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BIO411
CELL BIOLOGY
LABORATORY REPORT 1, 2 AND 3
TITLE

: LAB 1 – BASIC MICROSCOPE SETUP AND CELL
LAB 2 - CELL DIFFERENTIATION
LAB 3 - FLUID MOVEMENT - OSMOSIS

LECTURER

: DR AHMAD SUHAIL KHAZALI

GROUP

: RAS2011B

MEMBERS

:

NO
...


NUR NAJWA IMAN BINTI MOHAMAD NASIR

2021899148

•
•
•

2
...


ALIA AZHANA BINTI JAMALUDDIN

2021609786

•
•

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 17 DECEMBER 2021

Lab 1 – Methodology
and results
Lab 2 – Methodology
and results
Lab 3 - Introduction
and conclusion
Lab 1 – Introduction
and conclusion
Lab 2 – Discussion
and references
Lab 3 - Discussion and
references
Lab 1 - Discussion
and references
Lab 2 - Introduction
and conclusion
Lab 3 - Methodology
and results

1
...
1
...
The word microscope means “to see small”
...
During this experiment, the plant cells and
human cells are observed
...

The compound light microscope has been chosen because it uses visible light focused via two
lenses, the ocular and the objective, to observe a tiny specimen clearly with high
magnification (40x-1000x)
...
The type of
microscope chosen is a compound light microscope
...
Monocular

Ocular lens

microscopes have one ocular lens and binocular microscopes have two ocular
lenses
...


Head

Base

Arm

Nosepiece

Coarse adjustment

Supports the objective lens system and the ocular lens, directs light toward the
ocular lens
...

Used to carry the microscope which is located between the body tube and the
base
...

Brings the specimen into focus by raising or lowering the stage, never use the
coarse focus on high power
...


Mechanical stage

Flat platform where the slide is placed for viewing
...
The best position for
the condenser is just below the opening in the stage
...

Hold the slide in place, two knobs below the stage control the precise
movement of the specimen on a mechanical stage
...

These allow you to move your slide while you are viewing it, but only if the
slide is properly clipped in with the stage clips
...


Brightness

Adjusts the intensity of the light passing through the microscope
...

To change focus on one eyepiece so as to correct for any difference in vision
between your two eyes
...
1
...
Objectives Lab 1
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...


1
...
1
...


▪

Both animal and plant cells have a cell membrane and a nucleus
...


▪

If cheek cells show big, irregularly shaped cells, it is animal cell
...
2 Background Lab 2
Staining is a microscopy technique for enhancing contrast in a microscopic vision
...
Staining techniques divide into two which is
simple staining and differential staining
...
The most basic reason for staining cells is to
improve visualization of the cell or specific structures by increasing the contrast between the
organism and the background
...
Next, it helps to determine the staining characteristic of the
organism and in some cases directs disease diagnosis and shows the purity of the culture
(Brukner,2021)
...
The number of sperm per unit volume is used to calculate it
...
To determine the total
number of sperm, the hemocytometer required a fixed volume of semen
...

The various chambers used to determine sperm count are designed to provide the sperm with
a depth that is appropriate for them, minimalizing the need for dilution
...
The Makler chamber
can be used to measure sperm motility and count at the same time (Grace, 2018)
...
Mitosis serves two primary functions, which are growth and cell replacement
...
These phases occur in strict chronological order, beginning with prophase and ending
with cytokinesis, which is the process of dividing the genetic material to create two new cells
...
Mitosis is responsible for the vast majority of
cell divisions in your body
...


1
...
2 Objective Lab 2
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...
To evaluate with a chromosome staining technique
7
...

8
...

9
...


1
...
2
...


•

When Giemsa stained, red blood cells stain in pink, platelets in pale pink, cytoplasm of
lymphocytes stain sky blue, cytoplasm of monocytes stain pale blue and cytoplasm of
leukocytes magenta
...


Task 2: The number of sperm can be counted through the chamber in a hemocytometer
...


1
...
The diffusion of a solvent through a semipermeable membrane is depicted by
osmosis
...
Solutes cannot pass
through this obstruction when differentiated to solvent
...
When the concentration of osmotic dynamic

molecules in the two compartments is equal, the net liquid flux stops
...


The experiment with coloured celery is the simplest to carry out because it only
requires common household items
...
This experiment requires fresh celery with leaves
intact, a clear glass, water, and food colouring
...
As a result, this process
is known as osmosis, and it demonstrates how they acquired moisture by drinking water from
the ground (Teaching Tiny Tots, 2021)
...
To begin, the
independent variable is the sugar or salt concentration, the dependent variable is the final
mass of plant/animal tissue, and the control variable is the volume of plant/animal tissue
...


1
...
3

Objectives Lab 3

1
...
To determine the effect of surface area to volume ratio on osmosis
3
...

4
...
To determine the concept of osmosis in living tissues
6
...
3
...
3 Hypothesis Lab 3
•

When naked egg put into the hypotonic solution, its size will become bigger
...


•

If the solution or syrup has a higher solute concentration than the interior of the egg,
water will exit the egg's membrane by osmosis
...


2
...
1 Method 1

Method 1: Basic Microscope Setup and Use
Materials:
Light microscope, lens paper, a slide of a specimen, and lens cleaner
...
The microscope was held with both hands, one held the arm and the other under the
base when taken out from the cabinet
...
The cord was unwound from the back of the microscope and was plugged in then the
switchback of the scope was turned on
...
The ocular lenses were checked and turned until number 64 lines up with the white
line below the rotating part of the lens
...
The condenser lens below the stage was checked by putting the objective lens on low
power and moving the stage to its highest position
...
The light was adjusted to the medium or medium-high range
...
The clip on the stage was opened with one hand and a slide microscope was slid to the
stage
...

7
...

8
...

9
...
Then, move to the next highest objective lens (10X) (40X) and was
refocused
...
After finishing using it, the stage was moved to a centred position and the slide holder
to the left
...
The light and power were
turned off and the cord was wrapped
...

Method:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...


Method LAB 1B: Onion
Materials:
Coverslip, glycerine, glass slide, onion, watch glasses, distilled water, Safranin solution,
forceps, brush, needle, compound microscope, blotting paper, and dropper
...
Some distilled water was poured from the bottle into the watch glass
...
Half a piece of onion was taken and leaves were removed from the onion piece
...
A piece of transparent onion peel was removed with the forceps
...
The epidermis was put into watch glass containing distilled water
...
Some Safranin solution was taken using a dropper and a few were dropped into
another watch glass
...
By using a brush, the peel was transferred into the watch glass containing Safranin
solution
...
The epidermis was kept for 30 seconds in Safranin solution so the peel was stained
...
The peel was taken to the watch glass containing distilled water using a brush
...
By using a dropper, 2-3 drops of glycerine were put in the middle of a dry glass slide
...
The peel was transferred to the slide containing glycerine using a brush
...
The coverslip was placed gently on the peel with the help of a needle
...
The extra glycerine was removed using blotting paper
...
The glass slide was taken and placed under the compound microscope
...
The slide under the compound microscope was viewed
...
The shape of the onion cells was observed and drawn
...

Method:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...

10
...

11
...

12
...

13
...


2
...

Method:
1
...

2
...

3
...


4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...

10
...

11
...

12
...

13
...

14
...

15
...


LAB TASK 2: Calculate sperm concentration using a haemocytometer
Materials:
Haemocytometer, 3% saline, semen, pipette, phase contrast microscope, coverslips, and
humid chamber
...
The semen was diluted by 3% saline and the sample was mixed thoroughly before
counting
...
The coverslip was fixed in place over the counting chambers, 10 microliters of sample
were aspirated by inserting the tip of pipetted to the edge of the coverslip
...
The sample was ejected slowly on both two sides until it drowned up into the
counting chambers
...
The haemocytometer was placed in the humid chamber and set for 5 minutes
...
The sample was observed under a phase contrast microscope
...
The unbiased count with the biased was obtained at the 4 corners and a centre square
was selected for counting
...
20X and 40X objectives were used and the number of sperms was determined by the
loose heads of sperms within the smaller squares were counted and sperm lay on the
centre line of the triple word line were counted on the upper of the left-hand side of
the square
...
The counts were kept tracked for each of five squares using a cell counter and the
counts were added together before progressing onto the second counting chamber
...
The sperm concentration was calculated by number if sperm/mL = average of both
sides x 5 x dilution factor (400) x 10000
...

Method:
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...


10
...

11
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12
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2
...

Methods:
1
...

2
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3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
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8
...

9
...

10
...

11
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12
...

13
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14
...

15
...

16
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3
...
1 LAB 1

Plant cells

Elodea cells
400X magnification

Onion cells
400X magnification

Human cells

Cheek cells
400X magnification

3
...
02 x 10 mL

5

9 9 12 13 12
6 9

8

12 11

9

TASK 3
Stages
Interphase
Magnification: 100X

Interphase is viewed as the first and
last phase of plant cell division
...
The
nucleus is apparent
...
Creating a gritty look in the
nucleus
...

Prophase (late)
Magnification: 100X

Further chromosomal condensation
and coiling occurs at the cell's core,
resulting in the formation of
chromatids and centromeres
...

Metaphase
Magnification: 100X

Metaphase is the stage in which all
of the chromosomal pair’s line up in

Diagram

the centre of the cell, with spindle
fibres pulling to either side
...

Anaphase
Magnification: 100X

The sister chromatids have been
separated and placed on opposite
sides of the cell
...

Telophase
Magnification: 100X

The decondensation of
chromosomes begins
...

Late Telophase/ Early cytokinesis
Magnification: 100X

Individual chromosomes are lost,
forming a chromatin network
...
The formation of the cell
plate begins
...
3 Lab 3
Figure 1

After two days of the naked egg being placed in the vinegar, the egg’s colour turned
yellowish and the size became bigger than the naked egg
...
Lastly
after the shrunk egg was placed in the glass of blue water coloured, the egg turned blue and
had the biggest size compared to others
...
DISCUSSION

4
...
Cell
wall, vacuole, and chloroplast are the only differences between them
...
Elodea wet mount
and onion cells are classified as plant cells in these three experiments, whereas cheek cells are
classified as animal cells
...
Both
Elodea wet mount and onion cells contain fixed regular shaped cells, demonstrating that the
cell wall is present
...


The cell wall's function is to provide tensile strength, shape preservation, and
protection from mechanical and osmotic stress while the cell membrane helps to maintain the
integrity of the cell, control the exchange of oxygen, waste product and nutrients and confine
the contents of the cell to the inner compartment
...
Next, the chloroplast functions as the site of
the photosynthesis process by converting solar energy to chemical energy and synthesize new
organic compounds while the vacuole keeps the cells turgid, provides rigidity and support,
stores food material and waste materials, and contributes in maintaining the water balance
and in extraction (Khan Academy, 2021)
...
When ingested, this dye is toxic, and it causes irritation when it comes into contact with
the skin and eyes
...
Meanwhile,
safranin stains cartilage tissues by adhering to acidic proteoglycans with high affinity and
creating a reddish orange complex
...
(Microscopy,2021)

Cheek cells are eukaryotic cells that contain a nucleus and other organelles enclosed
in a membrane
...
This is because the stain will colour certain parts of the
cell while leaving others uncoloured, allowing you to see them clearly
...
When a cheek cell is dyed, this nucleus is
significantly darker than the rest of the cell, allowing it to be recognised
...
DNA is found in the nucleus, which
is located in the central part of the cheek cell
...
(Khan Academy, 2021)

As the precautions for the experiment, use a brush to transfer onion peel from one to
another and staining of the peel should not be neither too dark nor too light
...
Lastly, ensure the toothpick
used to scrape the cheek is clean so not cause infection to the cheek
...
2 Lab 2
In Task 1, blood cells are examined under a microscope, and the results reveal various
blood components
...
Red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells
(WBCs), and platelets cells make up the majority of blood cells (Connie Rye, 2016)
...
The absence of mitochondria also stops RBCs from using the oxygen they transport,
reducing the amount of oxygen given to the tissues (Connie Rye, 2016)
...

These cells develop in the bone marrow
...
The white blood cells in a blood smear are made up of a variety
of blood cells, including neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, monocytes, and lymphocytes
...
WBCs differ from RBCs in that they
play a larger role in the immune system
...


Granulocytes and agranulocytes are the two main types of WBC
...
Agranulocytes, such as monocytes
and lymphocytes, do not have granules in their cytoplasm
...
Some WBCs engulf and digest pathogens, while others recognise specific
microbes and mount immunological responses against them
...
Platelets are drawn to the wound when the
linings of blood vessels are injured and create a sticky clog
...


For sperm cells, the structure is made up of three parts: a head, a midpiece, and a tail
...
Once it enters the cell egg, the
chromosome fuses with the female gamete to form 46 chromosomes (Bingbing Wu1,2, Hui
Gao1, 2020)
...
The plasma membrane is
bordered by the outer acrosomal membrane, while the nuclear membrane is bounded by the
inner acrosomal membrane
...
B
...
, & Li, W
...


Between the head and the midpiece of sperm is the centriole
...
Sperm tails make up 80% of the total length of sperm and are
separated into various pieces, including a connecting piece, a midpiece, a major piece, and an
end piece
...
,
& Singh, A
...
, 2020)
...
, & Singh, A
...
, 2020)
...


Mitosis is a type of cell division in which one cell divides into two new cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell
...
As a result, during mitosis, the duplicated chromosomes are
properly split up in ordered phases
...
The phases are followed by cytokinesis, which is the division of a
cell's contents to produce new cells (Connie Rye, Biology, 2016)
...
With the presence of a cell wall, this characteristic proves that onion root tips are
plant cells
...
They may be
able to build such an arrangement because of the set shape
...


During prophase, the chromosomes supercoil, and the spindle apparatus fibres
begin to develop between centrosomes at the cell pole (Jain, 2015)
...
The next step is
prometaphase, when some fibres attach to the centromeres of each pair of sister chromatids
and begin to migrate toward the cell's centre (Jain, 2015)
...
The centromeres separate during anaphase,
and the sister chromatids begin to migrate toward the cell's opposite poles
...
During this stage, cytokinesis occurs, resulting in two distinct cells
(Jain, 2015)
...
To
begin, Giemsa stain is a staining technique used to analyse blood in both thin and thick
smears
...
Methylene blue, azure, and
eosin make up the stain, which is a differential stain
...
Secondly,
the aceto-carmine stain is a DNA-specific dye that is used to visualise the various phases of
mitosis in onion root tips cells
...
This staining technique is commonly used to dye the chromosomes of plant
species, such as sugar beet chromosomes (Tsuchiya, 1979)
...
3 Lab 3
Water moves through a membrane with the highest water concentration to the side
with the lowest water concentration, a process known as osmosis
...
When an acid and a
base combine to generate a new chemical, it dissolves the eggshell
...
This is because the vinegar has more water than the inside of the egg
...
This
membrane is selectively permeable, which means that some molecules flow through while

others are blocked
...
Water molecules
flow from the vinegar into the egg over the semi-permeable barrier to achieve equilibrium
...
If the
membrane was entirely permeable, water molecules would flow in and protein molecules
would flow out until the concentrations of both solutions were equal (2016, Eddleman)
...
When
the egg is placed in corn syrup, the membrane divides two solutions with different water
concentrations
...
Corn syrup is
mostly made up of sugar
...
The water molecules in the egg pass through osmosis and into
the corn syrup until the water concentration in all of the solutions is the same
...
As a result, the egg's
water poured into the corn syrup, shrivelling it (Scientific World, 2020)
...
Due to osmosis, water molecules move from
the egg's surface, where there were more water molecules, to the inside, where there were less
water molecules, in this hypotonic situation
...
Since the
membrane egg is permeable to food dyes, the blue water turned the egg blue (2019,
Sorenson)
...
CONCLUSIONS

5
...

Based on these three experiments, Elodea wet mount and onion cells are classified as plant
cells while cheek cells are classified as animal cells
...
Elodea wet mount and onion cells have fixed regular shaped cells, showing that
they obviously have the cell wall to provide support and are exactly the same shape of cell
...
Following the studies, we can see that both animal and plant cells have

a cell membrane and a nucleus, but the presence of a cell wall, vacuole, and chloroplast
distinguishes both animal and plant cells when plant cells have all three components
...
To get the greatest results from
microscopy, you must first understand the capabilities and limits of the light microscope
...


5
...


Giemsa blood staining techniques in blood smears allow the cytoplasm and
cytoplasmic granules of blood cells to be seen in red, while the nucleus is shown in bluepurple
...
The nucleus of eosinophils will be bluepurple, the cytoplasm will be pale pink, and the granules will be orange-red
...
Basophils have a purple nucleus with
bluish granules
...
The
nucleus of monocytes will be purple, while the cytoplasm will be pink
...


Sperm concentration can be calculated using a haemocymeter and formula if sperm
volume (mL) equals to average of both sides x 5 x dilution factor of 400 x 10000
...
All plants,
in fact, need on it to properly develop into larger, mature plants
...
Mitosis allows a
plant to maintain its health by ensuring that damaged tissues and cells are replaced in a timely
manner
...
W Service,2016)
...
3 Lab 3
When the egg was placed in vinegar (isotonic solution), the movement of water in and
out of the egg became normal
...
Water moved out of the egg due to a low concentration of water outside the egg while
in hypotonic solution (water), it swelled due to a low concentration of water inside the egg
and a higher concentration outside the egg, and thus the water moved inside the egg until it
reached equilibrium (Khan Academy, 2021)
...

Osmosis aids in nutrient absorption and the removal of waste products from the blood in
humans
...
Then there's hypotonic solution (cell lyzed),
which aids in maintaining proper electrolyte levels and hydrating the body
...


Osmosis is important in plant biology because it allows for water uptake,
photosynthesis, and common solidity
...
Water will move
out of the cell in a hypertonic solution, causing cell plasmolysis
...


REFERENCES

A
...
Onion and Cheek Cells - MeitY OLabs [Video]
...

https://www
...
com/watch?v=wMgXsrpVrJg&feature=youtu
...
(2020)
...

doi: https://doi
...
1016/j
...
2020
...
(2021, March 3)
...
Biology Articles, Tutorials & Dictionary Online
...
biologyonline
...
(2021, January 14)
...
SERC
...
carleton
...
html

Connie Rye, R
...
(2016, October 21)
...
OpenStax
...
org/books/biology/pages/40-2-components-of-theblood

de Graaf, S
...
Calculate sperm concentration using a haemocytometer
[Video]
...

https://www
...
com/watch?v=QkhKbdYl3D4&feature=youtu
...
(2016, January)
...


Carolina
...


https://m
...
com/teacher-resources/Interactive/osmosiseggsperiment/tr36904
...


Future Learn
...
Updates, Insights, and News from FutureLearn | Online
Learning for You
...
futurelearn
...
Centola
...
Sperm Concentration
...

https://www
...
com/topics/agricultural-and-biologicalsciences/sperm concentration

Jain, P
...
Onion squash method-detailed analysis for mitosis study
...
co/file/ijcms/vol-iissue-1/ijcms-vol-i-issue-1- 05
...
(2019)
...

https://keystagewiki
...
php/GCSE_Biology_Required_Practical:_Osmosis_in
_Plant_Tissue

Khan Academy
...
Tonicity: hypertonic, isotonic & hypotonic solutions (article)
...
khanacademy
...
B
...
, & Li, W
...
Mechanism of acrosome
biogenesis in mammals
...
Retrieved 5 November, 2020, from
https://doi
...
3389/fcell
...
00195

Kumar, N
...
K
...
The anatomy, movement and functions of human sperm
tail: An evolving mystery
...
https://doi
...
1093/biolre/ioaa213

Libretexts
...
8
...
Chemistry LibreTexts
...
libretexts
...
4%3A_Osmosis_and_Diffusion

Mokobi, F
...
Giemsa staining
https://microbenotes
...
(2021, May 28)
...
LibreTexts
...
libretexts
...
(2021, November 7)
...


Microbe

Notes
...
com/light-microscope/

Rijal, N
...
Giemsa stain: principle, procedure, results
...
com/giemsa-stain-principle-procedureand- results/

State, F
...
BIOLOGY 10 - Basic Microscope Setup and Use [Video]
...

https://www
...
com/watch?v=SUo2fHZaZCU&feature=youtu
...
T
...
(2018, January 7)
...
YouTube
...
youtube
...
be

Science

World
...


Naked

eggs:

Osmosis
...
scienceworld
...


(2019,

March

2)
...


Sciencing
...
com/osmosis-egg-experiments-8455706
...
(2020, February 12)
...

YouTube
...
youtube
...
be

T
...
Mitosis in Onion Root tip Experiment [Video]
...

https://www
...
com/watch?v=5-ur7bWqlDQ&feature=youtu
...
(2021)
...
https://www
...
com/toddler-science-celery-experiment
...
(15 December, 2020)
...

Retrieved

25

December,

2020,

from

https://www
...
com/science/hemoglobin

The Editors of Encyclopedia Britannica
...
Red blood cell
...
britannica
...
C
...
The sperm centrioles
...


https://doi
...
1016/j
...
2020
...
(2020)
...

Molecular and Cellular Endocrinology
...
org/10
...
mce
...
110987
...
(2021, July 21)
...

https://www
...
org/facts/what-is-mitosis



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