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Grade 10 Academic Science
Chemistry
Definitions:
Physical Property -a description of a substance that does not involve forming a new
substance; for example colour, texture, density, melting point, solubility, and physical state
...

Chemical Property -a description of what a substance does as it changes into one or more
new substances some indicators are a new colour appears, heat or light is produced, bubbles
from a gas appear, a solid is formed when two liquids are mixed (precipitate)
...

Period -a row of elements on the periodic table of elements
...

Group - a column of elements on the periodic table of elements with similar properties
...

Alkali Metals -the elements (except for Hydrogen) in the first column in the periodic table of
elements (group 1), they are all shiny, soft, highly reactive metals at standard temperature and
pressure and readily lose their outermost electron to form cations with charge +1
...
Their valance orbit is full, thus make it stable and not having to form cations
and anions
...

Compound -a pure substance composed of two or more elements into a fixed ratio
...

Ionic Bond -the simultaneous strong bond attraction of positive and negative ions in an ionic
compound
...

Polyatomic Ion -an ion made up of more than one atom that acts like a single particle and is
held together by ionic and covalent bonds
...

Molecule -a particle in which atoms are joined by covalent bonds
...


Chemical Reaction -a process in which substances interact, causing the formation of new
substances with new properties
Word Equation -a way of describing a chemical reaction using names of the the reactants and
products
Chemical Equation -a way of describing a chemical reaction using the chemical formulas of the
reactants and products
Reactants -a chemical, present at the start of a chemical reaction that is used up during the
reaction
Product -a chemical, that is produced during a chemical reaction
State Symbol -a symbol indicating the physical state of the chemical at room temperature
Eg: Solid (s), Liquid (l), Gas (g), or Aqueous (aq)
Law Of Conservation Of Mass -in any given chemical reaction the total mass of the reactants
equals the the total mass of the products
...
general formula: A+B—>AB
Decomposition Reaction -a reaction in which a large more complex molecule brakes down to
form two (or more) simpler products
...
general formula AB+C—>AC +B
Double Displacement Reaction -a reaction that occur when elements in different compounds
displace each other or exchange places, producing two new compounds
...
this kind of reaction is a single displacement reaction
...

this reaction is a syntheses reaction
...

Acid -an aqueous solution that conducts electricity, tastes sour, turn blue litmus red, a pH of 7
and below, molecular compound, and neutralizes bases
...

Acid-Base Indicator -a substance that changes colour depending on whether it is an acid or a
base
...
g
...

pH -(power of Hydrogen) is a measure of how acidic or basic a solution is
...

Neutral -neither acidic nor basic; with a pH of 7 e
...
pure water
Acid Leaching -the process of removing heavy metals from contaminated soils by adding an
acid solution to the soil and catching the solution that drains through
...
this kind of reaction is a double
displacement reaction
...
g
...
6
...

Buffering Capacity -the ability of a substance to resist changes in pH
...

-Word equation example
Reactants ————> Product
Eg: Sodium + Chlorine ————> Sodium Chloride
-How to write it in chemical form
Eg: Calcium Phosphide
-Write the symbols for the metal and non-metal
Ca P
-Write the ionic charge in the top right corner
Ca⁺² P⁻³
-Then criss-cross the numbers down to become subscripts on the other side dont carry
down charges
Ca₃ P₂
-Bring the ratio into lowest terms
Ca₃ P₂
Multivalent Metals
-Some metals have more than one possible charge or valance electrons
...

-Eg: SnO
Tin(Ⅱ) Oxide
-When writing the chemical name it is the same as ionic compounds and do not include any
roman numerals
...

-Most polyatomic compounds don’t end in “ide” except for Hydroxide
-How to write a polyatomic compound in chemical form
Eg: Calcium Phosphate
-Write the symbols and there charges (and the subscript for the radical)
Ca⁺² PO₄ ⁻³
-Criss-cross the numbers down to become subscripts and place brackets around the the
radical if there is already a subscript
Ca₃ (PO₄)₂
-Bring the into lowest terms
Ca₃ (PO₄)₂
-How to name:
Eg: Li₂CO₃
-State the metal and radical (for radical look at the chart)
Lithium Carbonate

Name of Polyatomic Ion

Ion Formula

Ionic Charge

Nitrate Ion

NO₃⁻

-1

Nitrite Ion

NO₂⁻

-1

Hydroxide Ion

OH⁻

-1

Hydrogen Carbonate Ion

HCO₃⁻

-1

Chlorate Ion

ClO₃⁻

-1

Carbonate Ion

CO₃⁻²

-2

Sulfate Ion

SO₄⁻²

-2

Phosphate Ion

PO₄⁻³

-3

Ammonium Ion

NH₄⁺

+1

Molecular Bonds/Compounds
-Molecular bonds are sometimes called covalent bonds
-Covalent/Molecular bonds share electrons instead of gain and lose them
-Covalent/Molecular compounds are between two or more non-metals
-How to name
Eg: OF₄
-First identify the two or more elements you have (the one one the furthest left one the
periodic table of elements will come first)
Oxygen Fluorine
-Identify how many of that element you have by the appropriate prefix (the second
element always needs a prefix even if it only has one where as the first does not)
Oxygen Tetrafluorine
-The at the end of the second element you must add “ide”
Oxygen Tetrafluoride
Subcript

Prefix
1 Mono
2 Di
3 Tri
4 Tetra
5 Penta
6 Hexa
7 Hepta
8 Octa

-How to get it in chemical form
Eg: Dinitrogen Monoxide
-Look the elements and find their chemical symbol and charge
N O⁺²
-Look at the prefix and find the corresponding subscript
N₂O

Diatomic Molecules
-Only have two atoms
-Can be the same element or a different only
-They can only be the following Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Fluorine, Chlorine, Bromine,
Iodine (Hint can be remembered by Dr
...

-General formula
...
g
...

-General formula
...
g
...

-General formula
...
g
...

-The metal will replace the metal and the non-metal will replace the non-metal
-General formula
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...

-Galvanizing metal is another way to prevent corrosion and that is where you put a coding of
zinc on the steel and when it corrodes it form a proactive coding
...
It is found at 7 or less on the pH scale
...
They react with metals and
carbonates
...
g
...
g
...

-e
...
Hydrogen + Nitrate —> Nitric acid
-e
...
Hydrogen + Nitrite —> Nitrous acid
-Skeletal Equation:
-same as polyatomic compounds
-e
...
H⁺¹ + NO₃⁻¹ —> HNO₃
-e
...
H⁺¹ + NO₂⁻¹ —> HNO₂

Bases/Alkaline
-A base is an aqueous solution that conducts electricity and is an electrolyte, it tastes bitter and
feels slippery, it turns red litmus blue and neutralizes acids
...
They are ionic compounds, and always contain a Hydroxide (OH⁻), Carbonate (CO₃⁻²), or
a Hydrocarbonate (HCO₃⁻) ions
...
g
...

-e
...
Na⁺ + OH⁻ —> NaOH
-Al⁺³ + OH⁻ —> Al(OH)₃

pH Scale
-pH is a number line from 0-14 where 7 is neutral (pure water), below 7 is acidic solutions, and
above 7 are alkaline solutions
...
The the next one after that (4, or 10) is 10 x 10 x 10 more acidic or
basic the neutral and so one
...
g
...

Prokaryote -a cell that does not contain a nucleus or other membrane bound organelles
...

Chromatin - a structure in the cells nucleus made up of DNA, a stretched out, spaghetti like
like structure, invisible under a microscope and present during interphase and cytokinesis
...

Asexual reproduction -the process of producing offspring from only one parent; the
production of offspring that are genetically identical to the parent
...

Diffusion -a transport mechanism for moving chemicals into and out of the cell, from an area
of high concentration to an area of lower concentration
...
g
...

Concentration -the amount of a substance (solute) present in a given volume of solution
...

Cell Cycle -the three stages (interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis) through which a cell passes
as it grow and divides
...

Mitosis -the stage of the cell cycle in which the DNA in the nucleus is divided; the part of cell
division
...

Daughter Cell -one of two genetically identical, new cells that results from the division of one
parent cell
...

Metaphase -the second stage of mitosis, in which the chromosomes line up in the middle of
the cell
...

Telophase -the final phase of mitosis, in which the chromatids unwind and a nuclear
membrane reforms around the chromosomes at each end of the cell
...

Tumour - a mass of cells that continue to grow and divide without any obvious function in the
body
...

Malignant Tumour -a tumour that interfere with the functioning of surrounding cells; a
cancerous tumour
...
Normally travel through the
blood stream
...

Biophotonics -the technology of using light energy to diagnose, monitor, and treat living cells
and organisms
...

Tissue -a collection of similar cells that perform a particular, but limited function
...

Organ System -a system of one or more organs and structures that work together to perform
a major vital body function such as digestion or reproduction
...

Connective Tissue -a specialized tissue that provides support and protection for various
parts of the body
...

Nerve Tissue -specialized tissue that conducts electrical signals from one part of the body to
another
...

Stem Cell -an undifferentiated cell that can divide to form specialized cells
...

Circulator System -the organ system that is made up of the heart, the blood, and the blood
vessels; the system that transports oxygen and nutrients throughout the body and carries away
wastes
...

Vein -a blood vessels that returns blood to the heart
...

Respiratory System -the organs system that is made up of the nose, mouth trachea, bronchi,
and the lungs; the system that provides oxygen for the body and allows carbon dioxide to leave
the body
...

Musculoskeletal System -the organ system that is made up of bones and skeletal muscle;
the system that supports the body, protects delicate organs, and make movement possible
...

Central Nervous System -the part of the nervous system consisting of the brain and the
signal cord
Peripheral Nervous System -the part of the nervous system consisting of the nerves that
connect the body to the central nervous system
...
The cytoplasm is
mostly water, but it also contains many other substances that the cell stores until they are
needed
...
Cytoplasm is found in both prokaryote and
eukaryote cells
...
The function
of the cell membrane is both to support the cell and allow some substances to enter while
keeping others out
...
Because of this ability, the cell
membrane is called “semi-permeable membrane”
...

Nucleus: -the nucleus is a roughly spherical structure within the cell
...
This genetic information is stored in
chromosomes
...
When the cell divides, the DNA is copied so that each
new cell has a complete set of chromosomes
...


Mitochondria: -cells contain many mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) Mitochondria are
sometimes called the “power plants” of the cell because they make energy available to the cell
...
Cells store energy as a form of glucose (sugar)
...
This process is
called cellular respiration and requires oxygen
...
Mitochondria's are only found in eukaryotic cells
...
In contrast, cells that are fairly inactive (that do not to respire
quickly) tend to have very few mitochondria
...

Endoplasmic Reticulum: -the endoplasmic reticulum is a three-dimensional network of
branching tubes and pockets
...
These fluid filled tubes transport materials, such as
proteins, throughout the cell
...
In
the brain it assists with the production and release of hormones
...
There is also smooth and rough
endoplamic reticulum, the differences between them is that the rough endoplasmic reticulum
has ribosome, whereas the smooth endoplasmic reticulum does not
...

Golgi Bodies: -golgi bodies collect and process materials to be removed from the cell
...
Cells that secrete a lot of mucus, such as lining the intestine, have
many golgi bodies
...

Vacuoles: -a vacuole is a single layer of membrane enclosing fluid in a sac
...
These functions include containing some
substances, removing unwanted substances from the cell, and maintaining internal fluid
pressure (turgor) within a cell
...
Some animal cells can change their shape to wrap around and
surround smaller objects to bring them inside the cell
...
Some
white blood cells engulf bacteria to kill them
...
Then any waste material is ejected from the cell as the vacuole again joins up with the
cell membrane
...


Plant Cells
Cell Wall: -the cell wall is only found in plant cells
...
It is rigid but porous structure made of cellulose
...
The cellulose may hold
together long after the cell has died
...
Cell walls are found in both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
...
Plant cells usually have one large vacuole, which takes up most of the space
inside the cell
...
If the water level drops, however, the vacuoles lose

turgor pressure and the cells become soft
...
Vacuoles are only found in eukaryotic cells
...
Many plant cells that are exposed to
light, such as the cells of leaves, have structures called chloroplasts
...
More importantly, chloroplasts
absorb light energy
...

Carbon Dioxide + Water + energy (sunlight) —> Glucose + Oxygen
Photosynthesis allows plants to obtain their energy from the sun so that they can make their
own food
...

Chloroplasts are only found in eukaryotic cells but, prokaryotic cells have chlorophyll scattered
though out the cell
...

-types of asexual reproduction:
-Binary Fission -singled celled organisms split into 2 equal, identical cells,
e
...
amoeba, paramecium
-Budding -is when an outgrowth develops off the parent, it eventually breaks off from the
parent and goes on its own
e
...
yeast, hydra
-Fragmentation - is a method in which bd organism breaks off into separate pieces
capable of surviving on its own
e
...
algae and plants
-Spore -the parent produces cells contained in a tough resistant coating that allows the
survival of the cells in extreme environments, once conditions are favourable the cells
begin to grow into an adult organism
e
...
fungi
-Vegetative Reproduction -parents produce “runners” that then grow into a plant
e
...
strawberries, spider plants

Cell transport
-Chemicals used during cell activity and growth enter the cell across the cell membrane and
travel through the cell to where they are used
...

Chemicals move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration (the cell)
...

-Water enters and leaves cells by a process called osmosis
...


Cell Division
Reasons for cell division
-Reproduction: cells can reproduce in two different ways
...
There is also
sexual reproduction which is the production of offspring by the fusion of two gametes
and the offspring gets half of each parents DNA
...

Cells don’t get bigger because there would be a big demand on DNA and it takes a lot of
energy and nutrients to create it, also since the volume is bigger signals would get lost
throughout the cell and transporting all the energy, nutrients, water and gases would put
to much stress on the cell, therefore they divide
...
Also the cell gets its water through a process called osmosis, which
allows the water to move across the membrane toward an area of high concentrate
...

Reasons why cells would not divide
-DNA is damaged
-the cell doesn’t have the right amount of nutrient to divide
-outside signals tell the cell not to divide (old age, no damage)
-damage to the cell during interphase

Cell Cycle
-cells move through a cycle made up of three main stages: interphase, mitosis and
cytokinesis
Interphase:
-the process of interphase is the longest stage for most cells
...
During this stage, the genetic information
(DNA) is very long, thin, and invisible strands
...


G1 = growth, the cell grows and gets the essential
nutrients to grow
...

G2 = growth, the cell gets its final nutrients and
prepares to divide

Mitosis:
-the stage of the cell cycle in which the DNA in the nucleus is divided
...
Since the DNA was copied during interphase, each
chromosome consists of two identical strands called sister chromatids, that are held
together by a centromere
...

Metaphase: During metaphase, the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell
...


Anaphase: In anaphase, the single centromere that has held two chromatids together
now splits into two independent chromosomes, each pair each has their own

centromere
...

Telophase: Once the daughter chromosome have reacted their respected poles
telophase has begun
...
Also the spindle fibres now disappear
...


!

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Cytokinesis: Cytokinesis is the final stage of cell division
...
The process of cytokinesis is slightly different in plant and
animals cells
...
In
an animal cell, the cell membrane is pinched off in the centre
...
It is a result in a
mutation in the DNA or a carcinogen, which is an environment factor that causes cancer
...
The
tumour can either be benign which is a tumour that has no affect on surrounding cells other than
physically crowd they, or a malignant tumour which is a tumour that interferes with the function
of the surrounding cells; a cancerous tumour
...
If so
they can continue to grow and divide uncontrollable,and can start a secondary tumour
...

There are many different ways to diagnosing cancer/tumours
...
There is also imaging technologies that include endoscopy,
X-ray, ultrasound, CT scan, and MRI
...
X-rays/mammogram
is a photographic or digital image of the internal make up of something, especially a part of the
body, produced by X-rays being passed through it and being absorbed to different degrees by
areas in the body, x-rays allow doctor to view hard body parts
...
CT or CAT scan (computerized axial tomography) allows doctors to take multiple x-rays
of the body in many different angles
...
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) is radio waves and a strong
magnetic field create images then the computer assembles them ands then even more detailed
then CT scans
...
This term is referred to taking a biopsy and looking
at it under a microscope and diagnosing it
...

Treatments for cancer include Surgery, Chemotherapy, and Radiation
...
Chemotherapy is a drug option that slows and stops the the
spreading of the cancerous cells
...

Radiation is damaging the cancer cells by ionizing them
...
The newest technology is biophotonics, which is uses a light beam to detect and
treat the cancer
...
The single cell goes
through many divisions, as the cells of this early-stage organism, known as an embryo
...
After the embryonic phase
the organism goes on further to become more specialized and more complex, the
organism is now called a fetus
...
Cellular
differentiation is directed by the genetic information the cell
...
The stem cell
divides into two daughter cells, each resulting cell can develop into different types of
cells, based on which parts of the DNA is turn on
...

-There are two different types of stem cells
...
Tissue stem cells (sometimes called adult stem cells) exist within specialized
tissue
...


Tissue
-Animals have four main types of tissue: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and
nerve tissue
...
It is surrounded by
smooth muscle tissue to mechanically digest food
...
Also lined with blood
vessels for the purpose of absorbing the nutrients (diffusion)
...


-Muscle
-Epithelial

Large Intestine

-Shorter but wider then the small intestine
...

-Epithelial

Anus

-Section that eliminates waste
...

-Blood is made up of connective tissue
Heart:

-the main function of the heart is to pump blood to the
body
...

-capillaries: thin, tiny walls that allow oxygen and nutrients to
pass through, and carbon dioxide and waste to pass
back through
...


The circulatory system interacts with the digestive system, to bring the nutrients to the rest of
the body and bring back waste
...


The Musculoskeletal System
-Functions of the musculoskeletal system are:
supports the body
protects delicate organs
makes movement possible
bone marrow is the site of red and white blood cell synthesis

-ligaments: tough, elastic connective tissue that
holds bones and joints together (bone to
bone)
-cartilage: condensed connective tissue that
provides strong, flexible, low friction
support to the bone and other tissue
-bone: is hard and dense connective tissue, it has
canals with blood vessels and nerves
...
these fibres contract (get
thinner) which creates movement
...
Muscles
can pull but not push, therefore they always work in opposite pairs
...
g
...
the peripheral nervous system also
relays information from voluntary muscle, involuntary movements (breathing, heart
beating), carries information from sensory organs (eyes, ears, nose)
...


Physics
Definitions:
Medium -any physical substance through which energy can transferred
Radiation -a method of energy transfer that does not require a medium; the energy travels at
the speed of light
...

Visible Light -electromagnetic waves that the human eye can detect
...

Visible Spectrum the continuous sequence of colours that make up white light
...

Non-Luminous -does not produce its own light
...

Electric Discharge -the process of producing light by passing an electric current through a
gas
...

Fluorescence -the immediate emission of visible light as a result of the absorption of
ultraviolet light
...

Bioluminescence -the production of light in living organisms as the result of a chemical
reaction with little to no heat
...

Light-Emitting Diode (LED) -light produced as a result of an electric current flowing through
a semiconductor
...

Light Ray -a line on a diagram representing the direction and path that light is travelling
...

Incident light -light emitted from a source that strikes an object
...

Translucent -when a material transmits some incident light but adsorbs or reflects the rest;
objects are not clearly seem through the material
...

Image -reproduction of an object through the use of light
...

Reflection -the bouncing back of light from a surface
Plane -flat
...

Reflected Ray -the ray that bounces off a reflective surface
...


Perpendicular -at a right angle
...

Angle of Reflection -the angle between the reflected ray and the normal
...

Diffuse Reflection -reflection of light off a irregular or dull surface
...

Concave (Converging) Mirror -a mirror shaped like a part of the surface of a sphere in
which the inner surface is reflected
...

Centre of Curvature -the centre of the sphere whose surface has been used to make the
mirror
...

Vertex -the point where the principal axis meets the mirror
...

Focus -the point at which light rays parallel to the principal axis converge when they are
reflected off a concave mirror
...

Diverge -to spread apart
...

Angle of Refraction -the angle between the refracted ray and the normal
...

Critical Angle -the angle of incidence that results in a angle of refraction of 90⁰
...

Retro-Reflector -an optical device in which the emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray
...


!

Light Production
Properties of Light
Laser
-a laser does not radiate, it is one narrow beam
-one pure colour, cannot be broken down to a simpler colour
-a laser is very intense since it the electromagnetic waves are of the same wave length
Light
-radiates
-white light can be broken down into simpler colours
-isn’t as intense
How Light Interacts with Surfaces

Transparent

Translucent

Opaque

-when a material transmits all
or almost all incident light;
objects can clearly be seen
through the material
...


-when a material does not
transmit any incident light; all
incident light is either
absorbed or reflected; objects
behind the material cannot be
seen at all
...

The laws of Reflection

1)The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
2)The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal all lie on the same plane
Images in plane mirrors

-images in plane mirrors are
always virtual images, they appear flipped compared to the object, they will always be the same
size as the object
...

F = Focus -the point at which light rays parallel to
the principal axis converge when they are
reflected off a concave mirror
...

The line = Principal Axis -the line through the
centre of curvature to the midpoint of the mirror
...

Through the Curvature: light ray through C is reflected back through itself
...

Aimed At Vertex: a light ray aimed at the vertex will follow law of reflection when the angle of incidence equals
the angle of reflection
...
A
...
T
-Size: is it bigger or smaller than the object?
-Altitude: is it upright or inverted?
-Location: is it in front or behind the mirror?
-Type: is it real or virtual?

Location of Object

Size

Altitude

Location

Type

outside the centre
of curvature

smaller

inverted

between C & F

real

at the centre of
curvature

same

inverted

at C

real

between centre of
curvature and
focus

bigger

inverted

beyond C

real

at focus

no clear image

no clear image

no clear image

no clear image

between mirror
and focus

bigger

upright

behind mirror

virtual

Images in Convex Mirrors (Diverging)
Parallel Lines: light ray parallel to principal axis is reflected as if it came through the focus
...

Through the Focus: light ray at F is then reflected back parallel to the principal axis
*dotted lined are used behind the mirror
*arrows indicate the direction of the reflection

F

C

Location of object

Size

Altitude

Location

Type

this applies to all

smaller

upright

behind

virtual

Refraction
-Refraction is the bending or change in direction of light when it travels from one medium to
another
...
g
...
the incident ray
and refracted ray are on opposite sides of the line that separates the two media
...

Index of Refraction
-the index of refraction is a number that tells us how much the media has slowed down
the light
...
00x10⁸m/s)
-v is the speed of light in a medium
-the index of refraction can also be calculated by
using the sine of the two angles

v

n= sin∠i
sin ∠R
problem: calculate the speed of light in olive oil
...
48
n=c
v=c
v=3
...
03x10⁸ m/s
v
n
1
...
the larger then angle of incidence the
larger the angle of refraction will be and this continues
...
the critical angle is the angle of
incidence that produces a refracted angle of 90⁰
...
instead it will be reflected back into the medium, this is called
total internal reflection
...


Scientific Investigation Skills
Definitions:
Independent Variable -a variable that is changed by the investigator
...


Controlled Variable -a variable that the investigator has purposely controlled to keep the
experiment constant
...

Accurate Data -is following the procedure with precision to get the most accurate data and
paying attention to small detail
...

Observational Study -the careful watching and recording of a subject or phenomenon to
gather scientific information to answer a question
...

Hypothesis -a possible answer or untested explanation that relates to the initial question in an
experiment
...

Quantitative Observation -(numbers) a numerical observation that describes the qualities of
objects or events
...
g
...
The gardener planted 2
seeds in the first cup, 4 seeds in the second cup, 8 seeds in the third cup, and 16 seeds in the
forth cup
...

Hypothesize which plants will be the healthiest
...


Metric Conversion Chat
Prefix

Symbol

Factor By Which Unit Is
Multiplied

Example

giga

G

1,000,000,000 1 000 000 000m = 1Gm

mega

M

1,000,000 1 000 000m = 1Mm

kilo

k

1,000 1 000m =1km

hecto

h

100 100m = 1hm

deca

da

10 10m = 1dam
1

deci

d

0
...
1m = 1dm

centi

c

0
...
01m = 1cm

milli

m

0
...
001m = 1mm

micro

µ

0
...
000 001m = 1µm

nano

n

0
...
000 000 001m = 1nm

Data Tables and Graphs
Making a data table
-always have a title at the top and have titles on the x and y axis
-always have the independent variable as the y axis and the dependent variable as the x axis
-as have quantitate observations to put into the table



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