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Effective
Communication

Creation date:
July 30, 2021

CAPS
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Context- environment where situation is at
Audience- examine demographics, motives, and psychographics (what values, what they are
thinking) *Never use word “public” as it is too generic*
Purpose *use words “inform, stimulate, persuade, motivate, entertain*
Structure

Analysing the Audience
Motives
Motivation
Problems
Pains

Demographics
Age
Gender
Education
Religion, etc

Psychographics
Attitudes
Personality
Habits
Values

Purposes
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Convey important facts or information (inform)
Persuade the receiver to accept or reject certain conditions or actions
Motivate the receiver to act in a specific way
Stimulate discussion about a particular issue
Entertain receiver

Structure
Introduction
• Use quotation
• Tell story
• Ask provocative
questions
• Startling facts or
statistics
• Hypothetical
situation
• Give brief
demonstration

Body
• 3 main ideas with
facts, information
and personal
stories to explain
point

Conclusion
• Summary to reemphasise main
points
• Closing thoughts to
motivate audience
to respond or act,
give inspirational
appeal or
challenges

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Structuring Communication
Paragraphs organised in
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Topic sentence (what author will be touching on in paragraph)
Supporting details (main content including elaboration, reasons and examples)
Concluding sentence (reiterates main idea of paragraph)

Compare & Contrast
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Used to organise information to show similarities and differences
Show strengths and weaknesses in persuasive writing
To compare: Discuss similarities
To contrast: Discuss differences
Help readers compare how one subject is in relation to another
Words used: Similarly, on the other hand, like/likewise, in contrast, unlike, neither, both

Cause and effect
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Information is organised to explain the reasons (causes) why something happened, or results
(effects) of certain events
...

Words, ideas, findings and pictures can be plagiarised
Facts and opinions can be plagiarised
Occurs when someone’s findings/research/thoughts/expression reproduced by another and
claimed as his/her own
Examples: Failure to acknowledge source, quoting information wholesale, paraphrasing
without acknowledgement, cutting and pasting, helping others plagiarize, inaccurate citation,
create false information, multiple submission of assignments

Privacy and Disclosure
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Reveal something that was hidden
Divulge private and confidential fact or opinion about person or organisation

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Stereotype
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Fixed ideas of thing, person, or particular group of people
...
Rewrite to ensure no
plagiarism

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Noises in Communications
Types of noises
Psychological

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Physical

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Physiological

Semantic

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Views and values or a state of mind affects
communication and interpret others
Prejudice such as stereotypical views which are usually
negative towards certain group of people or organisation
Interference in environment
Eg: Construction site, messy slides, extreme temperatures
Can take place in form of visual and spoken
communication
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2
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4
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6
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4m
• Personal zone (1
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4 to 1
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2 to 3
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7m

Questioning Skills
Purpose of asking Questions
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Provoke thought and reflection
Obtain/clarify information
Express attitudes and opinions
Reveal different perspectives
Obtain feedback
Persuade and convince

Question Types
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Open: encourage more responses
Close: seeking short, specific answers
Ambiguous: vaguely phrased, possibility for multiple interpretations
Clarifying: confirming the listener’s understanding
Leading: suggesting desired answers
Probing: additional information
Double-barreled: contains two parts in one question
Embarrassing: cause awkwardness from respondent
Rhetorical: used to express sender’s opinion

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Examples on how questions should be phrased
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Ambiguous: “did you give her cat food”
Open-ended: “what happened, why/how?”
Close-ended: “is it, do you?”
Clarifying: “did you say that this was…?”
Double-barreled: “how do you feel about this and that?”
Embarrassing: “When did you last steal”
Leading: “you said this, didn’t you?”
Probing: “what if, do you think?”
Rhetorical: “why this now, why me?”

Drafting questions
Brief – Keep questions short and ask one question at a time
Objective – Pay attention to neutrality of words
Simple – Simple in both words and phrases
Specific – Avoid words like “often, usually, generally” as they are subjective
Avoid- Embarrassing, Double-barrelled, Ambiguous

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Comprehension and Summary
Summary Writing
Step 1: Divide & Conquer
• Skim the text and divide it into sections
• Focus on headings and subheadings
• Look at any bold-faced terms and understand them
Step 2: Read
• Read entire text or passage
• Feel author’s tone, style and main idea
Step 3: Re-read
• Pay closer attention to details in text
• Underline topic sentence and key facts
• Label areas that is needed to refer to do summary
Step 4: One sentence at a tine
• Write down main idea of section in well-developed sentence, make sure they are key points
Step 5: Write thesis statement
• Statement that clearly communicate what entire text was trying to achieve
Step 6: Ready to write
• Use thesis statement as introductory sentence of summary, and others as body
• Use transition words “then, however, also, moreover”
Step 7: Check for accuracy
• Re-read summary to check if represented author’s ideas and key points
• Check if text does not contain own commentary
Step 8: Revise
• Revise for style, grammar, and punctuation

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Visual Design Principles
Direction – Direction is the visual path our eye will follow *guides eyes movement, from where to
where*

Focus – Refers to object or element which first catches our attention

Contrast – occurs when 2 elements are different
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The key to working with contrast is to make sure the differences are obvious
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*what is bigger and
what is smaller*

Balance – arrangement of objects in a given design as it relates to their visual weight within a
composition
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*where is the
white space, behind what text?* Makes poster more elegant

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Persuasive Appeals
Logos Appeal
• Logical appeal
• Logical reasoning to
support claim
• Evidence, facts and
statistics to support
claims

Example: Drinking water
increases your energy
and relieves fatigue

Pathos Appeal
• Emotional appeal
• Appealing to
audience’s
emotions/feelings
• Vivid language,
emotional language
and numerous
sensory details to
arouse audience
interest
Example: Picture of
handcuffed person
evokes fear in viewers

Ethos Appeal
• Credibility (or ethical) appeal
• Speaker’s/author’s authority
(expertise & knowledge),
reputation (credentials/past
success) and character
(trustworthy/respectable/likeable)
• Source’s credibility (e
...

government statistics)
• Corporate logo
Example: Use of fit celebrity in milk
campaign allows viewers to feel that
they can become fit like him by
drinking milk
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Places self-interests above
collective interests
Values independence & self-sufficiency

Collectivist
Frequent use of “we”
Puts group interests over self-interests
Shares resources and is prepared to
sacrifice personal interest for collective
interests
Has greater tendency toward conformity
to maintain social harmony

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Power Distance
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Acknowledges that inequality is an inherent characteristic of society
Extent to which less powerful members expect and accept that power is distributed unequally

High Power Distance
Centralised authority
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Decision
making responsibility are given to
subordinates
Flat organisational structures – not
many hierarchical levels
Able to question authority
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High Uncertainty Avoidance
Avoidance of risk
Need for predictability
High resistance to change
Lacks tolerance for differing behaviours
and opinions

Low Uncertainty Avoidance
Risk taking
Flexible
Little or moderate resistance to change
Tolerant of differing behaviours and
opinions

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Masculinity vs Femininity
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“Masculine” values such as competitiveness, dominance and acquisition of wealth are valued
over “Feminine” values such as nurturance, relationship building and quality of life
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Masculine culture = Goal orientated/quantity of life, Feminine culture = Process oriented/quality
of life
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Places importance on value of mastery
(of job, nature, people, etc)
Social gender roles are clearly distinct
(e
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careers are compulsory for men,
but optional for women)

Places importance on compassion,
kindness and goodwill
Main priorities in life are family,
relationships and quality of life
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g
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In individualistic cultures, style is encouraged, as individual opinions and interests are valued
over group consensus
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Goals of group are placed above individual’s
goals
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Collaborating
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Win-win, assertive, cooperative, solution-oriented
To satisfy the needs and concerns of both parties
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Would adopt collaborating
style only if their needs, interest and goals are met
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Infographics
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Any graphic that clarifies and/or explains
Includes data diagrams (e
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bar charts, pie charts, fever charts, etc) and text-based graphics
(e
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tables, time-lines, etc)

Data Diagrams
Bar Charts
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Used to compare using rectangular like bars to represent amounts within a data set
These types of charts make comparisons between different variables easy to see
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It gives the context for the report and generates the
reader’s interest
Should describe the issue or problem reported on
Orients reader to the purpose of the report and gives them a clear indication of what they can
expect
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This section also outlines the scope of investigation
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Findings are woven together and the major issues/themes are identified and discussed
Discussion should be subdivided into logical sections, with informative, descriptive headings
and a number
Section aims to:
o State/identify the main research findings/themes
o Link (compare/contrast) the results to other results
o Interpret and weave the results together to show what they mean

Conclusion and Recommendations
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Section summarises main findings of report and presents “an answer”
Difference between conclusions and recommendations is the orientation to time
Conclusions relate to present or past situation
Recommendations relate to the future: what changes are recommended, what actions are
recommended for future? They are specific, action-oriented suggestions to solve report
problem

References
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References should be written consistently in American Psychological Association (APA)
format
Should be written in a separate page
References should not be numbered

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Examples of references
Online Newspaper Article

Online Magazine Article

Journal Article (with Digital Object Identifier)

Journal Article (from an online database)

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Blog Post

Book

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Presenting Research Report
Audience Analysis
Demographics
• Do you know most members of
the audience?
• What facts do you know, such as
their age group and job
positions?
Psychographics
• What is your audience attitude
toward you?
• What is their attitude toward your
subject?

Motives
• How much interest does your
audience have in the topic?
• How can your information benefit
your audience?
Content
• How much does your audience
know about your topic?
• What do you expect your
audience to do with the
information you provide?

Structure
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Introduction stimulates interest and provides clear direction of the presentation
Body provides:
o Enough information to enable audience to understand the background for the
presentation
o Adequate supporting materials
o Scope and purpose
Conclusion clearly signals the end to the speech

Introduction
Catch the attention of
the audience:
• Ask question
• Tell humorous story
• Provide a startling fact
Preview your topics:
• Identify the main
points
• Show slide with outline

Body
Main message:
• Organize logically
(e
...
problem/solution)

Conclusion
Summary
• Recap the main ideas
and themes

Supporting ideas
Exit line
• Cite evidence as in the • Give inspirational
written report
appeal or challenges
• Use statistics
• Motivate audience to
respond or act

Rehearsing for Presentation
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Verbal communication
o Appropriate choice of words/language

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Non-verbal Communication
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Facial Expression
o Eye contact made and sustained throughout the presentation
o Cues from eyes, mouth, chin, etc
Kinesics
o Appropriate use of body language and hand gestures
o Good body posture is maintained throughout the presentation
Physical Appearance
o Dressed appropriately for the situation
Paralanguage
o Good use of vocal variety (pace, pitch and volume)
o Clear articulation and pronunciation
o Good use of the persuasive tone

Managing Anxiety
Know your
audience

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Know your
material

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Practice

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Prepare

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Define who target audience is
Ask people who are representative of the audience what
they expect from the presentation
Run agenda by a few people to see they think something is
missing or is overkill
Consider contacting participants by email beforehand and
asking them a few questions about what they expect
Greet audience members at the door and do a quick
survey of why they are there and what they expect
Understood your audience and their needs properly to
ensure that material is on target to meet their needs
Select most pertinent points from your subject and then
supplement with other material if time allows
Include occasional questions to audience to encourage
audience participation as to allow easier delivery of
information in a conversational manner which is often more
believable
Learn the organization and order of your presentation
If you do feel the need to memorize, limit it to your opening
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Will see what you look like to others
and then you can make a plan to change the things that
need changing
Use audiotape to listen how you speak, your tone and your
speed, and adjust appropriately
Prepare for large speaking events by practicing with a
smaller audience first
Decide what you are going to wear – comfortable and
appropriate
Arrive early and get your equipment set up
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Visual your
success

Breathe

Relax
Eye contact
Move
Smile

Anticipate problems and have backups and contingencies
in place in case something doesn’t work, you forgot
something, etc
• If possible, give everything one last run through in the real
environment
• Prepare responses to anticipated questions
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Helps with voice quivers, which can occur when breathing is
irregular

Last moment of peace is relaxing and gives time to adjust to
being the centre of attention
Will expand some of the nervous energy
Natural relaxant that sends positive chemicals through your
body

Managing Questions & Answers (Q&A)
Before Q&A
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Do’s
Allocate sufficient time for Q&A
Predict some questions that
questioner might ask
Set time limit for Q&A

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Don’ts
Don’t fill up entire allocated time
only for the formal presentation
Don’t allow the Q&A period to drag
on

During Q&A
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Do’s
Listen to entire question
Pause and allow yourself time to
fully understand the question
Paraphrase the question
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Acknowledge if you
don’t know the answer
Promise to get back to the
questioner, or ask your audience
for the answers

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Don’ts
Don’t interrupt or start responding
to a question before the entire
question is even asked
Don’t answer defensively or
debate with the questioner
Don’t lie
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Might
Save your concluding words for
cause weak conclusion if the last
after the formal Q&A
question/answer was negative or
neutral

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