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Anatomy and Physiology I - Part 1 of course 2021
Module 1
...
—- Do textbook reading

Anatomy - investigates body structure

Physio - processes/functions of living things (your body)

11 total organ systems


-cell physio (smallest structure of functional living thing - understand cell can understand whole body)


-neurophysiology - focus on nervous system


-cardiovascular - heart and blood vessels

Anatomy:


-gross/macroscopic - see w/o microscope



- Regional - studied area by area



- Systemic - studied system by system [this course]



-Surface - external form and relation to deeper structures


-Microscopic - see w/microscope



- cytology - cellular anatomy



-histology - study of tissues

In Anatomy and physio


-pathology - structural and functional changes caused by disease process


-Exercise Physio - body changes when exercised regularly

Chemical level - interaction of atoms (electrons/protons/neutrons) — will build the cells


**atoms -> molecules -> cell

Cell level; structural and functional unit of living organisms

Tissue Level - group of similar cells and materials surrounding them

Organ level: one or more tissues functioning together (similar tissue)

Organ system level: group of organs functioning together

Organism level: any living thing


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Characteristics of life:

Organization : condition in which there are speci c relationships and functions

Metabolism: all chemical reactions of the body

Responsiveness/irritability: ability to sense changes and adjust

Growth: increase in size and or number of cells

Development: change in organism over time


-Di erentiation: change from general to speci c


-Morphogenesis: change in shape of tissues, organs

Reproduction : new cells or new organisms


Lecture 2 — do textbook reading

*Homeostasis , dynamic constancy - existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body


- it uctuates


- ideal area/set point - normal range for an individual —> BODY always wants to bring
us back to our set point !!



- WHAT IS set point for body temp? - normally 98
...
biceps, pectorals major



-Fns: (skeletal muscles attach to skeleton) produces body movements , produces body heat (muscle contraction gives o heat, helps to maintain body temp)


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-Nervous - brain, spinal cord, nerves - MAJOR regulatory system - manage other 10
organ systems [function!!]—use nerve impulse for regulation (quicker since electrical messages)


-Endocrine - Pituitary gland, thyroid gland (for metabolism) , adrenal gland (adrenaline),
pancreas (handle sugar like insulin); major regulator — use hormones for regulation (travel thru
cardiovascular system; take longer)


—For ch
...

Moving in other direction from Neg
...
Of normal pos feedback = childbirth - newborn start stretching uterus which is
muscle so receptors stimulated and send msg that need to contract and baby starts to
move out of birth canal - we don’t want contractions to stop until baby expelled so

- Ex of harmful pos feedback= after hemorrhage - BP drops and hearts ability to pump
blood decreases (clotting items/cells stick to wall of blood vessel so pos feedback says
to keep going = stop hemmorhage )

Negative
- stop what doing or slow down— DOMINANT Feedback system, most closely associated with healthy body
...
e
...
e
...
e
...
e
...
—- Do reading

Anatomical position


-body erect, face fwd , feet together/toes fwd, palms face fwd; consider Right and Left
for patient

Other body positions:


-Supine - face up


-Prone - face down

Directional terms:


-Superior (cephalic) vs Inferior (caudal) toward or away from the head


ex
...
Upper extremity is lateral to the trunk; navel is medial to the upper extremity]


-Proximal vs Distal - used to describe linear structures - used primarily for limbs
...
Elbow is proximal to the wrist; knee
is distal to hip]


-Super cial vs deep - relative to surface of the body [ex
...


Table 1
...
Left elbow is ipsilateral to my left wrist]

Contralateral -opp side of body from another [ex
...
The eye is intermediate to the nose
and ear; a scar is intermediate to the hip bone and the navel]

NEED TO KNOW LAST Slides 16:40 on

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Forehead (frontal)

Eye (orbital)

Nose (nasal)

Mouth (oral)

Front of Neck (cervical region)

Ear (otic)

Cheek (buccal)

Chest (pectoral region)

Breastbone (sternal region)

Breast (mammary region)

Abdominal

Navel (umbilical)

Pelvis (pelvic)

Groin (inguinal)

Pubic (genital)

Collar bone (Clavicle (clavicular region))

Under arm (axillary region)

Arm (upper limb)

Brachial region (shoulder to elbow/arm)

Front of elbow (antecubital)

Elbow to wrist (forearm - antebracchial)

Wrist (carpal)


Ankle (tarsals

Front of Hand (palmar)

Fingers (digits)

Hip (coxial region )

Thigh bone (femoral region)

Front of knee (patellar )

Whole Leg (crural)

Ankle (Talis)

Top of foot (dorsum)

Toes (digits)

Back of head (occipital)

Back of neck (nuccal)

Shoulder blades (scapular)

Tip of shoulder (acromial)

Center of back (vertebral region)

Midback (dorsum)

Below dorsum (lumbar region)

Between hips (Sacrum)

Buttock region (gluteal)

Perineum (perineal - inferior to genital region)

Back of Elbow -clarecanon

Back of hand (dorsum)

Back of knee (popiteal)

Leg [knee to ankle]/calf (sural)

Underneath foot (Plantar )

Heel (calcaneal)


Lecture 5 —- do reading

Abdominal subdivisions

-4 quadrants (left upper and left lower, right upper and right lower)


- SEE 2:22 slide



-9 abdominal regions: epigastric region, umbilical region, hypogastric region,
Left hypochondriac region, left lumbar region, left iliac/inguinal region, right hypochondriac region, right lumbar region, right iliac/inguinal region

Planes


-Median - thru midline (is equal to left and right)


-sagittal - same plane but to left or right of the median (but not equal like median is)



-Frontal/coronal - divides body into anterior and posterior sections




-Transverse/horizontal - divides body into superior and inferior




-Oblique - other than at a right angle







*planes thru an organ:


- - cut along length of organ


-Transverse/cross - cut at right angle to length of organ


-Oblique -cut at any but a right angle


Cavities - enclose viscera or organs - bc need protection


Dorsal cavity has:



-cranial cavity (for brain)



-vertebral canal/vertebral cavity (for spinal cord)


Ventral cavity has:



-Thoracic cavity (for heart, lungs)




-right and left Pleural cavity - lungs live here




-pericardial cavity - surrounds heart /heart lives here



-Diaphragm [muscle that clearly separates thoracic from abdominal cavity]



-Abdominopelvic cavity: bc no clear line separating the 2 cavities




-Abdonimal cavity




-Pelvic Cavity


Mediastinum - in anterior aspect contains all structures of the thoracic cavity except the
lungs [between lungs]


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Serous Membranes - cover organs of trunk cavities and line the cavity


-help lubricate the cavity - imp for cavity to allow for expansion and relaxation


—inner balloon wall represents visceral (membrane that makes contact w/organ)serous
membrane ( st in balloon), outer balloon wall represents parietal (membrane that does NOT
make contact w/organ/makes up outer wall) serous membrane


-in ammation of the serous membrane (ex
...
Visceral pericardium, parietal pericardium)



-Pleura - to lungs and thoracic cavity (ex
...
Visceral peritoneum and parietal
peritoneum)


Module 2
Lecture 1 – chem vocab

Subatomic particles/atoms come together to make CELL – smallest functional & structural unit
of organs

DNA (carry genes):double helix, Sugar phosphate backbone, AT & CG

Matter – occupies space and has mass

Mass – amt of matter in object

Weight – gravitational force acting on an object of a given mass

Element – simplest type of matter w/unique chemical properties; composed of atoms of only
one kind

Atom – smallest particle of an elements that has chemical characteristics of that element


-composed of subatomic particles :



-neutrons – no charge



-protons – a positive charge



-electrons – negative charge


**nucleus – formed by protons and neutrons


**most of volume of an atom occupied by electrons

Molecules – 2 or more atoms chemically combine to form independent unit


-Ex
...
H2O

Molecular mass – determined by adding up atomic masses of its atoms or ions


-ex
...
99 + 35
...
3 types of Hydroge: 1H, 2H (deuterium), 3H (tritium))


-Atomic mass - avg mass of naturally occurring isotopes (since isotopes have di erent
masses from each other)

Radioactive isotopes – forms of atoms that emit radioactivity such as gamma rays, which can
then be measured; used clinically and in research


-uses:



-tracking hormone uptake



-treating cancer



-sterilization of materials to be used in surgery


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Lecture 2 – Chemical and bonding basics

Mole and molar mass

-avogadro’s number: 6
...
Has full valence shell/8 electrons/fully occupied outermost energy level ;
noble gases: Neon; helium w
...
Hydrogen w/ 1 only ; oxygen (need 2), sodium (need 4), carbon

Homeostasis – humans striving to achieve stability but uctuates

Lecture 3 – ionic and covalent bonding

-ions are formed by transfer of valence shell electrons between atoms and create,


-anions (- charge) have gained one or more electrons


-cations (+ charge) have lost one or more electrons

*attraction of opposite charges results in an ionic bond ex
...
Share 1 electron





-Ex
...
O2 [2 oxygen atoms share 2 electron pairs]




-nonpolar covalent – electrons shared equally bc nuclei attract the electrons equally





-CO2 , CH4




-polar covalent – electrons not shared equally bc 1 nucleus attracts the
electrons more than the other does





-ex
...
H2O in glass of water (polar ends – oxygen of one molecule attracted to hydrogen of another molecule) --- water can easily change its state

Lecture 4 – chemical reactions

Common human body elements: Hydrogen, carbon (18
...
Sugar or salt dissolves in water

-Dissociation/separation – in ionic cmpds, cations are attracted to negative end and anions attracted to positive end of water molecules; the ions separate and each becomes surrounded
by water molecules

-Electrolyte – dissociation of an ionic cmpd in water resulting in the Conduction of Electricity
[mvmnt of electrons]


Solutions made by the dissociation of cations and anions in water



-electric currents can be detected by electrodes

-nonelectrolytes – solutions made by molecules that dissolve in water, but do NOT dissociate/
not moving electrons around/just break up intermolecular; do NOT conduct electricity

Atoms, ions, molecules or cmpds interact to form or break chemical bonds


-Reactants – substances that enter into a chemical rxn


-products – substances that result from the reaction

Chemical bonds are made (synthesis/anabolism) and broken (decomposition/catabolism) during chemical rxns

Metabolism – collective term used for SUM of ALL of the anabolic and catabolic rxns in the
body

*****homeostasis – body remain relatively constant envt

Synthesis rxns/anabolism


-2 or more reactants chemically combine to form new and larger product



-chemical bonds made; energy STORED in the bonds



-Responsible for growth, maintenance, and repair



-Dehydration: synthetic rxn where water is a product




-ex
...
Breakdown of ATP to form ADP and inorganic phosphate w/ a concomitant release of free energy





Ex
...
CO2 and H+ formation in plasma

Oxidation-Reduction rxns:


-oxidation: loss of electron by substance [become more pos]


-reduction: gain an electron by a substance [become more neg]

--the complete or partial loss of an electron by one substance is accompanied by the gain of
that electron by another

**reversible


-synthetic/decomposition rxns can be oxidation-reduction rxns


-rxns can be described in more than 1 way

Lecture 5 - Energy

Energy – capacity to do work


-Potential energy – energy Stored in chemical bonds; energy that could do work if it
were released
...
ATP -> ADP + energy


-Kinetic Energy – does work and moves matter

-Mechanical energy – energy resulting from the position or movement of objects
{physical}

-Heat energy – energy that ows between objects of di erent temps [heat is byproduct of
chemical rxns); when a chemical bond is broken and energy is RELEASED , only some of that
energy is used to manufacture ATP


Ex
...
Those that are biologically active
= biochemicals

-water [inorganic]


-cohesion [water molecules stick together] and adhesion [water adhere to something]
properties


-50-60% of body, 92% of blood


-high speci c heat – need large amt of heat to raise temp of water



-stabilizes body temp


-protection



-lubricant, cushion {i
...
joints, water around organs}


-participates in chemical rxns



-many rxns take place IN water



-dehydration and hydrolysis


-serves as mixing medium



-mixture – substances that physically BUT NOT chemically combined




-suspension – materials separate unless stirred
...
Sand and water




-Colloid –[refers to a protein usually] dispersal of tiny particles through a
medium eg
...
water




-Solute - dissolves in the solvent eg
...
HCl)-14 (basic/alkaline – greater hydroxide ion
concentration ex
...
35-7
...
4

-Salt – cmpd consisting of cation other than a hydrogen ion and an anion other than a hydroxide ion
...
NaCl

-Bu er – soln of a conjugate acid-base pair in which acid and base components occur in similar concentrations ----- move back towards neutral


-Regulates pH


-important biological bu ers:



-Bicarbonate/HCO3- (exception to rule for inorganic chem; take in base to interact w/acid)



-Phosphates



-Protein



-Respiratory and renal/urinary mechanisms/systems




--CO2 is acidic , byproduct of all internal chemical rxns


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-oxygen (O2) – required in nal step in series of rxns used to extract energy/ATP from food
...
gummy bears - quick energy/break down quickly]


-simple sugars


-6 carbon sugars like glucose, fructose, and galactose are important in the diet as energy sources


-5 carbon sugars are components of ATP, DNA, and RNA

*Disaccharide


-2 simple sugars bound together by dehydration


-exs
...
pasta - energy take longer time to breakdown but be available for energy
for longer]


-long chains of many monosaccharides


-storage molecules for monosaccharides and form part of cell surface markers


-Glycogen formed by animals [stored form of glucose]


-starch and cellulose formed by plants



-starch in food is used as a source of monosaccharides



-cellulose in food acts as ber (bulk) in the diet


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-Lipids/fats – composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen


-insoluble in water


-Fns: protection, insulation, physiological regulation, component of cell membranes,
energy source
[fats have a lot of calories, calories r a unit of heat energy)

*ingested and broken down by hydrolysis

*Triglycerides – composed of glycerol and fatty acids


-fns: protection, insulation, energy source

*Fatty acids be saturated or unsaturated


-saturated – contains ALL single bonds in the carbon chain, which produces a more
rigid structure/very stable=harder for body to break down
...
palmitic acid, butter


-unsaturated- contains one (mono) or more (poly) double bonds in the carbon chain,
which produces a more relaxed structure ex
...
Are the highest
CV risk fat = harder for body to break down/last longer

*phospholipids – polar (hydrophilic) – phosphate containing region at one end [head], nonpolar
(hydrophobic) – fatty acids at the other [tail]



-Fn: important structure component of cell membranes

**Eicosanoids and fat-soluble vitamins



-eicosanoids – drived from faty acids




-Fn: important regulatory molecules




-include thromboxanes, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins {regulate inammatory process}



-fat soluble vitamins – nonpolar molecules essential for normal functioning




-ex
...
ATP, DNA, RNA

Lecture 8 – Proteins and Enzymes

-Proteins --- so dependent on structure


-Amino Acids – building blocks of protein


-peptide bonds – Covalent bonds formed between a
...
during protein synthesis (hook
up at C-N)

--4 unique forms of a
...
:


-primary: linear (1 a
...
to another etc)


-secondary: folded/ pleated sheet [bc charges work on the structure] ! helix (i
...
DNA)


-tertiary: 3-Dimensional


-quarternary: globular [have de nite shape, large protein] – i
...
hemoglobin – if not
made just right cant carry oxygen it needs

*Enzymes(are catalysts) – are proteins, lower activation energy necessary for a rxn to occur,
bring reactants into close proximity


-3-D shape contains an active site where reactants attach


-induced t hypothesis – enzymes change shape to accommodate the shape of speci c
reactants


-names usually end in -ase and often have the same word stem as the reactant



Ex
...
e
...
vitamins [don’t need a lot]


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-nucleic acids – DNA and RNA


-building blocks: nucleotides



-composed of a 5-carbon sugar, nitrogenous base, and a phosphate



-include nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) and ATP -found in nucleus




Complementary base pairs

-pyrimidines [cytosine, thymine, uracil] and purines[guanine, adenine]

**AT, CG, AU (RNA)


**DNA – genetic material of cells copied from 1 generation to the next



-each nucleotide contains 1 of the organic bases of adenine or guanine and
thymine or cytosine


** RNA – similar to single strand of DNA



-4 di erent nucleotides make up organic bases except thymine is replaced w/
uracil



-responsible for interpreting code within DNA into the primary structure of proteins (take out of nucleus to cytoplasm)


ATP (adenosine triphosphate)


-energy currency of the body


-provides energy for other chemical rxns as anabolism or drive cell processes as muscle contraction


-all energy requiring chemical rxns stop when there is inadequate ATP

Module 3 —The cell [ch
...
1 - functions of cell

-cell metabolism and energy use

-synthesis of molecules

-communication
...
Each cell contains DNA

Lecture 2- plasma membrane

3
...
4 - membrane lipids

-phospholipids and cholesterol predominate

-phospholipids: bilayer, polar heads facing water in interior and exterior of cell (hydrophilic);
non polar tails facing each other on interior of the membrane [hydrophobic]

-cholesterol -interspersed among phospholipids
...
5 - membrane proteins
DNA —> a
...
—> proteins

-integral or intrinsic - w/in the membrane


-extend deeply into membrane, often extending from 1 surface to the other


-can form channels thru membrane


ex) -marker molecules/proteins: glycoproteins and glycolipids



-allow cells to identify one another or other molecules




-imp for immunity


ex) transport proteins



-hydrophilic region faces inward




-charge determines molecules that can pass through


ex) channel proteins



-nongated ion channels; always OPEN




-responsible for permeability of the plasma membrane to ions when
plasma membrane is at rest



-gated ion channels can be Opened or Closed by certain stimuli




-Ligand gated ion channel: open in response to small molecules that
bind to proteins or glycoproteins [ligand anything that causes gate to open or close]




-voltage gated ion channel: open when there is a change in charge
across plasma membrane


ex) carrier proteins/transporters



—-fat can’t move thru membranes, around body very well so attach to protein
so proteins a carrier for fat



-move ions from one side to membrane of other



-have speci c binding sites



-protein changes shape to transport ions or molecules



-resumes original shape after transport

-peripheral or extrinsic


-attached to integral proteins at either inner or outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer

-functioning depends on 3-D shape and chemical characteristics

Lecture 3 - membrane transport

ATP-powered transport


-requires ATP
...
2**

3
...
- di use thru phospholipid bilayer (lipid) or
go thru protein channel- if can’t di use ie non-lipid]


-movement of solutes from area of higher concentration to lower concentration in solution


-concentration or density gradient: di erence between two points


-viscosity: increases w/concentration [thickness of a uid]

-Osmosis

-Mediated transport


-facilitated di usion


-active transport


-secondary active transport


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Lecture 4 - Osmosis [water chases solutes]


Osmosis - di usion of water(solvent) across selectively permeable membrane
...
w/urinary system]

-important bc larger volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function

-cell shrinkage or swelling :


-Isotonic - cell neither shrinks nor swells


-hypertonic - cell shrinks (crenation)
...
[solute concentration lower in beaker than in cell so water goes into cell]

Lecture 5 - Mediated Transport

Mediated transport - involve carrier proteins or channels in cell membrane


-characteristics



-speci city: for single type of molecule



-competition: among molecules of similar shape



-saturations: rate of transport limited to number of available carrier proteins




1
...
When more molecules present outside of cell, as long as enough carrier proteins available, more molecules can be transported




3
...
Passive [dont use energy/ATP], need
carrier & have di usion gradient



-move large, water soluble molecules or electrically charged molecules across
plasma membrane


*Active Transport: Active [requires energy/ATP]



-Requires ATP - use of energy allows cell to accumulate substances/hold them
against the gradient



-Rate of transport depends o concentration of substrate and on available receptors or channels



-Ex) Na+/K+ exchange pump [enzyme- an integral protein] creates electrical potentials across membranes [very important w/muscular and nervous systems] {acumulate K+
on inside and Na+ on outside}


*Secondary active transport: ions or molecules move in same (symport, cotransport)
...
7 - Endocytosis

Endocytosis-Internalization of substances by formation of a vesicle


-Types:



-Phagocytosis — cell eating [changes characteristics of plasma membrane to
accommodate particle —> create vesicle of it inside] -active process



-Pinocytosis — cell drinking ( uid or small particles)



-Receptor mediated endocytosis — need speci c receptor to respond to what
wants to come into cell [ex
...
Dissolved molecules (ions in water) and colloid (proteins in water)


-cytoskeleton:



-microtubules - hollow, made of tubulin




-support, transport, cell division [mitosis]



-micro laments - actin




-structure, support for microvilli, contractility, movement



-intermediate laments




-mechanical strength


-cytoplasmic inclusions: aggregates of chemicals such as lipid droplets, melanin

3
...
[hangs out around nucleus]


-Types:



-Rough - has attached ribosomes; proteins produced, modi ed



-Smooth - no attached ribosomes; lipid synthesis


-cisternae - interior spaces isolated from rest of cytoplasm

-Golgi apparatus -modi cation, packaging, distribution of proteins and lipids for secretion or
internal use


- attened membrane sacs stacked on each other


-have cisternae too


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-Lysosomes - break down what packaged/vesicles in cell, carry digestive enzymes, also work
on foreign material like bacteria


-Peroxisomes and Proteasomes


-Peroxisome - smaller than lysosomes, go after H2O2 [natural byproduct of cellular metabolism — at high concentration can be toxic], contain enzymes to break down fatty acids and
amino acids


-Proteasomes - large protein complexes, include several enzymes that break down and
recycle proteins in cell

-Mitochondria - generates energy/creates ATP [make ATP aerobically here]-cristae -infoldings
of inner membrane—chemical rxns occur here so create ATP w/oxygen , matrix- substance
located in space formed by inner membrane
...
Ex) have a lot of
mitochondria in cardiac muscle bc very active; bone tissue has less mitochondria bc once
reach maturity bc bones just maintain themselves


-mitochondria contain DNA that codes for some of the proteins needed for mitochondria production

Lecture 8 - Special Cellular Adaptations

-Centrioles and spindle bers


-located in centrosome - specialized zone near nucleus


-center of microtubule formation


-before cell division, centrioles divide, and organize spindle bers

-Cilia [in upper respiratory tract promotes movement of mucous - power stroke & recovery
stroke] — move within cell/dont move actual cell


-appendages projecting from cell surfaces


-capable of movement


-moves materials over the cell surface

-Flagella — actually move cell; microtubules in it ex) sperm cell produced by male


-similar to cilia but longer


-usually only one per cell


-move cell itself in wave-like fashion

-Microvilli


-extension of plasma membrane


-increases the cell surface area —give cell more time to take up/absorb nutrients etc


-normally many on each cell


- one tenth to one twentieth size of cilia


-Do NOT move/stationary [microtubules inside]

Lecture 9 - gene expression and cellular reproduction

Genes and gene expression

Nucleus:

-membrane-bound

-nucleoplasm, nucleolus, and nuclear envelope

-much of DNA in a cell located here

-Cell division/mitosis


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-Transcription [in nucleus]— look @ DNA, open up/unravel DNA, RNA come in and look at it
and match up to DNA base pairs


-strands of DNA separated


-RNA polymerase binds at promoter region, AUG [START Codon]



-RNA polymerase catalyses formation of an mRNA chain using DNA as a template and
following the rules of complementary base pairing: A-U, C-G


-Transcription ends at a terminator sequence [STOP codons] : UAA, UAG, UGA

-Translation [outside of nucleus]


-process that occurs on ribosomes


-Turns mRNA into a polypeptide


-Involves rRNA (ribosomes), tRNA (cytoplasm) , and mRNA (from nucleus)


-tRNA anticodons match w/mRNA codons, and the rRNA catalyzes formation of a peptide bond between the a
...
at the opposite end of the tRNA

-Regulation of gene expression:


-all nucleated cells except germ cells [sperm in males, eggs in females] have the full
complement of DNA


-During development, di erentiation occurs and some segments of DNA are turned o
in some cells while those segments remain “on” in other cells


-During lifetime of a cell, the rate of protein synthesis varies depending upon chemical
signals that reach the cell

-Cell Division
...
- all w/di erent characteristics, all made of di
...
—- need to be able to replace cells (epithelial most readily does that)

-lining of heart and blood vessels

-linings of many body cavities

-Epithelial : has free, basal (where cells growing o from/base/basement membrane) and lateral
surfaces


-basement membrane



-extracellular: formed by secretions of both epithelium and connective tissue
...
T
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
May include goblet cells that produce and secrete mucous



-columnar - taller than wide; resembles a column/rectangular




-secretion or absorption
...



-microvilli: increase surface area for absorption or secretion



-stereocilia: elongated microvilli for sensation and absorption


-Cilia: move materials across the surface


-Folds: in transitional epithelium where organ must be able to change shape
...
e
...
[nuclei near basement membrane]


-location: glands and some ducts, bronchioles of lungs, auditory tubes, uterus, uterine
tubes, stomach, intestines, gallbladder, bile ducts and ventricles of the brain


-structure: single layer of tall, narrow cells
...
In moist, surface cells retain a nucleus and cytoplasm
...
Cells ciliated in larynx


-function: protection and secretion

Pseudostrati ed columnar epithelium
...
Appears strati ed bc nuclei are at various levels [all just one layer]
...
- in stressed areas; have chords



-disk-shaped regions of cell membrane; often found in areas that are subjected to stress




-contain esp adhesive glycoproteins




-intermediate protein laments extend into cytoplasm of cells




-striated squamous epithelium of the skin



* -hemidesmosomes - connect epithelial cell to basement membrane





-half of a desmosome; attach epithelial cells to basement membrane



-tight junctions - prevents passage between cells




-hold cells together, form permeability barrier




-b/t adjacent cells, weak glue, hold cells together; simple epithelium




-permeability barrier e
...
stomach and urinary bladder , chemicals cannot pass b/t cells



-gap junctions - contains passages/protein channels for communication




-proteins channels aid intercellular communications




-allow ions and small molecules to pass through




-coordinate function of cardiac and smooth muscle




-may help coordinate movement of cilia in ciliated types of epithelium

**callous - as working , you stress the skin to pt where tearing of bers of hemidesmosome
- uid enter area=blistery ; wear down and break connection **

Glands


-epithelium w/supporting network of connective tissue


-2 types of glands formed by infolding of epithelium:



-endocrine : no open contact w/exterior; no ducts; produce hormones [secrete
right into blood stream]
...
Pancreas and insulin]



-exocrine: open contact maintained w/exterior; have ducts (ex
...
goblet cells






-multicellular:







-classi ed on basis of types of ducts or mode of
secretion:








-types of ducts:









-simple - ducts w/few branches









-compound: ducts w/many branches

*if ducts end in tubules or sac-like structures: acini
...
Pancreas

*if ducts end in simple sacs: alveoli
...
Lungs

Method of secretion types:

-merocrine glands: make w/in cell, deposit item in duct , release it -watery, very thin secretion
ex
...
sweat glands, mammary glands [secrete milk]

-holocrine glands : secrete what cell makes and secret part or all of cell in that secretion
...
[highest viscosity] ex
...
ex
...
ex
...
ex
...
ex
...
Move via Blood [blood is a liquid connective tissue]


-protect
...
Osteoblast [bone forming cell]



-cytes: maintain the matrix (mature), ex
...
Osteoclasts [break down
bone]


-adipose or fat cells (adipocytes): common in some tissues (dermis of skin); rare in
some (cartilage)


-Mast cells: common beneath membranes; along small blood vessels
...
Fine collagenous , form branching networks [build up strength in complex way]


-elastic : returns to its original shape after dissension or compression
...
Collagenous bers are loosely arranged



-Dense
...
Super cial fascia = subcutaneous layer =
hypodermic

Connective tissues (Proper) w/special properties:

*Adipose
...
White at birth and yellows
with age



-carotenes come from plants and can be metabolized into Vitamin A


-Brown: found only in speci c areas of body: axillae, neck and near kidneys

*Reticular tissue - forms superstructure of lymphatic and hemopoietic tissues


-network of ne reticular bers

*Dense Regular (lined up) Collagenous connective tissue - has abundant collagen bers that
resist stretching
...
Collagen often less compact, usually attened,
form sheets or bands

*Dense Regular Elastic Connective Tissue - elastic allow tissue to stretch ex
...
Aorta/arteries - push blood out of heart


-bundles and sheets of collagenous and elastic bers in multiple directions


-strong, yet elastic


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Lecture 7 - Supporting and Fluid Connective Tissue

-supporting connective tissue: cartilage


-composed of chondrocytes located in matrix-surrounded spaces caked lacunae


-type of cartilage determined by components of matrix


- rm consistency


-ground substance: proteoglycans and hyaluronic acid complexed together trap large
amts of water
...
Heals slowly


-types of cartilage:



-hyaline




-chondrocytes live in circular spaces=lacunae




-structure: large amts of collagen bers evenly distributed in proteoglycan matrix
...





-found in areas for strong support and some exibility: rib cage, trachea,
and bronchi, and ends of all long bones




-in embryo, it forms most of the skeleton




-involved in growth that increases bone length



- brocartilage




-structure: thick collagen bers distributed in proteoglycan matrix, slightly compressible and very tough


-Supporting connective tissue : Bone


-hard connective tissue composed of living cells (osteocytes) and mineralized matrix


-matrix: gives strength and rigidity ; allows bone to support and protect other tissues
and organs



-organic: collagen bers



-inorganic: hydroxyapatite (Ca plus PO4)


-osteocytes located in lacunae


-Types:



-spongy bone/cancellous bone




- Trabeculae of bone w/spaces between (space instrumental for vascularization & storage)
...
Found inside bones
...
Found on periphery of bones
...
[no
bers]



-moves thru vessels, but both uid and cells can move in/out of vessels


-formed elements: RBCs, WBCs, and platelets


-Hemopoeitic tissue



-form blood cells



-2 types of bone marrow:




-yellow




-red

Lecture 8 - Muscle and Nerve Tissue, Membranes

4
...
Started and voluntary
...
Striated and Involuntary
...
Nonstriated
and involuntary
...
Muscle in stomach


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-nervous tissue: neurons


-neurons or nerve cells have ability to produce Action Potentials [beginning of nerve impulse]


-Parts of neuron:



-cell body: contains nucleus


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-locations: found in areas of body where great deal of pressure is applied
to joints
...
knee, jaw, b/t vertebrae



-elastic




-structure: elastic and collagen bers embedded in proteoglycans
...
[membrane b/c have epidermis-made of epithelial
tissues & grow o basement membrane and dermis-in connective tissue]



-mucous -line cavities that opens to the outside of the body i
...
oral, nasal ,
anal , vaginal; secretes mucus, contains epithelium w/goblet cells, basement membrane, lamina proprietary CT (sometimes w/smooth muscle), found in respiratory/digestive/urinary/repro
systems



-serous - simple squamous epithelium called mesothelium, basement membrane, thin layer of loose CT; line cavities not open to exterior: pericardial, pleural, peritoneal



-synovial CT —all moveable joints have synovial uid; line freely movable joints ;
produce uid rich in hyaluronic acid




Module 5

Lecture 1 - intro to integumentary system

Integumentary system:

Some of it: -skin




-epidermis




-dermis


-subcutaneous region

structures:


-skin


-hair


-nails


-glands

functions:


-protection


-sensation


-temp regulation (sweat glands)


-vit D production


-Excretion [this is an excretory organ]


-immunity


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Skin/cutis


-epidermis: super cial layer of epithelial tissue


-Dermis: deep layer of connective tissue



-structural strength


-subcutaenous tissue



-NOT part of skin




-loose connective tissue that connects skin to underlying structures


Lecture 2 - the epidermis


-avascular; nourished by di usion from capillaries of the papillary layer of the dermis


-composed of cells arranged into layers or strata


-separated from dermis by basement membrane [avascular glue]


-cell types



-keratinocytes: most cells
...
Melanin produced by these cells then
transferred to keratinoyctes
...
— single layer


-deepest portion of epidermis and single layer
...
Desmosomes
...
—- 2-5 layers


-contains keratohyalin
...
Found only in palms and soles [thickest layers of epidermis]



-stratum corneum — many layers


-most super cial and consists of corni ed dead cells

Thick and thin skin

-thick skin


-has all 5 epithelial strata


-found in areas subject to pressure or friction



-only palms of hands, ngertips, soles of feet



- ngerprints and footprints
...

Papillae of underlying dermis in parallel rows

-thin skin


-more exible than thick skin


-covers rest of body


-hair grows here

-callus - increase in # of layers in stratum corneum
...



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Lecture 3 - skin color

-skin color


-determined by 3 factors:



-pigments
...
Connective tissue w/many bers, broblasts, macrophages
...
[here bc epidermis has epithelial tissue and always slothing o , whereas here there is
a matrix and strength]


-sensory functions: pain, itch, tickle, temp, touch, pressure, two-point discrimination

-2 layers of dermis:

*2 layers variable in thickness*


-papillary: super cially (outer) 1/5 Areolar (loose) Connective Tissue w/lots of elastic
bers
...
Fingerprints
...
Touch receptors (Meissner’s), free nerve endings sensing pain


-reticular: deeper (inner) 4/5
...
Collagen and elastic
bers
...
Individual, they re ect arrangement of papillae
...
— collagen expanded further than could


ex
...
a
...
Colored brown to black
may be yellowish or reddish




-melanocytes: processes extend b/t keratinocytes; produce melanin





-Albinism: de ciency or absence of pigment Production determined by genetics, hormones, exposure to light [pigment absent in hair, eyes, skin]




-carotene: yellow pigment
...
Accumulates in stratum
corneum, in adipose cells of dermis, and in subcutaneous tissue [yellow]



-blood circulating thru the skin [red]




-imparts reddish hue and increases during in ammation





-cyanosis: blueish color caused by decrease in blood oxygen
content



-thickness of stratum corneum [more yellowish color due to thickness of cells]




-thicker areas can be yellowish




-Amt of melanin produced can result in skin color from pale yellow to black

-# of melanocytes (1000-2000/mm2) does NOT vary among races but genetic di erences in
melanin production by those melanocytes result in di erent skin colors


Lecture 5 - subcutaneous tissue, accessory structures, hair

-subcutaenous tisses/hypodermis/super cial fascia


-deep to skin


-consists of loose(areolar) connective tissue w/collagen, elastic bers

-types of cells:



- broblasts



-adipose cells



-macrophages


-contains about 1/2 of body’s adipose tissue
...
— produces the hair



-cortex: forms bulk of hair



-cuticle: forms hair surface


-hair follicle is a down growth of the epidermis


-hair structure:



-hair follicle




-dermal root sheath: part of dermis that surround the epithelial root
sheath




-epithelial root sheath w/internal and external parts





-internal part contains stratum basale that may remain after injury
and supply a source of new epide

-growth:



-grows continuously unlike hair



- ngernails grow 0
...
2 mm/day faster than toenails


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Lecture 7 - Systemic physiology

Physiology of integumentary system:

-protection


-against abrasion, sloughing o of bacteria as desquamation occurs


-against microorganisms and other foreign substances
...
Hair in
nose and ears against dust , bugs


-nails protect end of digits, self defense


-acts as barrier to di usion of water (keratin)

-sensation: pressure, temp, pain, heat, cold, touch, movement of hairs

-temp regulation: sweating and radiations


-sweat causes evaporative cooling


-arterioles in dermis change diameter as temp changes
...




**body heat is LOST due to:




1
...
Conduction, heat moves from warm area into a cooler object




3
...
Evaporation, involves water molecules changing from a liquid to a gas
and moving away from the warmer area

-Vit D production


-begins in skin; aids in Ca2+ absorption — if can’t use calcium mean have weak bones


-vitamin D (calcitriol) : hormone



-stimulates uptake of Ca2+ and PO42- from intestines



-promotes Ca2+ and PO42- release from bones



-reduces Ca2+ loss from kidneys



-increases blood Ca2+ levels


-7-dehydrocholesterol converts to choleciferol when exposed to UV radiation
...
[proteins]


-insigni cant when compared w/kidneys

Lecture 8 - Aging and Repair

-e ects of Aging on integumentary system:


-skin more easily damaged bc epidermis thins amt of collagen decreases


-skin infections more likely


-wrinkling occurs due to decrease in elastic bers


-skin becomes drier (bc metabolism slower, sebaceous glands aren’t secreting as
much)


-decrease in blood supply causes poor ability to regulate body temp


-functioning melanocytes decrease or increase; age spots


-sunlight ages skin more rapidly

-Burns


-classi cations:



- rst degree
...
- most serious




-full thickness burn (damaged eidermis, dermis and down into subcutaneous tissue_—lose major area of protection -lost glands, nerves, bers





-worry about dehydration w/this


-skin grafts



-split skin (autograph)



-arti cial skin



-cadavers or pigs


-the rule of Nines



-used to estimate amt of body that is burned (in percentages)



-note di ering proportions in adult and child (w/exception of head- in adult 9%,
in child 15%)

-Tissue damage and in ammation


-responds to tissue damage or w/an immune response


-manifestations



-redness, heat, swelling, pain, disturbed function


-chemical mediators:



-include histamine, prostaglandins



-stimulate pain receptor and increase blood ves

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