research evidence indicates that text-based communication forums
Comment: This final sentence rounds off the
paragraph by looking at the situation from a broader
and more inclusive perspective, which takes into
account several variables – age, ethnicity, as well as
gender
...
offer users unprecedented freedoms for identity alteration
...
Further, the lack of social consequences
for breaking free of social norms, as a result of anonymity in conjunction with the
geographic distance between online users, provides additional support for users’
nbowker 22/10/05 11:28 AM
identity alteration online
...
In support of this, Baym points out how online norms
develop out of pre-existing norms within contexts external to online environments
...
This brings the reader immediately back to the
first part of the thesis statement, mentioned in the
introductory paragraph
...
nbowker 22/10/05 11:33 AM
Comment: This sentence turns the essay towards a
different path, which contrasts with the preceding
argument
...
nbowker 19/1/06 4:06 PM
instance, according to Reid (1993), IRC users consistently prefer being identified under
Comment: Including this author’s idea serves to
provide a justification for users’ online behaviour,
and, consequently, the proceeding examples, which
function to support the influence of offline norms
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 53
one nickname – which is consistent with identifying under one name in real life
contexts – as opposed to multiple nicknames
...
For
instance, a posting to a discussion group about online personae highlighted equal
nbowker 22/10/05 11:38 AM
Comment: Another topic sentence, which
summarises the evidence presented in this
paragraph
...
While MUD users can adopt a character as near or as distant from their real life self
(Turkle), with neuter, plural, and hermaphrodite choices available, a number of MUDs
have restricted gender to male and female only (Reid, 1996)
...
Further, even
when players identified under a non-traditional gender, other users still requested real
life gender identity disclosure
...
nbowker 22/10/05 11:41 AM
Comment: Another summary sentence, which
rounds the paragraph off by acknowledging that
while opportunities are available for identity
alteration, online users are also following real life
conventions
...
Danet’s analysis of gender
identities chosen on two MUDs (MediaMOO and LambdaMOO), constituting 1055 and
7308 players, revealed that a majority chose male or female, while only a minority
adopted unconventional identities encompassing neuter and gender neutral
...
54 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Comment: This paragraph is made up of only
three sentences – the minimum number of sentences
required for a paragraph
...
The first sentence functions to
highlight the new evidence contained in the
paragraph, and, thus, makes distinct the topic of the
paragraph
...
In support of
males’ likelihood to explore identity boundaries, Reid’s (1996) survey results of
LambdaMOO showed a majority were male (76
...
Similarly, Turkle’s (1997)
observations on the MUD, Habitat, revealed that while there was a 4:1 ratio of male
versus female real life participants, the ratio of male to female presenting players was
actually 3:1, indicating a greater proportion of males altering their gender identity
...
Researchers have proposed several reasons for males altering their gender identity
online
...
This scarcity
Comment: While the evidence in this paragraph
belongs to the study mentioned in the former
paragraph, it highlights a different focus of attention:
males may be more likely to alter their identity
online than females
...
nbowker 22/10/05 11:54 AM
Comment: This sentence states that authors have
presented justification
...
heightens the novelty of interacting with females online, leading real life males to
present as female to gain the same attention
...
Males are also attracted to the fun in deceiving other males and enticing them into
sexually explicit interactions by taking on a female gender identity (Curtis)
...
nbowker 22/10/05 11:56 AM
Due to the proportion of males gender-switching, many females have been required to
Comment: This paragraph provides justification
for males’ identity alteration online
...
This is qualified by the fact that
they do so for a very different reason
...
Consequently, many females alter their identity from
female to neuter, gender-neutral, or male (Curtis, 1997)
...
harassment (Turkle, 1995)
...
Rather,
researchers also need to consider the reasons for users engaging in identity alteration,
to better understand the extent to which online users actually alter their identity
...
While males may do so for a range of reasons, including
general identity exploration, gaining attention, and deceiving others, the research
suggests that females typically do so to avoid harassment
...
nbowker 22/10/05 12:24 PM
Comment: This part of the sentence works to
support the focus in the essay on explaining why
users engage in identity alteration online – so that
researchers attain a better understanding of the
events taking place
...
This helps demonstrate to the reader that the essay
question has been addressed
...
In support of gender socialisation differences in risk-taking behaviour, underlying
gender socialisation theory is the notion that males learn to engage in risk-taking
activities by extending behavioural boundaries
...
The
disorientation surrounding the adoption of masculine identities by real life females,
evident in Bruckman (1996) and Reid’s (1996) gender-switching encounter, in contrast to
the liberation from the restrictions of gender appropriate behaviour experienced by a
56 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
nbowker 22/10/05 12:25 PM
Comment: This end sentence moves the focus
forward by suggesting further justification, through
theoretical evidence, to support the second position
in the thesis statement
...
Comment: This paragraph functions to provide
the link between gender socialisation differences in
risk-taking between males and females off line, and
males and females’ risk-taking in identity alteration
online
...
If social errors occur, players can easily
log on as another character without redress
...
Subsequently, it is argued that those
more likely to engage in risk-taking, namely males (Coet & McDermott, 1979), may also
be more likely to utilise online environments for identity exploration, including identity
nbowker 22/10/05 12:28 PM
Comment: While this evidence repeats and
elaborates earlier evidence mentioned in the first
part of the essay supporting the first argument, it
also functions here to support the second argument
in the thesis statement
...
alteration, compared to females
...
Males engage in identity alteration for a variety
of reasons, not least of which includes identity exploration
...
In contrast, females engage in identity alteration to stay safe, by escaping
harassment
...
nbowker 22/10/05 12:30 PM
Comment: This paragraph summarises the second
argument in the thesis statement
...
On the one hand, evidence demonstrates the unprecedented freedom of
identity exploration online
...
It manages to bring together
the different points of view by highlighting the fact
that it is a complex situation
...
Secondly, the physical
distance between users, in conjunction with the anonymous nature of the online
medium, means there are few social consequences for breaching social conventions,
which offers further support for users to freely engage in identity alteration online
...
despite freedom from the constraints of social norms governing online behaviour,
leading to increased opportunities for identity alteration online compared to real life,
the extent to which online users freely alter their identity may be influenced by the
reproduction of gender socialisation norms
...
This finding has implications for research into cyberpsychology, in which
nbowker 22/10/05 12:32 PM
Comment: These sentences summarise the second
argument in the thesis statement
...
58 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
nbowker 22/10/05 12:34 PM
Comment: This last sentence works to bring the
essay forward beyond the immediate essay context
to consider the implications within a broader topic
setting, namely, cyberpsychology
...
References
Baym, N
...
The emergence of on-line community
...
G
...
),
Cybersociety 2
...
35-68)
...
Bruckman, A
...
(1996)
...
In P
...
), High noon
Comment: Notice that book chapters make up a
significant proportion of the references
...
on the electronic frontier: Conceptual issues in cyberspace (pp
...
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
...
L
...
Identity construction on the Internet
...
L
...
B
...
R
...
), Children in the digital age (pp
...
Westport, CT:
Praeger
...
L
...
A
...
M
...
, & Lee, M
...
(2003)
...
Journal of Applied Development
nbowker 19/1/06 4:08 PM
Psychology, 24, 627-644
...
J
...
J
...
Sex, instructional set, and group make-up:
Comment: Within the references, two more recent
(at the time this book was printed) publications have
been sourced, which indicates that up-to-date ideas
have been found
...
Psychological Reports,
44(3), 1283-1294
...
(1997)
...
In S
...
), Culture of the Internet (pp
...
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates
...
(1998)
...
In S
...
Jones (Ed
...
0: Revisiting computer-mediated communication and
community (pp
...
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
...
(1993)
...
Media Information
Australia, 67, 62-70
...
(1996)
...
In P
...
), High noon on the electronic frontier: Conceptual issues in cyberspace (pp
...
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press
...
(1995)
...
Melbourne,
Australia: Spinifex Press
...
(1995)
...
New York: Simon
& Schuster
...
(1997)
...
In S
...
), Culture of the internet (pp
...
Mahwah, NJ:
Erlbaum
...
Rather, they have all be sourced
from traditional hard copy sources – which may add
credibility to the research for the essay because the
ideas identified have been peer-reviewed, which is
not always the case with online sources
...
These events can also pertain to events or issues that have been
presented within a body of literature
...
There are three features that, together, characterise report writing at a very basic
level: a pre-defined structure, independent sections, and reaching unbiased conclusions
...
Broadly, these headings may indicate sections within a report, such as an Introduction,
Discussion, and Conclusion
...
An example of a report structure is presented
below
...
You may find that the headings provide a link between sections, without the necessity of
a linking sentence, although including a linking sentence from time-to-time may assist the
reader’s understanding
...
2
...
1
2
...
1
2
...
2
2
...
2
...
2
...
Introduction
Discussion
Technological benefits
Efficiency
Access to monitoring
Technological weaknesses
Disconnections
Lack of face-to-face support
Conclusion
In the body of the report, the difference between main sections and sub-sections may be
indicated through changes in heading font style
...
Overall, a report is a highly structured piece of work
...
Hence, you are often given more guidance on how to write the assignment, with respect
to its structure, compared to an essay where you decide the order of information in the (essay’s) body
...
In contrast, a report provides you with that structure before you begin
to answer the question, while still allowing you some flexibility and freedom in deciding on the organisation of
sub-sections comprising the report’s main sections
...
62 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Having Independent Sections
Each section in a report is typically written as a stand alone piece, so the reader can selectively identify the
report sections they are interested in, rather than reading the whole report through in one go from start to
finish
...
Consequently, the marker may go through all the Introduction sections
of students’ assignments first, select a mark for that section, then proceed to all the Discussion sections and
select a mark, and so forth
...
This process of creating distinct
units may lead to some instances of overlap in information across sections
...
Avoiding these overlaps of information may require a restructuring of the order and themes within which the
information is categorised
...
Certainly, all academic
writing holds to this ideal, including essays
...
It sways more towards the process of identifying and overviewing the range of issues in the
body of the report, and then reaching an objective conclusion or position at the end, as a consequence of the
issues represented in the report’s body
...
The Introduction section of the report may force you to summarise
the report’s findings briefly, perhaps by drawing on the sub-headings within the report’s body
...
Indeed, it should be clear to the reader that your
conclusion is reasoned logically from the discussion of the issues and the evidence you have presented in the
body of the report
...
What follows is an illustration of different structural
formats to choose from: flat, hierarchical, general-specific, and relationship-oriented structures
...
Discussion
Issue A
Issue B
Issue C
Issue D
Discussion
Issue A
Issue B
Issue C
Issue D
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 63
Hierarchical Structure
This is organised around issues in order of rank or importance, with the most significant issue first
...
Discussion
General Issue
Specific Issue A
Specific Issue B
Specific Issue C
Discussion
General Issue
Specific Issue A
Specific Issue B
Specific Issue C
Relationship Structures
In this type of structure, each issue is related to another issue
...
Relationship Structure A
Issue A
Issue B
64 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Issue C
Discussion
Main Issues
Issue A
Issue B
Issue C
Relationships
Relationship between A and B
Relationship between B and C
Relationship between C and A
Relationship Structure B
This structure of intersecting circles involves similar connections already identified in the previous structure
...
e
...
A
AC
AB
B
A
B
C
C
Discussion
Main Issues
Issue A
Issue B
Issue C
New and Emerging Issues
AB
AC
ABC
Techniques for Carrying Out Your Analysis of the Issues
Typically, reports will require you to engage in some kind of analysis of the issues or events that the report is
based on
...
At a basic level, you may only need to
• identify the issues that are relevant to the report,
• escribe what they comprise or how they work, and
• explain why they are relevant and important, or why you have chosen them from a pool of available issues,
or why these issues involve advantages or disadvantages
...
A common technique, drawn
from business studies’ approaches to report writing, involves looking at the pros and cons surrounding a
particular issue
...
Looking at the issue from different angles, especially pros and cons, will allow a more reflective and
objective analysis of the topic
...
A similar technique to SWOT analysis has also been developed called Force Field analysis
...
It identifies the process of comparing the pros and cons before
arriving at a decision
...
• Prioritising the most significant driving and restraining forces that will impact on the decision and writing
these up in your report
...
An
easy way to remember these multiple perspectives is by using the acronym
PESTLE
...
Once you have addressed the issues in the body of your report, there may also
be a requirement to look at ways to move forward with a particular issue or how to proceed with a particular
decision
...
Developing a Report Writing Style
With report writing, in particular, it is important that you present your points to the reader as efficiently as
possible in the word space allowed
...
Therefore, if you are concise, yet direct and also detailed enough to
demonstrate your level of understanding and evaluation, you will be more likely to cover a greater number of
issues
...
What follows is a list of points to help
you to write concisely
...
Get straight to the point in the first sentence
The first issue is…/involves…/relates to…/ is organised around…
A second issue focuses on…
The … context presents another relevant issue because
...
Explain the point more simply
At the present time = Presently…
In spite of the fact that = Although…
In the event that = If…
Portfolios can be developed so as to consider other options
...
Consider whether a phrase adds new meaning to the sentence?
The point is that… – Just state the point without the build up
...
As a matter of fact… – In a very general sense, it is often assumed in academic writing that you are
dealing with factual evidence, so there may be no need to assert something as a fact
...
4
...
The following examples highlight the redundant words and
phrases
...
= HIV is increasing exponentially
...
Here are three strategies you
can use to develop an objective writing style
...
Express ideas accurately by including some sense of precision, which can be achieved by quantifying
something or expressing it in measurement terms, as follows:
a lot – a high proportion; a large proportion
quite a few – five to six approximately
a long time – three hours
2
...
The
following examples highlight the words that may not be useful in your writing
...
Refer to actions independently of yourself
...
So, instead of saying “I argue”, “I recommend”, or “I suggest”,
to position your work from an objective and independent stance, refer to the following:
It is argued that…
It can be argued…
It is recommended that…
It is suggested that…
68 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
However, in cases where you are referring to published authors, then it can be effective to present the author
as the subject of the sentence as in the following examples:
Smith and Jones (2003) argue…
Hills (1987) recommends…
Abberley and Thompson (1976) suggest…
While you are referring to people in such instances, you are still referring to people independent of yourself
...
Example of a Report
Question: Write a report on the extent to which online users alter their identity
Length: 2000 words
This assignment question is virtually the same as the essay question provided for the 2000 word mock essay
on “discuss the extent to which online users alter their identity
...
It also contains the same information and
evidence
...
This change is most clearly evident from the use of headings to signify distinct sections, as follows:
1
...
Discussion
2
...
1
...
1
...
2 Constraints on altering identity online
2
...
1 Conforming to real life identity norms
2
...
2 Gender differences
2
...
2
...
Conclusion
In developing section headings, it was necessary to have a well-thought out structure, which allowed for main
sections as well as specific sub-sections within this, and when required, sub-sections within sub-sections,
as evident in 2
...
2
...
It was also important to phrase topic sentences effectively so they clearly and directly
addressed the report’s purpose, without the need to necessarily link back with the previous sentence
...
Generally, it is acceptable to go over or under by 10% of the word limit
...
In contrast to the report’s 2026 words, the essay came to 1895 words
...
While the content of the report repeats the content of
the essay, specific sections, namely the introduction and conclusion, have been moulded to comply with the
conventions of a report
...
Therefore, if you want to find out
how to effectively answer the assignment question, see the notes attached to the essay
...
Introduction
This report examines the extent to which online users alter their identity
...
IRC offers users
access to hundreds of chatrooms on a vast range of topics
...
63)
...
The findings from this report demonstrate that while
there are many possibilities for altering identity online, due to the anonymity of the
medium and the lack of social consequences, definite constraints exist
...
Gender
differences, especially gender socialisation differences in risk-taking, also influence
users’ capacity to alter their identity online
...
These details include an
introduction to the communities, including
distinguishing characteristics and features relevant to
the report’s focus
...
Further major details pertaining to the report’s
findings are also summarised
...
2
...
1 Possibilities for altering identity online
The online medium offers many possibilities for people to explore their identity
...
1
...
1
...
particular, text-based communication enables users to present themselves in ways that
may not be possible in face-to-face contexts
...
Turkle’s (1995) observations on MUDs identified how role-playing
nbowker 12/1/06 12:39 PM
Comment: You may notice that these sentences
were actually used to begin the introductory
paragraph of the essay
...
This, in itself, creates a
convenient context for moving into the more specific
issues addressed in 2
...
1 and 2
...
2
...
This included opportunities to explore a wider range of roles than
those available in real life, such as experimenting with radically different personae and
transcending to a higher power, in addition to adopting multiple characters with
different genders simultaneously
...
Such
activities demonstrate the freedom users have in constructing identities online as the
constraints of physical reality are suspended (Calvert, Mahler, Zehnder, Jenkins, &
Lee, 2003)
...
nbowker 12/1/06 12:40 PM
Comment: The remainder of this paragraph is the
same as the second paragraph in the essay
...
1
...
Researchers have argued that users alter their identity because of the
anonymous features of the online medium, in which physical appearance cues are
unavailable
...
For instance, Reid (1993)
argues that the anonymity “and therefore invulnerability” (p
...
Literature exists about men and women
masquerading as the opposite gender online (Curtis, 1997; Reid, 1996; Turkle, 1995)
...
Hence, removing the rigid identity boundaries of such factors as
age, ethnicity, and gender, which circumscribe behaviour offline, enables the
72 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
nbowker 19/1/06 4:09 PM
Comment: Topic sentence repeats the key word in
the sub-section heading, “anonymity”
...
This also functions to provide
a link between the focus of the previous paragraph
and the more specific focus of the current one
...
reconstruction of identity online, where the only limits are those created by the users
nbowker 12/1/06 1:36 PM
(Reid, 1993)
...
2
...
2 Lack of social consequences
Another relevant factor influencing users’ capacity to alter their identity online is the
lack of social consequences
...
consequences exist for acting inappropriately and breaking social norms (Reid, 1993)
...
Following this
line of argument then, the popularity of experimenting with sexual identity on IRC may
be indicative of the proportion of adolescent and young adult users able to safely
explore their sexuality without the behavioural taboos of real life (Reid)
...
This is because the
headings provide the reader with a brief idea of the
next topic, without having to read the topic sentence
or entire paragraph
...
2 Constraints on altering identity online
In addition to the unprecedented freedom online enabling users to alter their identity,
the literature indicates a number of constraints limiting users’ very ability to explore
their identity online
...
Central to gender differences are gender
nbowker 12/1/06 1:48 PM
socialisation differences in risk-taking
...
The
reader already knows about the change in direction
from the topic heading – constraints on altering
identity
...
2
...
2
...
2
...
1
...
2
...
In support of this, Baym points out how online norms develop
out of pre-existing norms within contexts external to online environments
...
Similarly, based on his 12-month observations of
MUDs, Curtis’ (1997) states that although MUD players may create a character vastly
different from how they are in reality, many conform to their real life behaviours and
personality
...
For instance,
a posting to a discussion group about online personae highlighted equal numbers of
participants acted the same as real life versus being different (Turkle, 1997)
...
Similarly, Curtis’ (1997)
observations from a 12-month longitudinal study of LambdaMOO, a highly populated
MUD, indicated gender identity comprised the fewest choices available
...
This evidence suggests that despite the opportunities for
identity alteration, some users, at least, are choosing to retain offline identity
conventions, which constrains their possibilities for identity alteration online
...
Danet’s analysis of gender identities
chosen on two MUDs (MediaMOO and LambdaMOO), constituting 1055 and 7308
players, revealed that a majority chose male or female, while only a minority adopted
unconventional identities encompassing neuter and gender neutral
...
Comment: Although this paragraph is relatively
short, it still complies with the three sentence
minimum rule constituting a paragraph
...
2
...
The influence of gender differences can also be
illustrated in Danet’s (1998) study, which was described above
...
possible to verify the real life gender identity of the players in Danet’s study, he
estimated, based on current internet user population statistics recording 70% male and
30% female participation, that many male players were likely to be identifying under a
female or unconventional identity
...
6%)
...
This evidence suggests that while some users’ may
participate in identity alteration, male users may be more likely to do so than females
...
For instance, according to Curtis (1997), males are the most common MUD
participants, which leads to a lack of female (presenting) players
...
Another prominent reason for males’
altering their gender identity is to find out what it is like to be treated as a female
...
However, females also alter their gender identity, but typically for a different reason
...
Consequently, many females alter their identity from
female to neuter, gender-neutral, or male (Curtis, 1997)
...
Therefore, the research indicates that when it comes to identity alteration online, it is
not a simple case of observing whether or not the behaviour occurs
...
The
evidence indicates that males and females may alter their gender identity for very
different reasons
...
In particular, the second sentence
could be seen to actually present some
recommendations on the issue for researchers
...
identity exploration, gaining attention, and deceiving others, the research suggests that
females typically do so to avoid harassment
...
It also functions to link this subtopic back to the overall report topic on examining
identity alteration online
...
2
...
1 Gender socialisation differences in risk-taking
Within the context of gender differences, gender socialisation differences in risktaking, learnt in real life, face-to-face contexts, may further impact on the extent to
which males and females alter their identity online
...
differences in risk-taking, underlying gender socialisation theory is the notion that
males learn to engage in risk-taking activities by extending behavioural boundaries
...
Disorientation surrounding the adoption of masculine
identities by real life females, evident in Bruckman (1996) and Reid’s (1996) genderswitching encounter, in contrast to liberation from the restrictions of gender
appropriate behaviour experienced by a male when gender-switching (Reid) may
provide support for the existence of gender socialisation differences in risk-taking
online
...
As Curtis (1997) highlights, if
social errors occur, users can easily log on as another character without redress
...
Subsequently, it is argued that those more likely to engage in risk-taking, namely males
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 77
(Coet & McDermott, 1979), may also be more likely to utilise online environments for
identity exploration, including identity alteration, compared to females
...
Conclusion
The findings in this report clearly show that the extent to which online users alter their
identity is a complex phenomenon
...
The anonymous features of the
online medium made available through the lack of physical appearance cues,
nbowker 12/1/06 2:33 PM
Comment: This sentence directly affirms that the
report does present clear findings
...
combined with the lack of social consequences for one’s actions as a result of physical
distance and anonymity, lead to vast possibilities for users to alter their identity online
...
These practices involve users’ choice to conform to real life identity
norms, such as in the case of preferring one nickname identity, and retaining the male
and female gender dichotomy
...
Moreover, the literature
suggests that males and females’ identity alteration may be linked to their gender
socialisation differences in risk-taking, leading males to be more likely to take risks in
exploring their identity online compared to females
...
The findings in this report may have implications for research within the field of
cyberpsychology
...
Future research needs to investigate this issue
...
This may include the identification of
future implications/recommendations, and/or the
need to do further research
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 79
Basics on Business Report Writing
There are many good resources available on how to write business reports, which are mentioned at the end of
this section
...
It addresses the following topics: purpose of business report
writing, typical sections, the difference between inductive and deductive reports, as well as what to include in
the main sections
...
What Is the Purpose of Writing a Business Report?
Business reports are typically assigned to enable you to
• examine available and potential solutions to a problem, situation, or issue
• apply business and management theory to a practical situation
• demonstrate your analytical, reasoning, and evaluation skills in identifying and weighing-up possible
solutions and outcomes
• reach conclusions about a problem or issue
• provide recommendations for future action
• show concise and clear communication skills
Remember that with business reports, typically, there is no single correct answer but several solutions, each
with their own costs and benefits to an organisation
...
Further, when writing the report, you need to consider the audience you are
writing for, whether it is the CEO or will the report be available to all staff concerned? Therefore it is vital that
you ensure an appropriate level of formality, sensitivity, fairness, and objectivity
...
An inductive report involves moving from the specific issues, as outlined in the discussion, to the
more general, summarised information, as displayed in the conclusions and recommendations
...
Such reports are ideal for an audience who has the time to read the
report from cover to cover, and also in instances where the findings may be somewhat controversial, hence,
the need to demonstrate your reasoning and evidence, as laid out in the discussion, for the recommendations
decided upon
...
Hence, the conclusions and recommendations appear first, followed by the discussion
...
Consequently, such an order is also appropriate for reports which are
not contentious or unexpected in their decision outcomes and recommendations
...
The purpose
of the introduction is to
• State the purpose or aim of the report, which may include who has commissioned it, if relevant
...
• Summarise the problems and recommended solutions
...
In general, one page is more than adequate to address the issues typically required in an introduction
...
The Discussion section is generally the only section where you are able to support your analysis
and reasoning with theoretical ideas, concepts, and models available within the course
...
Therefore,
ensure that you draw on evidence from the literature, course materials, as well as your own observations from
the actual case or organisation, where applicable
...
Consequently, it may be useful in preparing this section to identify your conclusions and
recommendations first, before proceeding to support these outcomes in the Discussion
...
When writing each sub-section within the Discussion, the following structure may be useful
for demonstrating the process you used to carry out your analysis and evaluation
...
Identify the problem
Example: The problem involves a lack of coordination at top-level management
...
Identify the causes
Example:This is caused by a lack of organisational skills and a lack of assistance from support people
...
Identify the symptoms
Example: As a result, the department is constantly in a state of flux, with no knowledge of where it should be
heading
...
Identify possible solutions
This can be achieved by explaining advantages and disadvantages of Option A and Option B, which may
involve describing short-term and long-term benefits
...
1
1
...
3
1
...
5
1
...
7
This is arranged as a numbered, bulleted-list
...
Match each point in sequence with the list of recommendations
...
Ensure each point links with the report’s objectives
...
Each point needs to be specific and clear
...
1
1
...
3
1
...
5
This is also arranged as a numbered, bulleted-list
...
Each recommendation should provide a response to each problem identified in the list of conclusions
...
Each recommendation should also be realistic and feasible within the social, economic, and political
climate
...
6 Write each recommendation in the future tense, as appropriate
...
40
...
• Read for business gain, rather than entertainment
...
• Answers a question or solves a problem
...
• Usually written in a formal style, compared to other types of business writing
...
• Organises the material in a natural sequence
...
• Stresses the value of the report in the title or first paragraph
...
(1997)
...
Plymouth, England:
How to Books
...
(Ed
...
Writing guidelines for business students (3rd ed
...
See chapter 6 on reports
...
(1994)
...
Brisbane: John Wiley & Sons
...
, Wong-Toi, G
...
(2004)
...
Auckland, New Zealand: Longman
...
Ruch, W
...
, & Crawford, M
...
(1988)
...
Boston: PWS-Kent
...
They were current
at the time of publishing this book
...
(1999)
...
Retrieved January 13, 2006, from
http://www
...
ac
...
html
Merchant, S
...
Business report writing
...
Retrieved January 13, 2006, from http://planet
...
cc
...
us/ba122/Reports/Report%20Writing
...
However, this section may also have some use to science students who are required
to write scientific reports
...
What Is the Purpose of Writing a Lab Report?
Lab reports are typically assigned to enable you to
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
conduct scientific research
formulate a hypothesis(es) about a particular stimulus, event, and/or behaviour
...
Therefore,
it is vital that you provide as many potential and relevant interpretations as possible
...
Further, this may open up avenues for others to investigate
your hypothesis under different conditions
...
It is also important to be clear about the voice or grammatical style in which you write your report
...
However, more recently,
it has become acceptable to use the active voice, as in “Smith and Jones (1996) conducted the study”, as well
as make reference to yourself where relevant, as in “I hypothesised that…”
...
Further, you will also need to
ensure a consistency in tense throughout the report, typically, the past tense, except when first referring to
your hypothesis in the Introduction, which is likely to require the future tense
...
Check
your assignment instructions for clarification
...
Hence, it is far easier to write at
the very end, once you have completed the report
...
In creating your summary, it is important to include a
sentence or two about each of the following:
• A statement about the topic, which demonstrates some reasoning for formulating the hypothesis
...
– participant characteristics, such as, for example, gender, undergraduate psychology students
...
– any special equipment used to carry out the research
...
• Identify theoretical explanations for the findings, as well as any major inconsistencies and/or alternative
explanations, where word space permits
...
The Abstract can vary in word length from a minimum of 120 words through to 250 words
...
Managing the Introduction section
This is the first main section of the report and may be easiest to write in conjunction with the Discussion
section because it is often important to follow-up, in your discussion, on at least one or two of the studies you
mentioned in your introduction
...
However,
to begin the Introduction, you need to start back at a more general area of interest that is relevant to your study
...
When considering what studies to include, it is always useful to mention an original, pioneering study that may
have been carried out many years ago, in the 60s or 70s, which led the research path
...
Then from here, you have a range of options
...
In which case, it would probably
be helpful to include the inconsistent studies to at least highlight the lack of consistency and hence the need to
continue the investigation
...
Here, you will need to prioritise which studies
are most relevant to the current one – whether it be the particular technique used or the actual findings and
type of research question
...
My best advice is to write the Introduction in pieces by summarising one
study at a time, or one theoretical framework at a time
...
Do not forget to also include definitions of any relevant terms and concepts,
including the use of acronyms throughout your report
...
For a 2000 word lab report, about 500 words would be a fair figure to aim
84 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
for, depending on how many words are required to adequately describe the Method and Results sections
...
Managing the Method section
This is a relatively formulaic section in that there is a clearly marked out structure to follow, namely, three subsections: participants, materials or apparatus, procedure
...
Hence, you will need to mention the number of participants, their gender, whether
they are students, as well as how they were recruited
...
Materials or Apparatus
Here you need to give details about the equipment required to carry out the study
...
If you used a paper-pencil
survey, which was designed specifically for the study, then you need to provide enough details so that someone
could replicate it, if they wanted to repeat the study
...
If a paper-pencil test is well-known, you may only need to mention its name
...
If it is important in
conducting the study to express instructions to participants using particular words and phrases, then mention
these exactly as they were stated in the study
...
The Method section can be the easiest to write because it follows a straight forward structure
...
Managing the Results section
The Results section is often a good section to write-up after the Method because it can provide clarity on the
findings, before you embark on thinking about possible explanations for the findings in your Discussion
...
Consequently, one of the key features of
the Results section is to ensure that you only mention the findings, and not what they mean in relation to the
study
...
Then mention the difference or lack of
difference between groups with respect to the activity they participated in during the study
...
This then needs
to be backed up with statistical evidence to support the difference (or lack of)
...
With each test,
include the degrees of freedom, the value of the statistic, and the level of probability
...
Most importantly, you also need to state whether
the difference was “significant” or “not significant”
...
However, remember not to duplicate information
...
When using tables, the title appears at the top of the table; when using
graphs, the title appears below
...
You
typically begin with a sentence or paragraph, summarising the results, including whether they support or
disconfirm the hypothesis
...
It is then relevant to move on to the most challenging part of the Discussion: explaining your
findings
...
This can involve repeating some of the theoretical frameworks or models mentioned in
the Introduction, but with a greater focus towards making sense of the outcomes in the current study
...
These may be drawn
from studies that presented inconsistent findings with the theory
...
In the last part of the Discussion, it is beneficial to mention any flaws in the study, such as a lack of diversity
amongst participants, sample size, and other characteristics of the sample population
...
In the final
part, before your concluding paragraph, it is a good idea to consider the future application of the findings
in some way, and even the need for further investigations to ascertain unexplained aspects of the research
outcomes
...
In closing the report, finish by reaffirming the findings and their significance to the
research area
...
(2006)
...
Frenchs Forest, New South
Wales: Pearson Education
...
Harris, P
...
Designing and reporting experiments in psychology
...
O’Shea, R
...
(2002)
...
Southbank, Victoria: Thomson Learning Australia
...
Smyth, T
...
(2004)
...
Hampshire, England: Palgrave Macmillan
...
Rosnow, R
...
, & Rosnow, M
...
Writing papers in psychology: A student guide to research reports, literature
reviews, proposals, posters, and handouts
...
See chapter 4 on planning the
research report, includes a good section on communicating statistical information
...
, & Hampton, J
...
(2005)
...
Southbank, Victoria: Thomson/Dunmore Press
...
Eunson, B
...
Communicating in the 21st century for science and technology
...
Lobban, C
...
, & Schefter, M
...
Successful lab reports: A manual for science students
...
Silyn-Roberts, H
...
Writing for science: A practical handbook for science, engineering and technology
students
...
See section 2 on writing a report
...
(2001)
...
Basingstoke, England: Palgrave
...
They were
current at the time of publishing this book
...
(2002)
...
Retrieved January 13, 2006, from http://www
...
utoronto
...
html
The Trustees of Hamilton College
...
Lab reports for biology
...
Retrieved January 13, 2006, from http://www
...
edu/academics/resource/
wc/bio_lab
...
Although being critical is one
of the most difficult and elusive aspects of academic writing, it is a feature that can gain high rewards
...
It is important to be
able to develop some critical thinking skills and to communicate these in your writing
...
1
...
This may lead to unnecessary feelings
of tension when being assigned the task of criticising a system that may have many useful attributes
...
Secondly, the practice of criticising something that has already been decided upon and implemented may
seem futile because of the lack of short and long-term application
...
Thirdly, being assigned the task of criticising the work of an esteemed author may appear to be an
unreasonable demand because of the lack of knowledge and experience encountered by someone entering
a discipline for the first time
...
Finally, the fact that the author has had their work published means that whatever information they have
written has already undergone a rigid process of change and evaluation, thereby rendering the student’s
own criticisms as unnecessary and without substance, or application
...
The
central task of academic writing is to demonstrate to the marker that you have thoroughly engaged with the
ideas and interpretations of academic experts
...
Rather, it is about joining in a broader academic debate about the
pros and cons, advantages and disadvantages, or strengths and weaknesses surrounding a particular issue
...
Being critical
is at the heart of this high-powered analysis or evaluation
...
In terms of addressing the original criticisms involved in being critical, mentioned in the first paragraph of this
section, I would like to respond with the following points
...
Firstly, even when you agree with a process, in which you are required to carry out some critical analysis
on, you can still highlight how it could be improved upon, and in so doing, identify areas of weakness
...
Indeed, pointing out the benefits and particular advantages of a system also demonstrates a level of
evaluation and critical thinking because you are having to make a judgement about the usefulness of a
system
...
2
...
90 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
3
...
4
...
Included within the practice of being critical, I have already highlighted the concept of evaluation
...
When you participate
in the practice of evaluation, you may also enter the domain of refutation, which is about raising counterevidence for the purpose of highlighting its weaknesses
...
In other words, if
you provide both sides of a debate, this functions to demonstrate balance and lack of bias, leading to a carefully
considered evaluation and outcome
...
By presenting counter points of view and then minimising them,
your position is strengthened
...
Consequently, being critical also functions as a means
of justifying your overall position and conclusion(s)
...
What is Available for Critique
Nothing goes untouched when it comes to carrying out a critique
...
It may be that the authors have developed
their topic of focus from a particular position, which neglects other, more pressing issues
...
Nevertheless, they still could have negotiated these difficulties or, at least, justified why they
chose not to pursue them
...
In particular, the authors may have decided to adopt a quantitative approach to their investigation
...
Alternatively, the authors may have chosen a qualitative approach, which may present limitations in
areas such as measurement, validity, and reliability, depending on the particular philosophical position you
choose to support
...
There may have been broad generalisations which have little bearing on what actually happens in real life
...
Thirdly, interpretations may not fit well with the theoretical underpinnings explained
at the beginning
...
The type of argument used to support the author’s philosophical position may present another area for critique
...
Further,
you may have identified better arguments in support of the same idea in other readings
...
In this I
mean you can focus on the weaknesses or gaps that the philosophical approach does not address
...
Steps for Developing Critical Thought
• Make up a list of the strengths and weaknesses or limitations surrounding a topic
...
• Write down the costs and benefits of a solution or outcome
...
• Carry out a PESTLE (political, economic, sociological, technological, legal, environmental) analysis
...
• Question……
...
Imagine yourself in the role of someone occupying a different social
identity (a woman, man, elderly citizen, greenie, artist, activist, chief executive, politician), and ponder the
pros and cons surrounding the topic from this other perspective, as well as the gaps in the topic which
neglect your needs and concerns
...
The key at this stage is
to consider the most convincing order in which to present your material
...
Supporting points first followed by opposition’s points
The advantage with this strategy is that your points are given primacy, and you begin your argument on a
strong footing
...
The disadvantage of this approach is that you may come across with a weak
argument, because you end your writing with a defence of your position against opposing points
...
Opposition’s points first followed by supporting points
Although there may be less opportunity to reinforce the strength of your position twice, your argument may
come across more strongly because first mention of your position occurs for the direct purpose of undermining
the opposition’s point of view
...
Individual points debated
In this structure, each point from the opposition is responded to separately
...
Most central to least central
Within this structure, the focus is on the particular order in which to present each of your supporting points
...
The advantage is that this makes your
argument convincing and persuasive from the beginning
...
In this case, the least central of your supporting points is mentioned first
...
Due to the fact that this is the final piece of
information that the reader is likely to receive, such information is likely to remain in the reader’s mind for a
longer period, which may, therefore, lead to greater recall and greater primacy in the reader’s thoughts
...
It is about a
carefully considered evaluation
...
Often, it is
difficult to feel experienced enough to be able to provide a critique of someone’s work
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 93
An Introduction to Marking Guides
The kinds of marking guides used at university can vary according to discipline, department, and course coordinator
...
Generally, however, the marking criterion for assignments at university is likely to be
divided into two broad areas – content and form
...
This includes the depth and coverage of your explanations
and descriptions, the type of evidence you use to support your points, and how well you are able to evaluate the
issues you have been assigned
...
Form also extends to the
physical presentation of the assignment, which involves conforming to the instructions given for formatting,
such as page margins and word limits
...
Documentation: What references have you used to support your ideas? Are they correctly listed at the end and
correctly cited in the text of your assignment?
Word limits: Did you keep to the word limit?
Presentation: Is your assignment clearly presented and readable?
Content
Rating Scale For Each Criterion
Unsatisfactory
Satisfactory
Good
Very Good
Outstanding
Coverage
1
2
3
4
5
Relevance
1
2
3
4
5
Overall Structure
1
2
3
4
5
Understanding
1
2
3
4
5
Use of terms
1
2
3
4
5
Clarity of
explanation
1
2
3
4
5
Reading
1
2
3
4
5
Critical Viewpoint
1
2
3
4
5
94 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Form
Written expression
1
2
3
4
5
Documentation
1
2
3
4
5
Word limits
1
2
3
4
5
Presentation
1
2
3
4
5
Here is a different example of a marking schedule available to Massey course coordinators and lecturers
...
Scope of assignment:
Evidence of Reading:
Structure and Organisation:
Presentation:
50%
10%
30%
10%
TOTAL
100%
Getting an A on Your Assignment
To get a grade within the A range (A- /A /A+), you need to fulfil more than the necessary requirements to pass
...
Below is a
list of details expanding on each of the four marking criterion displayed on the previous page for an acceptable
and competently carried out assignment
...
Scope of Assignment
You have provided an acceptable interpretation of the topic, which may mean that you have developed a
logical response to the assignment task
...
Nevertheless, if your response to the assignment
differs from mainstream views, you should still be able to attain a grade of value by ensuring that you have
referred to examples, explanations, and research evidence from the literature
...
In particular, a balance in views may be useful here where you have considered and acknowledged
different or opposing points of view from different authors
...
Evidence of Reading
This is entwined with scope in that it expects you to have read and referred to relevant literature, typically in
the form of the readings and/or textbook chapters as part of the materials for your course
...
Structure
The structure of an assignment relates to how you present your ideas
...
It also means that you
need to create additional structure through an introductory section, which may take the form of a paragraph
or a few sentences
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 95
Finally, structure may also entail clarity in expression
...
Remember that while the reader is likely to be knowledgeable in the topic you are writing
about, they want to see that you have understood the issues and ideas
...
Presentation
This is usually allocated the least amount of marks in any assignment
...
It is expected that you will present your work clearly
...
Keep in mind other formatting conventions
to follow, like a 4cm margin for the markers comments, and one and a half or double spacing of lines so that it
is easier to read, as well as grammar and spelling
...
Now, to get an A requires you to go that extra mile (or kilometre), beyond a competent and acceptable
standard
...
• Integrating additional references beyond those assigned in the course, which are included in your assignment
to demonstrate new points, or extend and reinforce other points
...
• Including some original analysis of the issue or integrating the ideas in an original way by, for instance,
adopting a broader framework in which to position your points
...
• Integrating many points that are relevant to the topic, including sub-themes and further sub-themes and / or
points from alternative angles that may not necessarily be mainstream
...
Nevertheless, achieving a grade close to an A, such as grades within the B range demonstrates that you
have also done well to achieve a competent standard, with potential and promise for even greater work
in the future
...
• Relying too much on quotations and not using your own words to explain others’ ideas
...
• Providing too little support from your readings and/or textbook to back up your points
...
• Including details about the topic which are too brief, and, which require more explanation through examples,
details of events, and / or evidence from theories or studies
...
• Failing to follow accepted standards in acknowledging the work and/or ideas of other authors in your text
and in the Reference List at the back of the assignment
...
• Having too many presentation errors
...
Hierarchy in Assessment Tasks
Bloom, Engelhart, Furst, Hill, and Krathwohl (1956) conducted an in-depth analysis of the types of educational
objectives embedded in tests and exams that are constructed by academics
...
While the categories are central to tests and
exams, they can also be useful to keep in mind when answering assignments
...
• Comprehension – this is fundamental to answering any test, exam, and written assessment because it is
about the demonstration of understanding, which goes beyond mere recall and identification
...
– Making links with other ideas and concepts
...
– Suggesting reasons or causal factors
...
This may be achieved by comparing and contrasting with
other similar and different information to highlight the significance or insignificance of the information in
question
...
– The ability to show how academic concepts have real world value and utility
...
• Analysis – this integrates many of the levels already covered in terms of identifying relevant and applicable
knowledge, and providing a thorough explanation of how this knowledge operates within a particular
context
...
Analysis has similarities with comprehension as –
–
–
–
–
a thorough explanation of features,
making links with other ideas and concepts,
summarising main points/features, and
suggesting reasons or causal factors
are all activities required in carrying out an in-depth investigation, or, in other words, an analysis of a
topic
...
Due to the fact that the analysis category includes so many of the features mentioned under the previous
educational levels, it is likely that this category will be worth more marks than the other levels mentioned so
far
...
Synthesis involves the creation of new ideas from old ones
...
Typically, synthesis may consist of finding ways to link diverse ideas or developing a broader, overarching
theme to group together distinct pieces of information
...
• Evaluation – this is the highest educational objective identified by Bloom et al
...
More than any other
objective, evaluation involves making a judgement about the value of something and backing up that decision
with evidence
...
98 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Other Useful Tips
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 99
Dealing with Feedback on Assignments
Receiving feedback is often one of the most difficult aspects of being a student because it involves
elements of vulnerability and judgement
...
This involves
detaching yourself from the project, and, in many instances, doing so at a stage where there may be a feeling
of incompleteness because not enough time has been available to fully finish the project, perhaps leading
to feelings of regret and possibly guilt over not meeting personal and internal standards
...
After a delay of many weeks, the assignment is returned with a grade or mark, which may not meet expectations
...
In managing the process of dealing with feedback, some tips and strategies are
suggested to help you gain the most from the experience
...
• Mistakes are not mistakes, in the conventional sense, but opportunities to learn
...
(Without feedback, how can anyone progress
and improve?)
• Each person enters university from a different cultural background, with different expectations, and with
varying and diverse levels of prior participation in education
...
• The mark or grade is based on one piece of work within the entirety of a person’s life, which does not reflect
or acknowledge the management of all other tasks and commitments achieved
...
If you think your assignment feedback is inadequate or unfair,
contact your course co-ordinator for clarification
...
The act of
procrastinating may arise from any one or a combination of beliefs as follows:
• having excessively high standards
...
• lacking clarity in how to manage the assignment
...
• imagining catastrophes you will encounter while doing the assignment that function to prevent you from
starting
...
To limit the effects of procrastination, several strategies are offered:
• Break your assignment into small, manageable tasks
...
• Set realistic timeframes with flexibility to deal with life crises
...
• Reward yourself after small tasks
...
Remember that great writers always have to start somewhere
...
Rather, the process of writing takes time and involves transitions
and transformations in thinking, understanding, and creating
...
To achieve this, you REALLY do need to
start an assignment as SOON as YOU CAN!
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 101
Perfectionism
This is an equally paralysing activity and has associations with procrastination
...
Pursuing the need to follow a routine perfectly to get a perfect result, such as waiting for the
perfect moment to start writing, may be a further factor driving perfectionist ideals
...
• Value the process, not just the outcome
...
• Put your efforts into those things that will gain the most return - writing
...
Remember, nothing can ever be perfect because it is impossible to produce something that takes into
account every angle / argument / perspective, since everyone brings to an assignment their own situated
perspective
...
102 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Parts of Speech
Nouns
Nouns name something
...
A common
noun names a general class of things
...
The noun a pronoun represents is called its antecedent
...
Verbs
Verbs express actions or a state of being
...
Examples
green, beautiful, fat
Adverbs
Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs
...
Examples
by, from, for
Conjunctions Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses
...
Examples
oh, ouch, alas
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 103
Common Errors in Grammar and Punctuation: A Checklist for Proofreading
Before you hand in any piece of writing, use this list to make any necessary corrections
...
Incomplete sentences
1
...
x
He being the most capable student in the class
...
2
...
x
Even if it has a capital letter and a full stop
...
Correction: Join the whole phrase onto a complete sentence; commas may be needed, depending on which
part of the sentence the phrase is attached to
...
Using a plural verb for a singular subject (or vice versa)
...
Correction: change have to has (one…
...
x
The College of Education are located on the Hokowhitu site in Palmerston North
...
”)
4
...
x
Each university has to keep within their budget
...
Inconsistency
5
...
x
The sun was shining brightly, but the temperature is quite cold
...
6
...
x
Children enjoy painting, drawing, and to make things
...
This mistake is often made
in bulleted lists
...
Running two sentences together (a run-on sentence)
...
Correction: put a semicolon or a full stop after assignment
...
Joining (“splicing”) two complete sentences with only a comma (a comma splice)
x
My first essay was not very good, this one is much better
...
104 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
9
...
x
Some students earn high marks for internal assessment, however they do not always do so well in
exams
...
10
...
x
The academic year used to be only two semesters long but it is increasingly extended to three
...
Inaccurate embedding
11
...
x
However appropriate commas make meaning clearer
...
12
...
x
At the end of the semester, when the lectures are over students have to sit exams
...
Adding unnecessary commas
13
...
x
All the trees that have lost their leaves, will grow new ones in the spring
...
14
...
x
Punctuation matters, because is helps readers to understand a written text
...
15
...
x
The Pohutukawa is a New Zealand tree, that flowers at Christmas time
...
This clause does not present extra information, but is an essential part of the sentence
and therefore should not be separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma
...
Using an unnecessary colon
...
Correction: either omit the colon or make sure there is a complete sentence before it, for example by adding
the words the following after are
...
x
These items were on the breakfast menu; cereal, toast, tea, and coffee
...
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 105
Misplaced or omitted apostrophes
18
...
19
...
x
Its for the person who’s birthday is today
...
20
...
X one boy’s toy truck; two boy’s toy trucks
Correction: to use an apostrophe with a possessive noun or indefinite pronoun (anyone, everyone, each
other, one, others, or someone else), write the name of the possessor (one boy; two boys), add an apostrophe
after it (one boy’; two boys’), and add an /a/ after the apostrophe if you pronounce one (one boy’s; two
boys’)
...
Question marks with indirect questions
...
Spelling errors
22
...
x
there were no objective criterias for showing that the data was inaccurate
...
23
...
x
color, labor, theatre, center, traveller, fulfil, defense, encyclopedia, program
Correction: colour, labour, theatre, centre, traveller, fulfil, defence, encyclopaedia, programme (but computer
program)
...
Confusing words that are similar in sound or meaning
...
Correction: affect is a verb meaning to influence; a principle is a rule or idea
...
If necessary, consult a dictionary to be
sure you can distinguish between the words in each pair: accept/except; affect/effect; principle/principal;
practice/practise; advice/advise; between/among; fewer/less
...
106 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
Tricky Words
Certain word pairs seem to confuse beginner writers and they may choose the wrong word
...
e
...
The wind will affect TV reception
...
g
...
Affected as an adjective
e
...
The affected parts of the plant were pruned
...
g
...
Effect as a verb; use it when you mean one thing caused something else
...
g
...
e
...
He effected a political coup by sending in a private army
...
e
...
The yen has an effect on the Kiwi dollar
...
g
...
Accept / Except
Accept is always a verb meaning “to take or receive”, “to believe or approve”, “to agree to” or “to take on”
...
g
...
e
...
Will you accept this proposal
...
g
...
Except can be a verb, meaning “to leave out” or it can be a preposition meaning “apart from” or “excluding”
...
g
...
e
...
Everyone must pay taxes, except (for) those without any income
...
eg The bank manager
gave me (some) advice about my mortgage
...
g
...
Practice / Practise
Practice is the noun form and practise is the verb form
...
g
...
e
...
You must practise your scales every day; Pianists need such regular practice
...
e
...
to search and (to) find
...
e
...
They travelled to Turkey; Please fax it to me
...
e
...
Cut up the onions, and the garlic too
...
e
...
The soil is too dry for planting
...
e
...
They were involved in an accident; Were you born in Australia?
We’re is the contracted form of “we are” and is used informally
...
g
...
Where relates to place, point or position
...
e
...
Where did you buy that book?
It may also form part of a statement
e
...
Auckland is the place where I grew up; Where they live is a very new part of the town
...
(1989)
...
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, cited in
Van der Krogt, C
...
Academic writing: Study guide
...
)
One way to improve your spelling is to analyse where you seem to be going wrong
...
Understanding some of the different types of errors, and the reasons behind them, will help you
to identify the types of spelling errors you make
...
Words that get confused because they sound like each other
too to two
hear here
feet feat
there their they’re
through threw
know no
weather whether
won one
for four fore
your you’re
paw pour pore
discrete discreet
licence license
practice practise
current currant
principle principal
effect affect
dependent dependant
accept except
who’s whose
Words that have been put together into one
(the correct spellings are on the left in bold)
at least
atleast
such as
suchas
in spite
inspite
in front
a lot
all right
infront
a lot
alright
Words which have been split in two
instead
in stead
together
to gether
without
with out
already
all ready
although
all though
altogether
all together
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 109
Words where pronunciation gets in the way
favourite
perhaps
miniature
ancillary
would have
sentence
involve
imaginary
attract
comparison
input
favrit
prehaps
minature
ancilliary
would of
sentance
envolve
imaginry
attrac
conparison
imput
Words in which the endings are misspelled
appearance
available
attendant
responsible
formidable
definitely
applies
existence
independence
dispensable
absolutely
appearence
availiable
attendent
responsable
formidible
definately
applys
existance
independance
dispensible
absolutly
Words with doubled-up letters
beginning
committee
getting
written
too
innate
accommodated
aggression
begining
commitee / comittee
geting
writen
to
inate
accomodated
agression
Words without doubled-up letters
fulfil
fulfilment
commitment
always
fulfill
fullfillment
committment
allways
Problems with ‘e’ and ‘ing’
coming
taking
using
comeing
takeing
useing
110 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
More problems with ‘e’
department
departement
considering
considereing
excitement
excitment
precisely
precisley
immediately
immediatley
truly
truely
address
addresse
statement
statment
lovely
lovley
Words with a missing sound
created
literature
interesting
crated
litrature
intresting
Words with letters swapped round
friend
their
strength
height
freind
thier
strentgh
hieght
Vowel sounds
retrieve
speech
retreave
speach
Problems with ‘s’ and ‘c’
necessary
dissociate
occasion
conscious
nescessary
disociate
ocassion
concious / consious
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 111
Differences between British and American Spelling
(Adapted from Marriot, S
...
(1992)
...
Edinburgh: Chambers, cited in
Van der Krogt, C
...
Academic writing: Study guide
...
)
Always write your assignment using British spelling, unless you know that your marker accepts American
spelling
...
Most words ending in –our in British English are spelt –or in American English
...
Words ending in –re in British English are usually written –er in American English
...
With verbs which may end in –se or –ize, British spelling often uses –ise, and American always uses –ize
...
Most words spelt –ogue in British English are spelt –og in American English
...
In British English some words double their consonants before -er or -ed and -ing (e
...
those ending in l or p)
...
British
equalling
kidnapping
traveller
American
equaling
kidnaping
traveler
6
...
British
encyclopaedia
gynaecologist anaesthesia
American
encyclopedia
gynecologist
nesthesia
7
...
British
American
programme
program
bank cheque
bank check
defence
defense
pretence
pretense
speciality
specialty
112 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing
References
Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing | 113
References
Bloom, B
...
, Engelhart, M
...
, Furst, E
...
, Hill, W
...
, & Krathwohl, D
...
(Eds
...
Taxonomy of educational
objectives
...
New York: David
McKay
...
(1995)
...
Wellington, New Zealand: Victoria
University of Wellington
...
V
...
L
...
Business reports: Written and oral
...
Van der Krogt, C
...
Academic writing: Study guide
...
114 | Academic Writing: A Guide to Tertiary Level Writing