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Title: History of England and the British Nation: the 1000s
Description: History of England and the British Nation: a century-by-century history in 10 chapters

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The  Normans  Arrive  
The  1000s  
 
November  1002  
(The  St
...
  This   resulted   in   Ethelred   being   forced   to   pay   a   huge   and  
crippling  payment  of  Danegeld,  and  matters  worsened  markedly  after  997  when  
more   ambitious   Viking   raids   came   to   threaten   targets   on   the   south   coast,   along  
the   English   Channel,   in   addition   to   those   on   the   east   coast   on   the   North   Sea
...
   
 
Some   relief   had   come   in   999   when   a   fleet   of   Viking   ships   had   set   sail   for  
Normandy  but  this  returned  early  in  the  new  century,  forcing  Ethelred  to  protect  
his  Wessex  heartland  again  with  even  higher  payments  of  Danegeld
...
 
 
The  reason  for  this,  in  part  at  least,  was  because  the  king,  in  the  last  decade  of  the  
millennium,   had   also   fallen   out   with   the   new   Viking   rulers   of   Normandy,  
although  this  quarrel,  seemingly,  was  mended  in  1002  when  a  renewed  treaty  of  
friendship  was  confirmed  with  his  marriage  to  Emma  of  Normandy
...
  Rollo   was   also  
distinguishable  because  it  is  recorded  that  he  was  so  big  and  heavy  that  a  horse  
2

was  unable  to  carry  him
...
 The  first  of  these,  Edward,  was  born  in  1004  and  was  to  go  on  
to   become   the   king   of   England   in   1035
...
 This  also  greatly  added  to  the  king’s  already  
low  popularity
...
 
 
However,   it   soon   became   clear   that   the   marriage   alliance   with   Normandy   was  
not  going  to  be  enough  to  reverse  his  fortunes  and  so  Ethelred  the  Unready  took  
the  drastic  decision  in  November  1002  to  order  the  St
...
 This  
sanctioned   the   execution   of   all   Danes   living   on   English   land   under   his   control,  
and   those   killed   were   to   include   Princess   Gunhilde,   the   sister   of   Sweyn  
Forkbeard,   the   king   of   Denmark
...
 As  a  result,  Sweyn  launched  an  invasion  of  England  the  following  year  
and  this  was  to  lead  to  a  decade  or  more  of  war
...
 As  a  result,  
Sweyn  was  able  to  have  himself  proclaimed  king  of  England  on  Christmas  Day,  
1013,  setting  up  a  new  capital  and  administrative  centre  for  his  new  kingdom  at  
Gainsborough   in   Lincolnshire
...
   
 

3

The  Witan  charged  with  finding  his  successor  then  turned  once  again  to  Ethelred  
the  Unready  who  returned  from  his  short  exile  in  Normandy  in  April  1014
...
 Canute  sailed  back  across  the  North  Sea  to  his  lands  in  Scandinavia  
where  he  set  about  raising  a  new  army
...
 
 
By  this  time,  however,  Canute  was  about  a  year  or  so  into  a  successful  invasion  
and   re-­‐‑occupation   campaign   with   his   army,   in   fact,   camped   outside   London’s  
city   walls   at   the   time   when   King   Ethelred   died   there
...
 Paul'ʹs  that  centuries  
later  was  destroyed  during  the  Great  Fire  of  London
...
 This  took  place  in  
October   1018   and   was   followed   by   a   tentative   truce   that   saw   Edmund   retain  
nominal   control   of   Wessex   and   London   while   Canute,   who   Ironside  
acknowledged   as   his   overlord,   received   Mercia   and   Northumberland
...
 The  Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  king  was  to  leave  
two   sons   with   one   of   these   fathering   a   grandson,   Edgar   the   Atheling,   who   was  
briefly  to  be  king  of  England  following  the  Battle  of  Hastings
...
  This   seismic   event   in   England’s   history   ended   the   Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  
dynasty  of  Alfred  the  Great  and  Athelstan  with  the  money,  power  and  prestige  
of  the  English  crown  now  used  to  help  maintain  and  expand  this  newly  enlarged  
Viking   super   state
...
 Canute  worked  hard  
to  build  on  the  successes  of  earlier  Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  predecessors  and,  although  born  
a  pagan,  was  baptised  into  the  Christian  church  and  later  made  a  pilgrimage  to  
Rome
...
     
 
Canute   based   his   rule   politically   around   four   centres   of   power   and,   having  
extinguished   any   threat   to   the   throne   from   descendants   from   Ethelred   and  
Edmund  Ironside  through  a  series  of  executions,  allowed  the  Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  ruling  
elites  that  dominated  these  areas  a  large  degree  of  autonomy
...
  At  
around  the  time  of  Canute,  at  the  beginning  of  the  new  millennium,  England  also  
began   to   benefit   from   increased   agricultural   productivity   brought   about   by   the  
wheeled   plough
...
   
 
But  Canute  remains  famous  above  all  else  for  the  story  of  him  commanding  the  
tide,   one   of   the   most   long-­‐‑standing   myths   in   English   history
...
   
 
Canute  was  at  the  height  of  his  power  in  1035  when  he  died  in  Dorset  at  the  age  
of   forty
...
  Trade   in  
England  had  grown  immeasurably  during  his  long  reign  through  his  links  with  
other   Viking   trading   outposts   and,   following   his   pilgrimage   to   Rome   in   1027,  
Christianity   had   spread   quickly   throughout   the   island
...
   
 
The  death  of  King  Canute  in  1035  was  to  have  the  most  enormous  effect  on  the  
course  of  the  history  of  England,  setting  up  a  series  of  rival  claims  to  the  throne  
that   were   only   finally   resolved   a   generation   later   when   William   the   Conqueror  
won  his  famous  victory  at  Hastings
...
  This   political   marriage   had  
linked   the   throne   of   England   to   the   House   of   Normandy   that   had   come   to  
dominate   northern   France   and   that,   a   generation   later,   was   to   give   England   its  
king
...
  They   converted   to   Christianity   by   the   beginning   of   the   eleventh  
6

century  but  this  did  not  stop  their  warring  disposition  with  Norman  nobles  and  
knights  later  contributing  hugely  to  the  success  of  the  First  Crusade
...
 This  eventually  led  to  the  Norman  invasion  
of  southern  Italy  and  Sicily  during  the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  century
...
  Hardicanute,   although   two   years   younger,   had  
perhaps  the  stronger  claim  but  was  at  the  time  away  in  Scandinavia  at  war  with  
Norway   in   his   capacity   as   king   of   Denmark   and   so   was   unable   to   come   to  
England   to   press   his   claim   at   the   Witan   responsible   for   the   succession
...
   
 
At   the   same   time,   Harold   Harefoot,   now   in   collusion   with   the   Godwins,   put  
down   a   coup   attempt   by   Edward,   soon   to   be   the   Confessor,   and   his   brother,  
Alfred
...
 Harold  Harefoot  worked  hard  to  tighten  his  grip  on  power  in  the  first  
few  years  of  his  reign  and,  in  1037,  this  led  to  the  exile  of  Hardicanute’s  mother,  
Emma   of   Normandy
...
 After  the  
blinding  of  his  brother,  Edward  escaped  back  across  the  English  Channel  to  the  
safety  of  Normandy
...
  As   a   result,   Hardicanute   succeeded   what   he   saw   as   his  
treacherous   half-­‐‑brother,   with   the   latter’s   exhumation   from   his   resting   place   at  
Westminster  Abbey  one  of  first  orders  given  by  the  new  king
...
  The   new   king’s   mother,   Queen   Emma,   then   returned   from   exile  
bringing   with   her,   as   she   had   done   nearly   four   decades   before   when   she   first  
arrived   for   her   marriage   to   Ethelred   the   Unready,   a   large   retinue   of   Norman  
retainers
...
 
 
The  Reign  of  Edward  the  Confessor  
The   succession   of   Edward,   who   was   to   become   known   as   ‘the   Confessor’   as   a  
result   of   his   religious   piety,   was   not   to   be   long   in   coming   with   Hardicanute  
dying  suddenly,  probably  from  a  heart  attack,  during  a  wedding  celebration  two  
years  later  in  the  summer  of  1042
...
   
 
This  was  despite  a  pact  that  Hardicanute  had  already  agreed  with  Magnus,  the  
king   of   Norway
...
 This  was  a  claim  that  Magnus  was  not  able  
to  press  after  Hardicanute’s  premature  death  in  1042  because  of  further  trouble  
in   Scandinavia
...
 It  was  this  invasion  that  forced  King  Harold  to  
8

march  north  to  Yorkshire  in  order  to  fight  the  Battle  of  Stamford  Bridge
...
   
check  
Despite   the   new   king’s   lack   of   political   leadership   and   the   resultant   growth   in  
power   of   the   various   rival   noble   houses   that   ruled   England,   the   24-­‐‑year-­‐‑long  
reign   of   Edward   the   Confessor   was   a   period   of   relative   peace   and   prosperity
...
  Peace   was  
maintained  with  Scotland  where  for  15  years  up  to  his  death  in  the  Highlands  in  
August  1057,  Macbeth,  the  king  upon  whom  Shakespeare  based  his  play  five  and  
a  half  centuries  later,  ruled  in  reasonable  harmony
...
 As  a  
result,  he  largely  left  the  government  of  his  country  to  his  noblemen
...
 Harold  Godwin  and  his  
family  had  risen  to  power  in  the  1020s  under  the  patronage  of  King  Canute  who  
had  awarded  them  the  earldom  of  Wessex
...
  This  
resentment  was  particularly  felt  in  connection  with  his  Church  appointments
...
  This   was   for   defying   the   king’s   order   to   punish   the   inhabitants   of   Dover  
when   they   had   refused   to   billet   the   retinue   of   a   visiting   Norman   friend   of   the  
king
...
 In  order  to  ward  off  a  Wessex-­‐‑led  rebellion,  the  king  was  forced  to  accede  
to   many   of   his   demands   that   insisted   on   the   dismissals   of   important   royal  
appointees  who  included  the  Norman  Archbishop  of  Canterbury
...
 The  younger  Harold’s  show  of  strength  in  the  early  1050s  also  
marginalised  the  Mercian  overlord,  Leofric,  who  was  forced  to  the  periphery  of  
the   king’s   court
...
  In  
gratitude  for  her  charity  towards  them,  all  the  indebted  inhabitants  of  the  town  
agreed   to   remain   indoors,   except   ‘Peeping’   Tom,   who   was,   as   a   result,   struck  
blind
...
  Harold   Godwinson   was  
already  familiar  with  the  trappings  of  high  office  having  received  the  earldom  of  
East  Anglia  in  1044  but  this  new  departure  was  to  make  him  the  most  powerful  
10

man   in   the   country,   a   position   that   was   further   cemented   with   the   granting   of  
earldoms   to   his   brothers
...
 
 
But  in  1065,  a  local  uprising  broke  out  against  the  tyranny  of  Tostig’s  rule  in  the  
north   of   the   country   and   this   was   pursued   with   such   vigour   by   the   people   of  
Northumbria  that  Harold  Godwinson  was  forced  to  side  against  his  brother
...
 Tostig  was  to  prove  this  sibling  
enmity  a  year  later  when  he  sided  with  Harald  III  Hardrada,  the  son  of  Magnus  
of  Norway,  when  the  latter  invaded  to  claim  the  throne  of  the  Confessor
...
  In   1161,   Edward   the   Confessor   was   to   be   canonised   and   was  
lauded  as  England’s  patron  saint  until  the  elevation  of  St  George  in  about  1350
...
 This  new  abbey,  one  of  the  best  examples  of  high  gothic  English  
Perpendicular,  was  built  by  Henry  III  in  the  thirteenth  century  and  was  to  have  
the  Confessor’s  tomb  as  its  centrepiece
...
  However,   Harold   faced   three   other   men   with   seemingly   equally   or  
11

more  legitimate  claims  to  his  new  crown  and  he  was  to  fight  two  of  these  within  
the   year
...
  The   leading   noblemen   of   the   Witan   did   not  
think   him   fit   to   lead   the   country,   and   his   claim   soon   evaporated
...
   
 
William,   a   distant   cousin   of   the   Confessor,   was   born   in   1028   and   was   the  
illegitimate   son   of   Robert,   the   Duke   of   Normandy,   who   had   died   in   Anatolia  
while  returning  from  a  crusade  when  William  was  only  seven
...
  In   order   to   do   this,   he   had   allied   himself   closely   to   the   French   king,  
Henry  I,  and  fought  a  series  of  battles  on  the  latter’s  behalf  through  the  late  1040s  
and   early   1050s
...
 In  1049,  William  had  married  Matilda,  the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Flanders,  
and  this  was  to  produce  four  sons  and  a  daughter,  who  was  to  go  on  to  become  
the  mother  of  King  Stephen
...
 
 
According   to   Norman   chroniclers,   William’s   claim   to   the   English   crown  
originated  in  1051  when  it  was  promised  to  him  by  the  Confessor,  and  this  was  
12

backed  up  in  1064  when  this  was  confirmed  by  Harold  Godwinson  during  a  visit  
to  Normandy
...
  Others   mention   a   mission   on   behalf   of   Edward   the  
Confessor   in   order   to   seek   the   release   of   members   of   the   Godwin   family   held  
hostage,   but,   either   way,   it   seems   clear   that   Harold   found   himself   in   William'ʹs  
court  in  1064  and  it  was  during  this  visit  that  he  swore,  on  the  bones  of  various  
saints,  to  support  William’s  claim  to  the  throne  of  England  after  the  death  of  the  
Confessor
...
 Harold  let  himself  accept  
this   despite   the   promise   he   had   earlier   made   to   William   in   Normandy,   now  
claiming  that  this  had  been  forced  from  him  under  duress  and  that,  in  any  case,  it  
was   superseded   by   the   late   king’s   change   of   mind
...
   
 
In   this   way,   he   mustered   his   forces   on   the   Isle   of   Wight   in   preparation   for   the  
invasion   that   he   knew   was   likely   to   take   place   during   the   summer
...
  This   was   seen   as   a  
terrible  ill  omen
...
  However,   invasion   from   either   Denmark   or  
Normandy,   which   Harold   particularly   feared,   never   came   and   Harold   released  
his  men  in  early  September  so  that  they  could  bring  in  their  harvests
...
  This   was   a   move   forced   upon  
him   following   a   late   and   surprise   Viking   invasion   that   had   led   to   an   initial  
victory,   against   Harold’s   northern   allies,   at   the   Battle   of   Fulford   near   York
...
  The   battle   also   led   to   the   deaths   of   both   Tostig   and  
Harald  III  Hardrada
...
  However,   news   soon   reached   him   that   the   long   awaited   invasion   from  
Normandy  had  indeed  taken  place  forcing  him  to  rush  south,  marching  the  190  
miles  or  so  back  to  London  in  less  than  a  week
...
 Eventually,  he  and  his  men  arrived  

14

at  Hastings  where  perhaps  the  most  decisive  battle  in  English  history  was  about  
to  be  joined
...
  This   was   done   with   the   blessing   of   the   pope   who  
supported   his   claim   against   Harold   and,   by   early   autumn,   he   was   ready   to  
launch   his   invasion
...
 Reluctant  to  move  away  from  the  safety  of  the  
sea   and   from   the   supplies   that   this   brought   from   Normandy,   William,   having  
given  orders  for  the  construction  of  a  makeshift  castle  at  Hastings,  waited  there  
for  Harold  to  arrive  from  the  north
...
 Harold  and  his  army  had  arrived  late  the  previous  day,  taking  William  by  
surprise
...
  Accounts   of   the   battle   are   sketchy   but   it   seems   that   Harold’s   major  
problem  stemmed  from  his  lack  of  archers
...
 Alternating  archery  attacks  with  assaults  
throughout  the  day  of  the  unusually  long  battle,  William  gradually  wore  down  
his   opponents,   and   was   further   served   by   a   series   of   feigned   retreats   that   drew  
15

some  of  the  English  from  their  defences
...
  The   military   tactics   used   by   William   at   Hastings,   with   heavily  
armed  and  protected  cavalry  fighting  alongside  well-­‐‑drilled  archer  units,  was  to  
become  the  military  model  throughout  the  medieval  period
...
 Legend  has  it  that  Harold  
Godwinson,  the  44-­‐‑year-­‐‑old  last  Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  king  of  England,  was  shot  through  
the   eye,   although   this   might   be   perhaps   an   early   example   of   history   written   by  
the  victors  as  blinding  in  medieval  times  symbolised  disgrace  in  the  sight  of  God
...
 
 
William  the  Conqueror,  the  Harrying  of  the  North  and  the  Building  of  Castles  
William   now   moved   quickly   to   cement   his   position   before   the   Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  
nobles   found   a   new   leader   to   rally   behind   and   quickly   ordered   his   army   to  
secure   Kent   and   march   on   London,   a   Godwin   stronghold
...
 This  force  eventually  linked  up  
with   another   that   had   been   sent   to   secure   Winchester   and   this   combined   force  
then  moved  slowly  back  to  take  London
...
  Consequently,   they   were   forced,  
along   with   Edgar,   to   accept   William’   claim   and,   on   Christmas   Day   1066   at   a  
service   at   Westminster   Abbey   where   less   than   a   year   earlier   Harold   had   been  
crowned,  William,  Duke  of  Normandy,  was  crowned  King  William  I  of  England
...
   
 
The  coronation  of  William  the  Conqueror,  as  he  now  was  although  this  was  not  a  
term  used  to  describe  him  until  much  later,  linked  the  English  throne  to  land  and  
claims   in   France   that   were   not   given   up   until   1558
...
 Later,  
he   was   to   take   part   in   the   First   Crusade,   having   become   an   ally   of   the  
Conqueror’s   eldest   son,   Robert   of   Curthose,   and   later   still,   he   was   to   be   with  
Henry  II  when  news  arrived  from  France  that  the  White  Ship  had  sunk
...
   
 
The   story   of   William’s   conquest   of   England   was   later   set   down   in   the   Bayeux  
Tapestry,  a  230-­‐‑foot-­‐‑long  woollen  embroidery  that  told  the  story,  in  70  separate  
scenes,  of  Harold’s  shipwreck,  his  oath  to  William  in  1064,  the  arrival  of  Haley’s  
Comet,  the  battle  itself,  as  well  as  William’s  eventual  coronation
...
 
17

 
William   had   won   a   battle   at   Hastings   and   two   months   later   had   been   crowned  
king  at  Westminster  Abbey
...
  Initially   promising   to   preserve   and   maintain   the   local  
Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  aristocracy,  this  was  largely  destroyed  and  disenfranchised  by  1070  
after   a   series   of   rebellions   threatened   his   crown
...
 
 
The   first   serious   threat   to   his   rule   came   in   December   1067   when   the   people   of  
Kent,  who  remained  loyal  to  the  Godwins,  rose  up  against  Norman  rule
...
  Another  
rebellion,  led  by  the  mother  of  King  Harold,  broke  out  around  Exeter  at  a  similar  
time  and  this  coincided  with  a  much  more  co-­‐‑ordinated  uprising  in  the  north  led  
by  supporters  of  Edgar
...
 
 
William’s  response  to  this  major  threat  to  his  crown  was  a  sustained  campaign  of  
burning,   looting   and   murder   that   came   to   be   known   as   the   Harrying   of   the  
North
...
 But  at  the  same  time,  William  made  sure  that  a  secondary  objective  was  
also   fulfilled
...
   
 
Contemporary  chroniclers  record  that  some  areas  after  the  Harrying  of  the  North  
were   so   badly   destroyed   that   it   took   a   hundred   years   for   them   to   recover   and  
certainly  the  Domesday  Book,  written  nearly  two  decades  later,  described  many  
villages   across   the   north   simply   as   lying   in   waste
...
  Thus  
when   Kent   rebelled   against   William’s   brother   Odo   in   1067,   no   support   was  
forthcoming  from  the  northern  regions  while  the  reverse  was  true  two  years  later  
during  the  Harrying  of  the  North
...
 These  castles  were  used  to  slowly  extend  Norman  control  of  England  into  
the  north  and  the  west  and  this,  along  with  the  brutal  violence  against  the  local  
population  used  by  the  Norman  garrisons  who  were  stationed  in  them,  was  how  
William   was   able   to   subjugate   a   native   population   that   was   approaching   two  
million,   about   half   the   size   it   had   been   at   the   time   of   the   Romans,   with   a   force  
that  rarely  numbered  more  than  10,000
...
  But   many  
were   soon   replaced   up   and   down   the   country   with   more   permanent   stone  
structures  as  the  Norman  grip  on  the  country  tightened
...
 This  was  built  to  preserve  and  control  the  city  that  soon  
after  the  Conquest  was  to  become  England'ʹs  capital
...
   
 
The  building  of  another  such  fortification  was  ordered,  after  the  Harrying  of  the  
North,  besides  the  River  Tyne  in  Northumbria
...
  These   were   two   of   around   a   thousand   such   castles   that   were   built   to  
protect  William’s  Norman  domination  of  England
...
 However,  this  did  not  stop  isolated  
but   stubborn   opposition   from   many   rogue   rebel   leaders   and   these   included  
Hereward  the  Wake,  an  East  Anglian  nobleman  whose  band  of  followers  waged  
an   early   example   of   guerrilla   warfare   against   Norman   rule   from   the   fenlands  
around   Ely
...
  Hereward’s  
campaign  against  the  Norman  invaders,  around  the  Isle  of  Ely,  was  particularly  
significant   because   East   Anglia   gave   a   home   to   some   25%   of   England’s  
population  and  produced  much  of  its  agricultural  product
...
 In  1071,  the  Normans  finally  took  the  Isle  of  Ely  
although   Hereward,   slipping   away   from   his   pursuers,   was   not   captured   and  
finally  was  to  die  in  about  1080
...
 Later,  in  the  fourteenth  century,  the  cathedral  had  a  spire  
added  to  it  that  was  to  make  it  the  world’s  tallest  building
...
   
 
After  England  had  been  finally  pacified  in  1071,  William  remained  in  France  for  
much  of  the  rest  of  his  reign  and  returned  only  when  forced  to  do  so  by  further  
uprisings
...
 As  with  many  of  his  Norman  and  Plantagenet  successors  over  the  next  
150  years,  the  king  spoke  no  English  and  considered  England  to  constitute  only  
one  small,  though  significant,  part  of  his  overall  empire
...
  This   all   meant   that   the  
Norman   Conquest,   following   three   earlier   conquests   of   the   island   of   Britain   by  
the  Romans,  by  the  Angles  and  the  Saxons,  and  by  the  Vikings,  was  to  be  a  much  
more   complete   and   permanent   affair,   with   the   country   turning   geopolitically  
very  much  to  the  south  with  Scandinavia  replaced  by  France  as  a  point  of  social,  
political   and   economic   focus
...
 William  replaced  these,  and  the  four  regional  earldoms  that  had  
been  set  up  by  Canute,  with  about  200  of  his  closest  Norman  followers  who  were  
rewarded  for  their  loyalty  with  the  confiscated  land  of  the  vanquished
...
  Estimates   suggest   that  
the   small   body   of   supporters   at   the   top   of   this   cadre,   the   Companions   of   the  
Conqueror,   numbering   less   than   20   Norman   supporters   of   the   new   king,  
received  over  50%  of  England'ʹs  land  as  feudal  gifts
...
   
 
In  this  way,  the  English  crown  retained  for  500  years,  up  until  the  time  of  Charles  
I  and  beyond,  a  pre-­‐‑eminent  position  in  the  government  and  social  organisation  
of  the  nation  that  was  unmatched  anywhere  else  in  Europe
...
 Bishop  Odo,  the  Bishop  of  Bayeux,  
the   Conqueror’s   half-­‐‑brother   and   probably   the   patron   who   commissioned   the  
Bayeux  Tapestry,  supported  the  new  archbishop
...
 
 

22

In   the   years   after   the   subjugation,   Norman   architects   were   sent   to   England   to  
work  on  a  huge  programme  of  cathedral  and  church  building
...
 
In  addition,  in  the  region  of  7,000  square-­‐‑towered  Norman  churches  were  built  in  
parishes  across  William’s  new  kingdom
...
  William   was   generally   to   enjoy   excellent   relations   with   the  
Church   and   his   reign   was   not   blighted   by   the   Church-­‐‑State   disagreements   that  
were  to  harm  the  reigns  of  so  many  of  his  successors
...
   
 
This  form  of  political  organisation,  feudalism,  was  to  remain  at  the  heart  of  the  
English   political   process   until   the   rise   of   the   merchant   classes   and   the  
development   of   the   country   into   a   trading   power   in   the   aftermath   of   the  
discovery   of   the   New   World
...
 This  catastrophic  event  had  led  to  the  breakdown  of  organised  central  
government   in   Europe   and   the   widespread   growth   of   smaller   warrior  
princedoms
...
  Although   these   needs   varied  
and  the  contracts  between  each  group  differed  from  region  to  region  and  country  
to  country,  the  formula  between  service  and  protection  remained  the  same
...
 One  final  development  within  
this  relationship  between  the  ruler  and  the  ruled  linked  with  Christianity,  which  
bound   each   person   to   the   system   in   the   eyes   of   the   Church
...
 
 
The  spread  of  feudalism  was  linked  to  the  growth  of  a  warrior  class  of  knights  in  
Europe  who  were  able  to  use  their  positions  and  martial  skills  in  support  of  their  
kings
...
  The   most   influential   of   these   men  
became   William’s   Anglo-­‐‑Norman   earls   and   barons,   a   rank   introduced   by  
William  after  1066,  while  the  lesser  became  his  knights  in  the  shires
...
 
 
In   the   years   after   the   Norman   Conquest,   a   new   dialect,   Anglo-­‐‑Norman,   was   to  
become  widely  used  and  this  in  time  was  replaced  by  more  standardised  French  
as  this  itself  developed  as  a  language
...
 At  the  same  
time,   Latin   remained   the   language   of   government   and   the   legal   process,   and,  
importantly,  also  the  Church
...
 
This   fusion   in   time   was   to   become   Middle   English   with   this   new   language,  
evolving  slowly  over  the  centuries,  eventually  becoming  the  functional  language  
of   government   by   the   end   of   the   fourteenth   century
...
 His  son,  Henry  V,  the  champion  of  Agincourt,  was  
to  be  the  first  English  king  to  write  in  English,  with  French  receding  to  become  a  
language   of   courtly   rather   than   functional   importance   in   the   century   that  
followed
...
  Fields   were   divided  
into  long,  thin  strips,  with  each  covering  about  an  acre
...
  In   Norman  
England,  most  villains  were  bound  to  work  for  their  feudal  lord  for  a  set  amount  
of   time   each   week
...
  Certain   fields   within   the   village   were   left   fallow  
during  certain  prescribed  years  with  animals  grazed  on  these
...
   
 
However,  trade  and  commerce  were  also  important  to  the  Normans,  as  they  had  
been   to   their   Viking   forebears,   and   a   handful   of   Jewish   merchants   as   a   result  
came   to   England   in   the   wake   of   the   Norman   Conquest
...
 This  was  to  continue  until  
Edward  II  expelled  them  in  1290
...
 
 
An  invasion  threat  from  King  Canute  IV  of  Denmark  in  1085  forced  William  to  
return   to   England   and,   although   this   threat   came   to   nothing,   William   decided  
that  he  needed  a  fuller  audit  of  the  economic  state  of  the  country  he  so  seldom  
visited
...
  The   Domesday   Book   was   the   result   of   these  
labours,  and  it  remains  at  the  National  Archives  at  Kew  900  years  later
...
  It   did   not   cover   returns   for   the   northern   counties   bordering  
Scotland  or  for  the  East  Anglian  counties  of  Essex,  Norfolk  and  Suffolk
...
 No  
records  survive  for  either  London  or  Winchester
...
 It  recorded  the  size  and  the  holdings  
of   every   town   and   village,   and   included   such   economic   data   as   the   amount   of  
ploughable   land   and   the   number   of   livestock   present   in   each   village
...
 Every  acre  of  England’s  land  south  of  the  River  
Tees  was  chronicled  in  the  1086  survey,  as  was  the  ownership  of  every  pig,  horse,  
sheep,   cow   or   chicken
...
 The  survey  was  deeply  resented  by  the  Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  peasantry  whose  
taxes  were  set  by  it  and  whose  lives  it  set  out  to  regulate
...
 The  efforts  of  those  employed  
to   compute   these   figures   were   greatly   helped   during   the   reign   of   Henry   I   with  
the  formal  organisation  of  the  Exchequer  and  with  the  arrival  of  the  abacus  from  
the  Middle  East
...
  He   invaded  
Scotland  and  Wales  in  1072  and  1081  respectively,  and  created  a  series  of  warlike  
shires   on   their   borders   to   protect   these   frontiers
...
 During  his  long  absences,  which  accounted  for  perhaps  
6  or  7  years  of  the  15  or  so  that  divided  the  Harrying  of  the  North  and  his  death  
in   1087,   William   left   England   under   the   control   of   his   nobles,   his   bishops,   his  
brothers  and  his  sons
...
 
 
William   remained   absent   primarily   because   he   was   more   preoccupied   with   the  
boundaries  and  influence  of  Normandy,  and  spent  most  of  his  time  after  1066,  as  
he   had   done   for   the   previous   three   decades,   warring   in   France
...
  It   was   also   to   make  
England,   for   at   least   200   years   up   until   the   Anglicisation   of   the   monarchy,   not  
much  more  than  a  colony  for  countless  Plantagenet  kings  whose  focus  was  very  
much  centred  on  matters  in  France
...
  For   a   while,  
William’s   enemies   included   his   son   and   heir   in   Normandy,   Robert,   but   father  
and  son  had  once  again  been  reconciled  in  July  1087  when  William  was  mortally  
wounded  while  leading  an  attack  on  the  town  of  Mantes
...
 He  was  buried  at  
Caen  and  it  was  said  that  William  had  become  so  bloated  and  obese  by  the  time  

28

of   his   burial   that   his   body   burst   as   it   was   lowered   into   a   tomb   that   was   too  
narrow  and  small  for  the  purpose
...
 However,  William  had  reconciled  many  of  these  differences  in  
the   years   before   his   death   and   divided   his   land   and   titles   between   those   who  
remained
...
 
Henry,  his  youngest  and  in  many  ways  his  most  able  son,  was  given  money  in  
keeping  with  tradition
...
 Henry  was  to  come  to  the  throne  of  England  
13  years  later  on  the  untimely  death  of  his  unmarried  brother
...
  Under   his   rule,   strong   royal  
government   continued   and   William   II   soon   acquired   a   reputation   every   bit   as  
ruthless  as  that  of  his  father
...
 This  was  led  by  his  uncle,  Odo,  the  
Earl  of  Kent,  who,  alongside  many  other  Norman  barons,  wanted  to  maintain  the  
link   with   Normandy   by   crowning   Robert   as   king   in   England
...
  As   a   result,   Odo’s   rebellion   was   put  

29

down  in  1088,  although  Odo  himself  was  allowed  to  move  abroad
...
   
 
William  II’s  grip  on  the  English  throne  was  never  seriously  threatened  again  and,  
indeed,  it  was  strengthened  by  victories  in  both  Scotland  and  Wales
...
   
 
The   king   was   also   responsible   for   a   huge   development   in   the   nation’s   history  
when  he  transferred  the  seat  of  power  from  Winchester,  the  Anglo-­‐‑Saxon  capital  
where  kings  since  Alfred  the  Great  had  based  their  courts,  to  London  where  he  
ordered   the   construction   of   a   huge   palace   beside   the   abbey   church   that   the  
Confessor   had   built   50   years   before
...
  The   oldest  
surviving   part   of   the   Palace   of   Westminster,   Westminster   Hall,   was   originally  
built   by   William   Rufus   in   1097   and   1098
...
   
 
One   major   characteristic   of   William   II’s   reign   was   his   confrontation   with   the  
Church   that   he   believed   had   become   too   powerful
...
 The  political  chaos  caused  by  this  Investiture  
Controversy   was   precipitated   by   the   election   in   the   1070s   of   Gregory   VII,   a  
30

strong  and  expansive  pontiff,  and  it  was  to  be  continued  by  his  successor,  Urban  
II
...
  This   civil   war   in   the   Catholic   Church   in   the  
1070s   followed   an   even   greater   division,   the   Great   Schism,   in   the   summer   of  
1054
...
   
 
The  Investiture  Controversy  had  had  little  effect  on  England  during  the  reign  of  
William   I   due   his   close   relationship   with   Lanfranc   but   the   old   archbishop   had  
died  early  in  the  new  king’s  reign  with  William  II  keeping  the  appointment  of  his  
successor  at  Canterbury  open  for  four  years
...
  The   king   believed   that   the   old   cleric   was   dying   and   that,   preoccupied  
with   matters   away   from   politics,   this   would   leave   the   king   free   to   run   his  
kingdom   much   as   his   predecessor,   Archbishop   Lanfranc,   had   left   his   father   to  
run   his
...
   
 
Anselm   believed   that   he   was   the   head   of   the   Church   in   England   and   that   the  
king   should   support   him   in   this   role
...
 However,  no  solution  
was   found   and,   within   a   year,   Anselm   had   been   forced   into   exile,   ostensibly  
because   of   claims   made   by   the   king   that   the   see   of   Canterbury   had   not   given  
enough   soldiers   for   his   war   in   Wales
...
   
31

 
Like   his   father   before   him,   William   II   remained   preoccupied   with   matters   in  
Normandy   and   spent   much   of   the   1090s   fighting   against   his   various   brothers  
there
...
 For  a  sum  of  10,000  crowns,  money  raised  in  England  in  a  
tax   that   was   bitterly   resented   there,   William   Rufus   was   able   to   add   Duke   of  
Normandy  to  his  various  other  titles
...
  This   was   in   response   to   pleas   from   the  
emperor   of   the   Byzantine   Empire   in   Constantinople   who   was   increasingly  
concerned   about   the   encroachment   of   the   Seljuk   Turks   across   Anatolia
...
  The   Abbasids   earlier   had  
taken   control   of   the   Islamic   caliphate   and   their   expansion   had   led   to   the  
colonisation   of,   amongst   others,   Iran   in   the   east   and   Syria,   Palestine   and   North  
Africa   in   the   west
...
 
 
Urban  II’s  strategy  was  outlined  in  a  sermon  at  Clermont  in  France  in  November  
1095
...
 Under  the  control  and  finance  of  individual  knights,  these  groups  were  to  
meet  at  Constantinople  in  the  summer  of  1096  where  the  Crusade  would  begin
...
 
 
The  First  Crusade,  the  first  of  nine  in  total  that  were  to  last  until  1272,  coincided  
with  a  time  of  huge  economic  growth  in  Europe  and  in  many  ways  the  expansion  
policy   of   the   papacy   into   the   Middle   East   was   a   result   of   this
...
 But  even  the  Pope  was  surprised  by  the  
huge   response   that   his   words   at   Clermont   provoked   with   thousands   of  
Crusaders,   mainly   from   France,   descending   on   Constantinople   during   the  
following  year
...
  This   was   the   capture   of  
the   Anatolian   city   of   Nicaea   in   May   1097
...
  Having   overcome   this   main   Turkish   force,   the  
Crusaders   found   little   resistance   with   their   remaining   campaign   eastwards  
across   in   Asia   Minor
...
 
 
The  Crusaders  then  set  out  from  Antioch  in  November  1098  determined  on  their  
ultimate  goal,  Jerusalem,  a  journey  southwards  through  Syria  and  into  Palestine  
that   took   a   further   7   months
...
  The   Crusaders   then   butchered   the   Muslim   majority   living   there,  
alongside  many  Jews  and  Orthodox  Christians  who  had  also  made  it  their  home
...
  The   Crusaders   then   inflicted   one   final  
defeat   on   the   Muslim   army   at   Ascalon   before   bidding   Godfrey   and   his   knights  
farewell   with   the   majority   of   those   who   had   fought   with   him   through   Turkey,  
Syria   and   Palestine   slowly   returning   to   Europe
...
  These   were   to   last   for  
nearly  200  years
...
  Following   the   example   of   his   father,   he  
worked  hard  to  centralise  the  power  and  authority  of  the  kingdom  on  the  king’s  
court,   and   had   little   time   for   the   arguments   of   a   cleric   who   he   himself   had  
appointed
...
 This  left  the  vast  estates  of  the  see  of  Canterbury  
in  the  hands  of  the  king
...
 Robert  had  also  married  well  during  his  time  away  and  would  once  
again  have  money  to  challenge  his  younger  brother  in  Normandy
...
  On   2   August   1100,   William   II   was   killed   in   a   hunting  
accident   when   he   was   shot   in   the   back,   possibly   by   an   arrow   from   the   bow   of  
Walter  Tirel,  the  lord  of  Poix
...
  With  
Anselm  in  exile  and  with  his  elder  brother  returning  from  the  First  Crusade,  the  
despised  William  II,  at  the  age  of  forty-­‐‑six,  was  buried  in  Winchester  Cathedral
Title: History of England and the British Nation: the 1000s
Description: History of England and the British Nation: a century-by-century history in 10 chapters