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Biochemistry Review Module 1
DNA1
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3
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5
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7
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Located in nucleus
Double helix
Nucleic acid
Adenine/Guanine/Cytosine/Thymine
A-T/C-G pairing
Duplicates itself and passes on to generation to generation
Contains 46 chromosomes (23 pairs from mother and father)
Stores and transmits-chemicals and traits

RNA1
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3
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Carries important info from DNA to the body (Transcription)
Used to make proteins (Translation)
Single stranded
3 types of RNA (mRNA- messenger contains codons, rRNA-ribosomal contains 2 subunits and
tRNA- transfer amino acid with end codon)
5
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A-U/C-G pairing
Central Dogma- replication of DNA process= DNA- transcription- RNA- translation- Protein
Steps of DNA replication1
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New DNA synthesized by a protein called DNA polymerase
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


DNA polymerase takes the individual nucleotides and matches them up to the parental
sequences to ensure a correct pair
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Gene Expression- the ability to turn genes on and off
2
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e
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Used in mRNA form only from 5’ – 3’ for the chart
2
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Nonsense- change in 1 nucleotide produces a STOP (found on the mRNA amino acid chart)
2
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Missense- Change in 1 nucleotide leads to coding a new amino acid
DOUBLE STRANDED BREAKS
1
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e
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Insertion- changes in the amino acid and can lead to formation of STOP (chain can be longer)
2
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Base excision repair (BER): Chemical damage to a single nucleotide
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Example of damage: Rogue
oxygen attaches to a nucleotide; this is what antioxidants try to protect us from
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A
large section of nucleotides is removed, including the damage and nucleotides around it, and
replaced by DNA polymerase
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These are called thymine-thymine (T-T) dimers
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When
this happens, mismatch repair removes a large section of nucleotides, including the mismatch,
from the newly replicated DNA, and then DNA polymerase tries again
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1

Homologous recombination (HR): This is one of two types of repair for double-strand breaks
(DNA is literally cut in half)
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Example of damage: Cosmic radiation can cause double-strand breaks in astronaut’s
DNA
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If a break occurs before the DNA is replicated, the break is pasted back together
instead
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A deletion can result in a frameshift mutation, but
that is a risk our cells are willing to take because the damage from a break is a lot worse
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2
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4
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e black and white puppies make 3 black puppies and 1 white)
Incomplete Dominance- grey area (i
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black and white puppies makes grey puppy)
Co-Dominance- 2/2 (i
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black and white puppies make 2 black puppies and 2 white puppies)
Sex-Linked- X-linked traits-largely in males

Pedigree1
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3
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Carrier parents- Recessive trait (2 parents unaffected with affected offspring)
Autosomal - Males and females equally affected
Sex-Linked- Males affected >females affected
Non-carrier parents- Dominate trait

PCR- Polymerase Chain Reaction (occurs in the lab- copies a chosen segment of DNA)
PCR can be used for genetic testing or forensic testing
PCR reaction:
1
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3
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5
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Denaturation- heat DNA to 95 degrees Celsius to separate DNA strands
2
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Elongation- 70 degrees Celsius DNA polymerase can add nucleotides; building new strands of
DNA
Final = 2 molecules of DNA and can take up to 30 rounds
PCR mutation detection
1
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Use primers that stick to mutation (Anneal-if mutation is present PCR will not occur; if mutation
present without primer in place DNA polymerase will not copy strand)

Module 2- Amino Acids

R Group is the Variable Side Chain
Hydrophobic Amino Acids- Contains Carbons and Hydrogens (CH, CH2, CH3)– tend to cluster in the
middle of the protein (aggregation)
...
Sickle Cell
Arthritis
Hemophilia
Quaternary Subunit
(more than 1 peptide
polypeptide)
Ex
...

Alzheimer’s disease- the most common neurodegenerative disease, is accompanied by both intracellular
tangles and extracellular plaques (sometimes called "senile plaques"), both of which are the result of
abnormal protein aggregation
...
In Alzheimer's disease, the Tau
becomes defective and form filaments in the neuron
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Parkinson’s Disease- Accumulation alpha-synuclein is associated with the death of neurons, leading to the
typical symptoms of Parkinson’s disease, which include tremor, muscular rigidity, and slow movements
...


Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies (TSEs)- fatal diseases, which give the brain a spongy
appearance


Prion- infectious protein agent

EnzymesAre catalysts—substances that speed up chemical reactions and remain unchanged by the reaction they
facilitate
...
CO stabilizes the R-state by CO binding to same Fe in Hgb and changes heme shape
2
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H+ stabilizes the T-state (Bohr Effect by the pH impact on oxygen binding)

HEMOGLOBIN
Low affinity for O2
Transports O2
Exhibits cooperativity
4 Protein
4 Iron/Heme
4 O2
Quaternary Structure

MYOGLOBIN
High affinity for O2
Stores O2
1 Protein
1 Iron
1 O2
Tertiary Structure

Cooperative Binding- Hgb participates in this
...

Affinity-stickiness for oxygen
Bohr Effect- influence pH has on oxygen binding by hemoglobin
Left Shift- Increased affinity for O2 / Right Shift- Decreased affinity for O2

Increased CO2 = low pH
Increased CO2 = increased H+
Acidic- binds weaker (High pH)
Basic- binds stronger (Low pH)

Fetal Hemoglobin- Does not bind to 2,3 BPG and binds to O2 tighter than the mother (curve is higher
than the mother)
pH in peripheral tissues are lower than in lungs because the concentration of CO2 increases
...
ATP synthase
harnesses the energy from the proton flow to generate ATP from ADP and phosphate
...


Cori Cycle- lactate produced by fermentation leaves the cell and enters the blood
...


Cori Cycle: Gain of 2 ATP in muscle + loss of 6 ATP in liver = -4 net loss ATP
Metabolism
ANABOLISM (wgt gain)

CATABOLISM (wgt loss)

Insulin

Glucagon

Glucose

Glycogenesis

Glycogen

Glycogenolysis

Fatty Acids

Lipogenesis

Triglycerides

Lipolysis

Amino Acids

Dehydration Synthesis

Protein

Hydrolytic Cleavage

Glucose
Fatty Acids
Amino Acid

Fasting: Glucagon- Glut4 in cell membrane moves glucose out of the cells to the body
Eating: Insulin- Glut4 on the membrane to move glucose into the cell through facilitated diffusion and
active transport
...



Metformin is a drug that can lower blood glucose by decreasing efficiency of transferring
electrons in the electron transport chain, which decreases the overall production of ATP



Treatment with metformin can increase the risk of elevated lactate levels in the blood, a
condition known as lactic acidosis, because it lowers the blood pH
...
Fatty Acids- saturated (H+), unsaturated (dbl bonds), polyunsaturated (more than 1 dbl bond)
 Saturated- butter
 Unsaturated- olive oil (liquid at room temperature)
 Trans- margarine
Saturated Fatty Acids
Saturated with water
Animal Source
Solid-room temp
Stack tight
Higher temps to melt

Unsaturated Fatty Acids
1 Double Bond (or more)
Plant based
Liquid-room temp
Don’t stack well
Lower melting point

Fatty acids have two main components—a carboxylic acid and a hydrocarbon "tail
...
Acetyl COA combined with CO2 with
coenzyme BIOTIN to form Malonyl ACP
2
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Phospholipids- Glycerol backbone with 2 fatty acid tails
 Phosphate group is polar and hydrophilic
 Fatty acid tail is hydrophobic/non-polar
 Amphipathic-lipid and water soluble
 Forms membrane bilayer

Lipid Bilayer- Contains fluid mosaic
Fatty acid- leaky membrane (has spaces)
Triglycerides-leaky membrane
Phospholipids- tight pack-impermeable membrane

4
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body is making ketones and BS high, ketones build up = ketoacidosis
Increased beta oxidation of fatty acids in absence of insulin signaling

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

Diet and disease can result in ketosis or DKA
Ketoacidosis- insufficient or absent insulin

Ketone Bodies- Acetyl COA from beta oxidation converts to ketone bodies to help fuel the brain

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