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Title: History of England and the British Nation: the 1000s
Description: History of England and the British Nation: a century-by-century history in 10 chapters
Description: History of England and the British Nation: a century-by-century history in 10 chapters
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The Normans Arrive
The 1000s
November 1002
(The St
...
This resulted in Ethelred being forced to pay a huge and
crippling payment of Danegeld, and matters worsened markedly after 997 when
more ambitious Viking raids came to threaten targets on the south coast, along
the English Channel, in addition to those on the east coast on the North Sea
...
Some relief had come in 999 when a fleet of Viking ships had set sail for
Normandy but this returned early in the new century, forcing Ethelred to protect
his Wessex heartland again with even higher payments of Danegeld
...
The reason for this, in part at least, was because the king, in the last decade of the
millennium, had also fallen out with the new Viking rulers of Normandy,
although this quarrel, seemingly, was mended in 1002 when a renewed treaty of
friendship was confirmed with his marriage to Emma of Normandy
...
Rollo was also
distinguishable because it is recorded that he was so big and heavy that a horse
2
was unable to carry him
...
The first of these, Edward, was born in 1004 and was to go on
to become the king of England in 1035
...
This also greatly added to the king’s already
low popularity
...
However, it soon became clear that the marriage alliance with Normandy was
not going to be enough to reverse his fortunes and so Ethelred the Unready took
the drastic decision in November 1002 to order the St
...
This
sanctioned the execution of all Danes living on English land under his control,
and those killed were to include Princess Gunhilde, the sister of Sweyn
Forkbeard, the king of Denmark
...
As a result, Sweyn launched an invasion of England the following year
and this was to lead to a decade or more of war
...
As a result,
Sweyn was able to have himself proclaimed king of England on Christmas Day,
1013, setting up a new capital and administrative centre for his new kingdom at
Gainsborough in Lincolnshire
...
3
The Witan charged with finding his successor then turned once again to Ethelred
the Unready who returned from his short exile in Normandy in April 1014
...
Canute sailed back across the North Sea to his lands in Scandinavia
where he set about raising a new army
...
By this time, however, Canute was about a year or so into a successful invasion
and re-‐‑occupation campaign with his army, in fact, camped outside London’s
city walls at the time when King Ethelred died there
...
Paul'ʹs that centuries
later was destroyed during the Great Fire of London
...
This took place in
October 1018 and was followed by a tentative truce that saw Edmund retain
nominal control of Wessex and London while Canute, who Ironside
acknowledged as his overlord, received Mercia and Northumberland
...
The Anglo-‐‑Saxon king was to leave
two sons with one of these fathering a grandson, Edgar the Atheling, who was
briefly to be king of England following the Battle of Hastings
...
This seismic event in England’s history ended the Anglo-‐‑Saxon
dynasty of Alfred the Great and Athelstan with the money, power and prestige
of the English crown now used to help maintain and expand this newly enlarged
Viking super state
...
Canute worked hard
to build on the successes of earlier Anglo-‐‑Saxon predecessors and, although born
a pagan, was baptised into the Christian church and later made a pilgrimage to
Rome
...
Canute based his rule politically around four centres of power and, having
extinguished any threat to the throne from descendants from Ethelred and
Edmund Ironside through a series of executions, allowed the Anglo-‐‑Saxon ruling
elites that dominated these areas a large degree of autonomy
...
At
around the time of Canute, at the beginning of the new millennium, England also
began to benefit from increased agricultural productivity brought about by the
wheeled plough
...
But Canute remains famous above all else for the story of him commanding the
tide, one of the most long-‐‑standing myths in English history
...
Canute was at the height of his power in 1035 when he died in Dorset at the age
of forty
...
Trade in
England had grown immeasurably during his long reign through his links with
other Viking trading outposts and, following his pilgrimage to Rome in 1027,
Christianity had spread quickly throughout the island
...
The death of King Canute in 1035 was to have the most enormous effect on the
course of the history of England, setting up a series of rival claims to the throne
that were only finally resolved a generation later when William the Conqueror
won his famous victory at Hastings
...
This political marriage had
linked the throne of England to the House of Normandy that had come to
dominate northern France and that, a generation later, was to give England its
king
...
They converted to Christianity by the beginning of the eleventh
6
century but this did not stop their warring disposition with Norman nobles and
knights later contributing hugely to the success of the First Crusade
...
This eventually led to the Norman invasion
of southern Italy and Sicily during the second half of the eleventh century
...
Hardicanute, although two years younger, had
perhaps the stronger claim but was at the time away in Scandinavia at war with
Norway in his capacity as king of Denmark and so was unable to come to
England to press his claim at the Witan responsible for the succession
...
At the same time, Harold Harefoot, now in collusion with the Godwins, put
down a coup attempt by Edward, soon to be the Confessor, and his brother,
Alfred
...
Harold Harefoot worked hard to tighten his grip on power in the first
few years of his reign and, in 1037, this led to the exile of Hardicanute’s mother,
Emma of Normandy
...
After the
blinding of his brother, Edward escaped back across the English Channel to the
safety of Normandy
...
As a result, Hardicanute succeeded what he saw as his
treacherous half-‐‑brother, with the latter’s exhumation from his resting place at
Westminster Abbey one of first orders given by the new king
...
The new king’s mother, Queen Emma, then returned from exile
bringing with her, as she had done nearly four decades before when she first
arrived for her marriage to Ethelred the Unready, a large retinue of Norman
retainers
...
The Reign of Edward the Confessor
The succession of Edward, who was to become known as ‘the Confessor’ as a
result of his religious piety, was not to be long in coming with Hardicanute
dying suddenly, probably from a heart attack, during a wedding celebration two
years later in the summer of 1042
...
This was despite a pact that Hardicanute had already agreed with Magnus, the
king of Norway
...
This was a claim that Magnus was not able
to press after Hardicanute’s premature death in 1042 because of further trouble
in Scandinavia
...
It was this invasion that forced King Harold to
8
march north to Yorkshire in order to fight the Battle of Stamford Bridge
...
check
Despite the new king’s lack of political leadership and the resultant growth in
power of the various rival noble houses that ruled England, the 24-‐‑year-‐‑long
reign of Edward the Confessor was a period of relative peace and prosperity
...
Peace was
maintained with Scotland where for 15 years up to his death in the Highlands in
August 1057, Macbeth, the king upon whom Shakespeare based his play five and
a half centuries later, ruled in reasonable harmony
...
As a
result, he largely left the government of his country to his noblemen
...
Harold Godwin and his
family had risen to power in the 1020s under the patronage of King Canute who
had awarded them the earldom of Wessex
...
This
resentment was particularly felt in connection with his Church appointments
...
This was for defying the king’s order to punish the inhabitants of Dover
when they had refused to billet the retinue of a visiting Norman friend of the
king
...
In order to ward off a Wessex-‐‑led rebellion, the king was forced to accede
to many of his demands that insisted on the dismissals of important royal
appointees who included the Norman Archbishop of Canterbury
...
The younger Harold’s show of strength in the early 1050s also
marginalised the Mercian overlord, Leofric, who was forced to the periphery of
the king’s court
...
In
gratitude for her charity towards them, all the indebted inhabitants of the town
agreed to remain indoors, except ‘Peeping’ Tom, who was, as a result, struck
blind
...
Harold Godwinson was
already familiar with the trappings of high office having received the earldom of
East Anglia in 1044 but this new departure was to make him the most powerful
10
man in the country, a position that was further cemented with the granting of
earldoms to his brothers
...
But in 1065, a local uprising broke out against the tyranny of Tostig’s rule in the
north of the country and this was pursued with such vigour by the people of
Northumbria that Harold Godwinson was forced to side against his brother
...
Tostig was to prove this sibling
enmity a year later when he sided with Harald III Hardrada, the son of Magnus
of Norway, when the latter invaded to claim the throne of the Confessor
...
In 1161, Edward the Confessor was to be canonised and was
lauded as England’s patron saint until the elevation of St George in about 1350
...
This new abbey, one of the best examples of high gothic English
Perpendicular, was built by Henry III in the thirteenth century and was to have
the Confessor’s tomb as its centrepiece
...
However, Harold faced three other men with seemingly equally or
11
more legitimate claims to his new crown and he was to fight two of these within
the year
...
The leading noblemen of the Witan did not
think him fit to lead the country, and his claim soon evaporated
...
William, a distant cousin of the Confessor, was born in 1028 and was the
illegitimate son of Robert, the Duke of Normandy, who had died in Anatolia
while returning from a crusade when William was only seven
...
In order to do this, he had allied himself closely to the French king,
Henry I, and fought a series of battles on the latter’s behalf through the late 1040s
and early 1050s
...
In 1049, William had married Matilda, the daughter of the King of Flanders,
and this was to produce four sons and a daughter, who was to go on to become
the mother of King Stephen
...
According to Norman chroniclers, William’s claim to the English crown
originated in 1051 when it was promised to him by the Confessor, and this was
12
backed up in 1064 when this was confirmed by Harold Godwinson during a visit
to Normandy
...
Others mention a mission on behalf of Edward the
Confessor in order to seek the release of members of the Godwin family held
hostage, but, either way, it seems clear that Harold found himself in William'ʹs
court in 1064 and it was during this visit that he swore, on the bones of various
saints, to support William’s claim to the throne of England after the death of the
Confessor
...
Harold let himself accept
this despite the promise he had earlier made to William in Normandy, now
claiming that this had been forced from him under duress and that, in any case, it
was superseded by the late king’s change of mind
...
In this way, he mustered his forces on the Isle of Wight in preparation for the
invasion that he knew was likely to take place during the summer
...
This was seen as a
terrible ill omen
...
However, invasion from either Denmark or
Normandy, which Harold particularly feared, never came and Harold released
his men in early September so that they could bring in their harvests
...
This was a move forced upon
him following a late and surprise Viking invasion that had led to an initial
victory, against Harold’s northern allies, at the Battle of Fulford near York
...
The battle also led to the deaths of both Tostig and
Harald III Hardrada
...
However, news soon reached him that the long awaited invasion from
Normandy had indeed taken place forcing him to rush south, marching the 190
miles or so back to London in less than a week
...
Eventually, he and his men arrived
14
at Hastings where perhaps the most decisive battle in English history was about
to be joined
...
This was done with the blessing of the pope who
supported his claim against Harold and, by early autumn, he was ready to
launch his invasion
...
Reluctant to move away from the safety of the
sea and from the supplies that this brought from Normandy, William, having
given orders for the construction of a makeshift castle at Hastings, waited there
for Harold to arrive from the north
...
Harold and his army had arrived late the previous day, taking William by
surprise
...
Accounts of the battle are sketchy but it seems that Harold’s major
problem stemmed from his lack of archers
...
Alternating archery attacks with assaults
throughout the day of the unusually long battle, William gradually wore down
his opponents, and was further served by a series of feigned retreats that drew
15
some of the English from their defences
...
The military tactics used by William at Hastings, with heavily
armed and protected cavalry fighting alongside well-‐‑drilled archer units, was to
become the military model throughout the medieval period
...
Legend has it that Harold
Godwinson, the 44-‐‑year-‐‑old last Anglo-‐‑Saxon king of England, was shot through
the eye, although this might be perhaps an early example of history written by
the victors as blinding in medieval times symbolised disgrace in the sight of God
...
William the Conqueror, the Harrying of the North and the Building of Castles
William now moved quickly to cement his position before the Anglo-‐‑Saxon
nobles found a new leader to rally behind and quickly ordered his army to
secure Kent and march on London, a Godwin stronghold
...
This force eventually linked up
with another that had been sent to secure Winchester and this combined force
then moved slowly back to take London
...
Consequently, they were forced,
along with Edgar, to accept William’ claim and, on Christmas Day 1066 at a
service at Westminster Abbey where less than a year earlier Harold had been
crowned, William, Duke of Normandy, was crowned King William I of England
...
The coronation of William the Conqueror, as he now was although this was not a
term used to describe him until much later, linked the English throne to land and
claims in France that were not given up until 1558
...
Later,
he was to take part in the First Crusade, having become an ally of the
Conqueror’s eldest son, Robert of Curthose, and later still, he was to be with
Henry II when news arrived from France that the White Ship had sunk
...
The story of William’s conquest of England was later set down in the Bayeux
Tapestry, a 230-‐‑foot-‐‑long woollen embroidery that told the story, in 70 separate
scenes, of Harold’s shipwreck, his oath to William in 1064, the arrival of Haley’s
Comet, the battle itself, as well as William’s eventual coronation
...
17
William had won a battle at Hastings and two months later had been crowned
king at Westminster Abbey
...
Initially promising to preserve and maintain the local
Anglo-‐‑Saxon aristocracy, this was largely destroyed and disenfranchised by 1070
after a series of rebellions threatened his crown
...
The first serious threat to his rule came in December 1067 when the people of
Kent, who remained loyal to the Godwins, rose up against Norman rule
...
Another
rebellion, led by the mother of King Harold, broke out around Exeter at a similar
time and this coincided with a much more co-‐‑ordinated uprising in the north led
by supporters of Edgar
...
William’s response to this major threat to his crown was a sustained campaign of
burning, looting and murder that came to be known as the Harrying of the
North
...
But at the same time, William made sure that a secondary objective was
also fulfilled
...
Contemporary chroniclers record that some areas after the Harrying of the North
were so badly destroyed that it took a hundred years for them to recover and
certainly the Domesday Book, written nearly two decades later, described many
villages across the north simply as lying in waste
...
Thus
when Kent rebelled against William’s brother Odo in 1067, no support was
forthcoming from the northern regions while the reverse was true two years later
during the Harrying of the North
...
These castles were used to slowly extend Norman control of England into
the north and the west and this, along with the brutal violence against the local
population used by the Norman garrisons who were stationed in them, was how
William was able to subjugate a native population that was approaching two
million, about half the size it had been at the time of the Romans, with a force
that rarely numbered more than 10,000
...
But many
were soon replaced up and down the country with more permanent stone
structures as the Norman grip on the country tightened
...
This was built to preserve and control the city that soon
after the Conquest was to become England'ʹs capital
...
The building of another such fortification was ordered, after the Harrying of the
North, besides the River Tyne in Northumbria
...
These were two of around a thousand such castles that were built to
protect William’s Norman domination of England
...
However, this did not stop isolated
but stubborn opposition from many rogue rebel leaders and these included
Hereward the Wake, an East Anglian nobleman whose band of followers waged
an early example of guerrilla warfare against Norman rule from the fenlands
around Ely
...
Hereward’s
campaign against the Norman invaders, around the Isle of Ely, was particularly
significant because East Anglia gave a home to some 25% of England’s
population and produced much of its agricultural product
...
In 1071, the Normans finally took the Isle of Ely
although Hereward, slipping away from his pursuers, was not captured and
finally was to die in about 1080
...
Later, in the fourteenth century, the cathedral had a spire
added to it that was to make it the world’s tallest building
...
After England had been finally pacified in 1071, William remained in France for
much of the rest of his reign and returned only when forced to do so by further
uprisings
...
As with many of his Norman and Plantagenet successors over the next
150 years, the king spoke no English and considered England to constitute only
one small, though significant, part of his overall empire
...
This all meant that the
Norman Conquest, following three earlier conquests of the island of Britain by
the Romans, by the Angles and the Saxons, and by the Vikings, was to be a much
more complete and permanent affair, with the country turning geopolitically
very much to the south with Scandinavia replaced by France as a point of social,
political and economic focus
...
William replaced these, and the four regional earldoms that had
been set up by Canute, with about 200 of his closest Norman followers who were
rewarded for their loyalty with the confiscated land of the vanquished
...
Estimates suggest that
the small body of supporters at the top of this cadre, the Companions of the
Conqueror, numbering less than 20 Norman supporters of the new king,
received over 50% of England'ʹs land as feudal gifts
...
In this way, the English crown retained for 500 years, up until the time of Charles
I and beyond, a pre-‐‑eminent position in the government and social organisation
of the nation that was unmatched anywhere else in Europe
...
Bishop Odo, the Bishop of Bayeux,
the Conqueror’s half-‐‑brother and probably the patron who commissioned the
Bayeux Tapestry, supported the new archbishop
...
22
In the years after the subjugation, Norman architects were sent to England to
work on a huge programme of cathedral and church building
...
In addition, in the region of 7,000 square-‐‑towered Norman churches were built in
parishes across William’s new kingdom
...
William was generally to enjoy excellent relations with the
Church and his reign was not blighted by the Church-‐‑State disagreements that
were to harm the reigns of so many of his successors
...
This form of political organisation, feudalism, was to remain at the heart of the
English political process until the rise of the merchant classes and the
development of the country into a trading power in the aftermath of the
discovery of the New World
...
This catastrophic event had led to the breakdown of organised central
government in Europe and the widespread growth of smaller warrior
princedoms
...
Although these needs varied
and the contracts between each group differed from region to region and country
to country, the formula between service and protection remained the same
...
One final development within
this relationship between the ruler and the ruled linked with Christianity, which
bound each person to the system in the eyes of the Church
...
The spread of feudalism was linked to the growth of a warrior class of knights in
Europe who were able to use their positions and martial skills in support of their
kings
...
The most influential of these men
became William’s Anglo-‐‑Norman earls and barons, a rank introduced by
William after 1066, while the lesser became his knights in the shires
...
In the years after the Norman Conquest, a new dialect, Anglo-‐‑Norman, was to
become widely used and this in time was replaced by more standardised French
as this itself developed as a language
...
At the same
time, Latin remained the language of government and the legal process, and,
importantly, also the Church
...
This fusion in time was to become Middle English with this new language,
evolving slowly over the centuries, eventually becoming the functional language
of government by the end of the fourteenth century
...
His son, Henry V, the champion of Agincourt, was
to be the first English king to write in English, with French receding to become a
language of courtly rather than functional importance in the century that
followed
...
Fields were divided
into long, thin strips, with each covering about an acre
...
In Norman
England, most villains were bound to work for their feudal lord for a set amount
of time each week
...
Certain fields within the village were left fallow
during certain prescribed years with animals grazed on these
...
However, trade and commerce were also important to the Normans, as they had
been to their Viking forebears, and a handful of Jewish merchants as a result
came to England in the wake of the Norman Conquest
...
This was to continue until
Edward II expelled them in 1290
...
An invasion threat from King Canute IV of Denmark in 1085 forced William to
return to England and, although this threat came to nothing, William decided
that he needed a fuller audit of the economic state of the country he so seldom
visited
...
The Domesday Book was the result of these
labours, and it remains at the National Archives at Kew 900 years later
...
It did not cover returns for the northern counties bordering
Scotland or for the East Anglian counties of Essex, Norfolk and Suffolk
...
No
records survive for either London or Winchester
...
It recorded the size and the holdings
of every town and village, and included such economic data as the amount of
ploughable land and the number of livestock present in each village
...
Every acre of England’s land south of the River
Tees was chronicled in the 1086 survey, as was the ownership of every pig, horse,
sheep, cow or chicken
...
The survey was deeply resented by the Anglo-‐‑Saxon peasantry whose
taxes were set by it and whose lives it set out to regulate
...
The efforts of those employed
to compute these figures were greatly helped during the reign of Henry I with
the formal organisation of the Exchequer and with the arrival of the abacus from
the Middle East
...
He invaded
Scotland and Wales in 1072 and 1081 respectively, and created a series of warlike
shires on their borders to protect these frontiers
...
During his long absences, which accounted for perhaps
6 or 7 years of the 15 or so that divided the Harrying of the North and his death
in 1087, William left England under the control of his nobles, his bishops, his
brothers and his sons
...
William remained absent primarily because he was more preoccupied with the
boundaries and influence of Normandy, and spent most of his time after 1066, as
he had done for the previous three decades, warring in France
...
It was also to make
England, for at least 200 years up until the Anglicisation of the monarchy, not
much more than a colony for countless Plantagenet kings whose focus was very
much centred on matters in France
...
For a while,
William’s enemies included his son and heir in Normandy, Robert, but father
and son had once again been reconciled in July 1087 when William was mortally
wounded while leading an attack on the town of Mantes
...
He was buried at
Caen and it was said that William had become so bloated and obese by the time
28
of his burial that his body burst as it was lowered into a tomb that was too
narrow and small for the purpose
...
However, William had reconciled many of these differences in
the years before his death and divided his land and titles between those who
remained
...
Henry, his youngest and in many ways his most able son, was given money in
keeping with tradition
...
Henry was to come to the throne of England
13 years later on the untimely death of his unmarried brother
...
Under his rule, strong royal
government continued and William II soon acquired a reputation every bit as
ruthless as that of his father
...
This was led by his uncle, Odo, the
Earl of Kent, who, alongside many other Norman barons, wanted to maintain the
link with Normandy by crowning Robert as king in England
...
As a result, Odo’s rebellion was put
29
down in 1088, although Odo himself was allowed to move abroad
...
William II’s grip on the English throne was never seriously threatened again and,
indeed, it was strengthened by victories in both Scotland and Wales
...
The king was also responsible for a huge development in the nation’s history
when he transferred the seat of power from Winchester, the Anglo-‐‑Saxon capital
where kings since Alfred the Great had based their courts, to London where he
ordered the construction of a huge palace beside the abbey church that the
Confessor had built 50 years before
...
The oldest
surviving part of the Palace of Westminster, Westminster Hall, was originally
built by William Rufus in 1097 and 1098
...
One major characteristic of William II’s reign was his confrontation with the
Church that he believed had become too powerful
...
The political chaos caused by this Investiture
Controversy was precipitated by the election in the 1070s of Gregory VII, a
30
strong and expansive pontiff, and it was to be continued by his successor, Urban
II
...
This civil war in the Catholic Church in the
1070s followed an even greater division, the Great Schism, in the summer of
1054
...
The Investiture Controversy had had little effect on England during the reign of
William I due his close relationship with Lanfranc but the old archbishop had
died early in the new king’s reign with William II keeping the appointment of his
successor at Canterbury open for four years
...
The king believed that the old cleric was dying and that, preoccupied
with matters away from politics, this would leave the king free to run his
kingdom much as his predecessor, Archbishop Lanfranc, had left his father to
run his
...
Anselm believed that he was the head of the Church in England and that the
king should support him in this role
...
However, no solution
was found and, within a year, Anselm had been forced into exile, ostensibly
because of claims made by the king that the see of Canterbury had not given
enough soldiers for his war in Wales
...
31
Like his father before him, William II remained preoccupied with matters in
Normandy and spent much of the 1090s fighting against his various brothers
there
...
For a sum of 10,000 crowns, money raised in England in a
tax that was bitterly resented there, William Rufus was able to add Duke of
Normandy to his various other titles
...
This was in response to pleas from the
emperor of the Byzantine Empire in Constantinople who was increasingly
concerned about the encroachment of the Seljuk Turks across Anatolia
...
The Abbasids earlier had
taken control of the Islamic caliphate and their expansion had led to the
colonisation of, amongst others, Iran in the east and Syria, Palestine and North
Africa in the west
...
Urban II’s strategy was outlined in a sermon at Clermont in France in November
1095
...
Under the control and finance of individual knights, these groups were to
meet at Constantinople in the summer of 1096 where the Crusade would begin
...
The First Crusade, the first of nine in total that were to last until 1272, coincided
with a time of huge economic growth in Europe and in many ways the expansion
policy of the papacy into the Middle East was a result of this
...
But even the Pope was surprised by the
huge response that his words at Clermont provoked with thousands of
Crusaders, mainly from France, descending on Constantinople during the
following year
...
This was the capture of
the Anatolian city of Nicaea in May 1097
...
Having overcome this main Turkish force, the
Crusaders found little resistance with their remaining campaign eastwards
across in Asia Minor
...
The Crusaders then set out from Antioch in November 1098 determined on their
ultimate goal, Jerusalem, a journey southwards through Syria and into Palestine
that took a further 7 months
...
The Crusaders then butchered the Muslim majority living there,
alongside many Jews and Orthodox Christians who had also made it their home
...
The Crusaders then inflicted one final
defeat on the Muslim army at Ascalon before bidding Godfrey and his knights
farewell with the majority of those who had fought with him through Turkey,
Syria and Palestine slowly returning to Europe
...
These were to last for
nearly 200 years
...
Following the example of his father, he
worked hard to centralise the power and authority of the kingdom on the king’s
court, and had little time for the arguments of a cleric who he himself had
appointed
...
This left the vast estates of the see of Canterbury
in the hands of the king
...
Robert had also married well during his time away and would once
again have money to challenge his younger brother in Normandy
...
On 2 August 1100, William II was killed in a hunting
accident when he was shot in the back, possibly by an arrow from the bow of
Walter Tirel, the lord of Poix
...
With
Anselm in exile and with his elder brother returning from the First Crusade, the
despised William II, at the age of forty-‐‑six, was buried in Winchester Cathedral
Title: History of England and the British Nation: the 1000s
Description: History of England and the British Nation: a century-by-century history in 10 chapters
Description: History of England and the British Nation: a century-by-century history in 10 chapters