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CELL AND TISSUE
-anatomy and physiologySimplified Reviewer and Notes
Cell: the smallest unit of all living things
- Discovered by Robert Hooke
- Composed of 4 elements (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen) – plus
many traces of elements
- CHON (protein) is the major building material of the cell
...

- Although no one cell type is exactly like all others, cells do have the same
basic parts
...

1
...
Cytoplasm: semi fluid that surrounds the nucleus
3
...

▪ Nucleus: the control center; directs cell activity and is necessary for
reproduction
...

More specifically, DNA carries instructions for building or synthesis of
CHONs
...

- 3 regions or structures of the nucleus:
1
...
Nucleoli: are site where ribosomes are assembled
...
Chromatin: structures in the nucleus that carry the hereditary factors
(genes)
...


▪
-

Cytoplasm: the site of most cellular activities “factory area”
3 major elements:
1
...
Inclusions: not functioning units
3
...

Mitochondria: sites of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
o ATP: provides the energy for all cellular work
...

Ribosomes: actual sites of CHON synthesis
iii
...

- 2 forms of ER
1
...
Smooth ER: functions in lipid metabolism (cholesterol and fat
synthesis and breakdown), and detoxification of drugs
...

iv
...

Lysosomes: contain powerful digestive enzymes
- Lysosomal enzymes are capable of digesting worn-out or non-usable
structures and most foreign substances that enters the cell
...

vi
...

Page 1 of 8
Anatomy and Physiology: Cell and Tissue

CELL AND TISSUE
-anatomy and physiologySimplified Reviewer and Notes
-

vii
...


▪
-

-

Peroxisomes convert free radicals to hydrogen peroxide and enzyme
catalase convert hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) to water (H2O)
...

Cytoskeleton: cell’s bones and muscles; furnishes internal framework that
determines cell shape
...

- Some cells have projections called cilia:
➢ The ciliated cells of the respiratory system lining move mucus up
and away from the lungs
...
The only example of flagellated cell in the
human body is the sperm
...

Plasma Membrane/ Cell Membrane: transparent barrier that contains the
cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment
...

The structure of the plasma membrane consists of 2 lipids (fat) layers
arranged “tail to tail” in which protein molecules float
...

o Glycoproteins determine your blood type!

-

Specialization of plasma membrane:
1
...

2
...

Tight junctions: impermeable junctions
...
g
...

ii
...

iii
...


Cell Physiology
- Most cells have the ability to:
1
...
Digest foods
3
...
Reproduce
5
...
Move
7
...
E
...
air we
breathe (a mixture of gases); seawater (a mixture of water and salts); rubbing
alcohol (water and alcohol)
...
Solvent: dissolving medium; H2O is the body’s chief solvent
2
...
The solutes in body fluids include
electrolytes (such as Na+) and non electrolytes (such as CHON)
Body fluids are also an example of a solution
...
Intracellular: inside the cell; fluids are called intracellular fluid (ICF)
2
...

Interstitial fluid (ISF): surrounds each cell of the body; even bone
cells are bathed in it
...
Transcellular fluid contains
secretions from the salivary glands, pancreas, liver, and sweat
glands
...

Intravascular fluid: is blood plasma, the liquid component of
blood
...

Movement of substances through the plasma membranes happens
basically in 2 ways:
1
...

i
...

Filtration
2
...

Solute pumping

ii
...
Diffusion
2
...
Osmosis
2
...
Diffusion: “descender;” high to low
- Most solutes move by diffusion – that is, their molecules move from areas
of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration
...
” The result is
an equal distribution of solute molecules
...
Active transport: “ascender” low to high
- Molecules move from areas of lower concentration to areas of higher
concentration
...
Requires energy in the form of Adenosine
Triphosphate (ATP)
...

Solute pumping: e
...
is Na+ - K+ pump (it moves Na+ ions out of cells to
the ECF and K+ ions into cells from the ECF)
...

ii
...

Page 3 of 8
Anatomy and Physiology: Cell and Tissue

CELL AND TISSUE
-anatomy and physiologySimplified Reviewer and Notes
Exocytosis: “out of the cell”
Endocytosis: “into the cell”; the endocytosis is more specifically called
phagocytosis “cell eating”
Pinocytosis: cell drinking
...
Osmosis
- Fluids (particularly H2O) move by osmosis
...

- H2O flows passively across the membrane, from an area of high H2O
concentration to an area of lower H2O concentration
...

- Osmosis between ECF and ICF depends on the osmolarity (concentration)
of the compartments
...

- Osmosis can create a fluid imbalance between ECF and ICF compartments,
despite equal concentration of solute, if the concentrations aren’t optimal
...

2
...
Water and solutes move across capillary walls
by 2 opposing forces:
i
...


-

ii
...
This
movement would cause severe hypovolemia and shock
...

During filtration, albumin (a CHON that can’t pass through capillary
walls) remains behind in the diminishing volume of H2O
...

In capillary, blood pressure normally exceeds colloid osmotic pressure
up to the vessel’s midpoint, and then falls below colloid osmotic
pressure along the rest of the vessel
...
As long as capillary blood pressure and plasma
albumin levels remain normal, no net movement of H2O occurs
...


Cell Life Cycle
- It is the series of changes a cell goes through from the time it is formed
until it divides
...
Interphase/ Metabolic phase: in w/c the cell grows and carries on its
usual metabolic activities
...
Cell division: during w/c it produces itself
...

- An important event always precedes cell division: the genetic
material (the DNA molecules that form part of the chromatin) is
Page 4 of 8
Anatomy and Physiology: Cell and Tissue

CELL AND TISSUE
-anatomy and physiologySimplified Reviewer and Notes
duplicated exactly
...

- Remember that nucleotides join in a complementary way: Adenine
(A) always bonds to Thymine (T), and Guanine (G) always bonds
to Cytosine (C)
E
...
TAC-TGC will bond with order ATG-ACG
- Cell division consists of 2 events:
i
...

Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm; begins when mitosis is
nearly completed
...

Note: DNA replication precedes mitosis
...

Prophase
ii
...

Anaphase
iv
...

- Mitosis provides the “new cells’’ for body growth in youth and is
necessary to repair body tissue all through life
...

Cytokinesis: division of the cytoplasm; begins during late anaphase and
completes during telophase
...
This is fairly common in the
liver
...

- RNA differs from DNA in being single-stranded and in having ribose sugar
instead of deoxy-ribose and a Uracil (U) base instead of Thymine (T)
...
Epithelium/ Epithelial Tissue: covering
2
...
Muscle Tissue: movement
4
...

- Functions include protection (skin), absorption (stomach and small
intestine), filtration (kidneys) and secretion (glands)
...

By cell arrangement (layers)
a
...
Stratified epithelium (more than one cell layers)
ii
...
Squamous cells (flattened like fish scales)
b
...
Columnar cells (shaped like columns)

Although mitosis and cytokinesis usually go hand in hand, in some cases
the cytoplasm is not divided
...
Simple Epithelia: most concerned with absorption, secretion, and
filtration
...
Also forms the walls of the kidney
tubules and covers the surface of the ovaries
c) Simple columnar epithelium: lines the entire length of the digestive
tract from the stomach to the anus
...

B
...

o Transitional epithelium: is a highly modified stratified squamous
epithelium that forms the lining of only a few organs – the urinary
bladder, the ureters, and part of the urethra
...
In the bladder, it allows
more urine to be stored
...
This product, called a secretion, typically contains CHON
molecules in an aqueous fluid
...
Endocrine glands: ductless; their secretions are all hormones
2
...
Sweat and oil glands, liver and pancreas
...
T
...

Consequently, all these structures heal very slowly when injured
...


1
...

3
...

5
...
T
...
T
...
T
...
The skeleton of a
fetus is made largely of hyaline cartilage; but, by the time the baby is
born, most of that cartilage has been replaced by bone
...
T
...
T
...

- When the body is inflamed, the alveolar tissue in the area soaks up
the excess fluid like a sponge, and the area swells and becomes
puffy, a condition called edema
...

Muscle Tissue: are specialized to contract, or shorten, to produce
movement
...

Skeletal muscle
ii
...

Smooth muscle
o Skeletal muscle: attached to the skeleton; with striations
- Can be controlled voluntarily (consciously)
- When the skeletal muscles contract, they pull on bones or skin and
the result is gross body movements or changes in facial
expressions
...

o Smooth muscles/ Visceral muscle: no striations; involuntary
- Found in the walls of hollow organs such as the stomach, bladder,
uterus, and blood vessels
...

• Peristalsis: a wavelike motion that keeps food moving through the
small intestines
...

- Nervous tissue is located in Nervous system structures – brain, SC,
and nerves
...

➢ Inflammation: is a generalized (nonspecific) body response that
attempts to prevent further injury
...
Regeneration: is the replacement of destroyed tissue by the same kind
of cells
...
Fibrosis: involves repair by dense (fibrous) connective tissue, that is,
by the formation of scar tissue (fibrosis)
...
g
...
Cardiac muscle and Nervous tissue within the brain and spinal
cord are replaced largely by scar tissue
...

Perhaps even more important is its inability to perform the normal
functions of the tissue it replaces
...

Most cells (except neurons: becomes amitotic shortly after birth) undergo
mitosis until the end of puberty, when adult body size is reached and
Page 7 of 8
Anatomy and Physiology: Cell and Tissue

CELL AND TISSUE
-anatomy and physiologySimplified Reviewer and Notes
overall body growth ends
...
g
...

❖ Heart muscle and nervous tissue almost completely lose their ability to
divide when they are fully mature; that is they become amitotic
...
This is why the heart of an
individual who has had several heart attacks becomes weaker and
weaker
...


Neoplasm: abnormal mass of proliferating cells; may be benign or malignant
Hyperplasia: an increase in the size of a tissue or organ
Atrophy: decrease in size

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