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Starting blocks of liberal beliefs
Human nature
The starting point for liberals is the importance of the individual
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They stress the positive potential of
human nature
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A
good society is also one in which there is tolerance of different values, customs and beliefs
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Modern liberals have been more conscious of social injustice, and favour some external intervention by the
state to counter this
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According to
mechanistic theory, people created the state in order to serve them and act in their interests
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They are keen
that the state does not deprive people of their civil liberties
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They advocated the concept of a meritocracy, whereby individuals
succeed through their own ability and hard work
...
Linked to this is the notion of formal equality, whereby individuals are
entitled to the same legal and political rights
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People should still be free to make their own choices, but society is more than
the sum of individuals it contains
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[classical liberals] society collection of individuals/do not believe in materialism -> foundational
equality; everyone is equal at the start -> meritocracy; if everyone works hard, they will succeed -> no
need for state to provide welfare only formal equality
[modern liberals] society more than just a collection of individuals/believe in some materialism ->
foundational equality doesn’t really exist -> formal equality not enough for social equality -> need
some welfare to combat inequality

The economy
Classical liberalism’s emphasis on the individual led to a belief in free-market capitalism – the idea that the
economy is best served by limited state intervention
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10 Core principles of classical liberal and libertarian view of society and the proper role of
government:
1
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The government should only act to prevent harm to others
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Individualism – the belief that the individual is more important than the collective
The interests of individuals should not be sacrificed for what is regarded as the common good
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Scepticism about power
Power is the ability to get other people to do what you want that otherwise they would not do
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When governments ask people to
behave in a certain way and argue that it is in their own interest, it is often just a way of the government trying
to increase its power
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Rule of law
Higher principles exist through which we should examine what government does – laws that are passed and
government actions
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A classic example of this is that there should be equality
before the law – people should be treated the same in courts regardless of their gender, race or sexual
orientation
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Civil society
Classical liberals believe that most problems can be dealt with through voluntary organisation like the family,
the church and charitable organisations, because they have the greatest knowledge of the individuals they are
dealing with
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Civil society can do many of the things that the welfare state is
now expected to do
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Spontaneous order
Classical liberals believe that order can arise spontaneously – through voluntary interaction people create the
rules that they can live by
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7
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Adam Smith’s believe in the
‘invisible hand’ – economy works best if everyone is free to act in their own interest

8
...
Classic example is
free speech – people should be allowed to say things of which we disapprove
9
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Interaction with foreign countries should be based
on four freedoms – free movement of capital, labour, people and goods and services
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Limited Government
There are very few things which the government should do
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Any intervention beyond that is not justifiable
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Modern liberals believe in substantive/fair equality of opportunity – where those born with
disadvantages have the same opportunities as those with advantages
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Keynes argued
however that recessions could be avoided if the government managed demand – if the economy
slows the government should cut tax, burrow and invest even if it means increasing the national
debt
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Emphasised that the only way for this to happen is through an enabling state, with
qualified intervention and redistribution

Freedom
1
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Role of the state
3
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Attitudes towards state
2
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Running of the economy
Rationalism
1
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Nature of conflict and how it should be resolved
3
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Type of individualism which is desirable
2
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Society and its role in ensuring individualism
Liberal Democracy
1
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Type of democracy that should be encouraged
3
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Extent of formal equality
2
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Extent of role of state to ensure equality

ESSAY #1 FREEDOM
Intro: Freedom is when individuals have agency over their actions without undue restriction
from the state, society or other individuals
Para 1 – type of freedom desirable
Classical Liberals:
•

•

Negative freedom (articulated and clarified by Mill) - individuals are free if there are
the minimum amount of laws and social pressures controlling their choices
o Individualism; individuals important and rational
Freedom should only be limited when one individual infringes on the freedom of
another
o Liberty is primary political value

Modern Liberals:
•

Positive freedom - simply having no restraint is not enough for someone to flourish,
instead the state has to have an active role in enabling individuals to reach their
potential
o Mill’s concept too limited; viewed society as little more than a collection of
independent atoms
o Some materialism – society plays a role in determining the nature of an
individual
▪ Therefore, inequality of opportunity, not everyone has same freedom
so state can intervene to help provide this

Para 2 – the role of the state
All Liberals:
•

John Locke’s social contract: state is based on the agreement of the people, who
choose to give up some freedom in return for security
o Individualism – individuals most important
▪ Limited Gov – so state can’t infringe on rights of ppl

Modern Liberals:
•

State needs to expand to guarantee freedom to all
o Inequality of opportunity -> some people don’t have as much freedom as
others and therefore the state needs to narrow this gap
o John Rawls, a 19th Century modern liberal thinker, describes this increased
role of the state as qualified intervention, because the state only intervenes
to the extent necessary to ensure positive freedom and no more

Classical Liberals:
•

argue strongly against an expanded role of the state
o minimise materialism -> everyone has opportunity to achieve success

•

o individuals inherently selfish – larger state leads to a greater chance it
infringes on the rights of the people
Night watchman state – limits freedom a little in order to guard it
o Prevents individuals from acting selfishly and reducing freedom of others
o Primary political value; individuals inherently selfish

Para 3 – the role of society
Classical Liberals

•

o Methodological individualism; society little more than a collection of
independent atoms; individuals have no obligation to society
▪ Human agency
Civil society – voluntary organisations more effective than government bureaucracy
▪ Suspicion of state

Modern Liberals
•

Society to some extent organic – individuals have some obligations to society
o Materialism
o Used to justify progressive taxation etc
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This is most rational and efficient way
▪ Laissez-faire - Adam Smith ‘Invisible Hand’ economics

Modern liberals:
•
•

Agree laissez-faire is best for productivity
o Individuals rational
However, highlight that individuals in weaker positions may be exploited without
state intervention
o Positive freedom – state needs to actively intervene
o Some Materialism
▪ E
...
Child Labour Laws, maximum working hours

ESSAY #3 RATIONALISM
Intro: Rationalism is the belief that humans are rational beings, capable of reason and logic
Para 1 – how far individual reason can lead on its own to the public good and how far the
state should interfere
All Liberals:
•

Public good can be improved through individuals using their reason to address the
problems they face in their everyday life
o Individualism – importance of individual
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Whilst some classical liberals tried to limit the free will of some groups this was
because of the time they were living in, and in reality, both classical and modern
liberals are supportive of individuals being able to exercise their own judgement
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ESSAY #4 INDIVIDUALISM
Individualism is the idea that individuals should be viewed as more important than society
as a whole
...
Therefore, egotistical individualism is the best way
for individuals to be able to exercise freedom, which, for liberals, is the
primary political value

Modern liberals:
•

Developmental individualism – where individuals are encouraged to flourish so that
they can reach their potential
o Belief in positive freedom – state needs to take an active role in enabling
individuals to use their agency
▪ Some materialism -> inequality of opportunity

Para 2 – The role of the state in ensuring individualism
All Liberals:
•

•

John Locke’s social contract: state is based on the agreement of the people, who
choose to give up some freedom in return for security
o Limited Gov – so state can’t infringe on rights of ppl
Therefore, agreement that there needs to be a state to enable individuals to have
agency
o This is the case for both types as state clearly needed to facilitate both

Modern Liberals:
•

State needs to expand to encourage individuals to flourish and reach their potential
(developmental individualism)
o Inequality of opportunity -> some people don’t have as much freedom as
others and therefore the state needs to narrow this gap
o John Rawls, a 19th Century modern liberal thinker, describes this increased
role of the state as qualified intervention, because the state only intervenes
to the extent necessary to ensure positive freedom and no more

Classical Liberals:
•
•

•

State does not need to be large to ensure egotistical individualism
argue strongly against an expanded role of the state
o minimise materialism -> everyone has opportunity to achieve success
o individuals inherently selfish – larger state leads to a greater chance it
infringes on the rights of the people
Night watchman state – limits freedom a little in order to guard it
o Prevents individuals from acting selfishly and reducing freedom of others
o Primary political value; individuals inherently selfish

Para 3 – society and its role in ensuring individualism
Classical Liberals:
•
•
•

Methodological individualism – society exists for the sake of individuals and there is
no collective relationship between individuals
Society is clearly not needed to facilitate egotistical individualism
However, because of suspicion of the state, classical liberals do emphasise that civil
society can be more effective than Government bureaucracy at helping people

Modern Liberals:
•
•

•

Agree that individual is key and society is less important
However, society is of some importance to facilitate developmental individualism
o Also believe in social contract and don’t want state to expand too much and
so also believe that society will often be needed to ensure developmental
individualism
Society to some extent organic
o Used to justify progressive taxation etc
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g
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This helps to explain the nature of the entire disagreement
as Classical Liberals do not see equality as an important political value and see
freedom as the primary political value

Overall: whilst all liberals tend to support the idea of democracy, there is a clear and
tangible difference between the systems of governance supported by modern liberals and
classical liberals
...

Para 1 – Extent of formal equality
All Liberals:
•

Foundational Equality – legal and political rights
o Whilst everyone has innate difference, they must be considered equal in
value by the state

Classical Liberals:
•

Classical Liberal thinkers have advocated Virtual Representation
o Those who are less rational can have their legal and political rights
represented by others who are rational
o John Locke - Women, viewed as less rational, had their right to property
represented by their husbands
▪ However, in reality this view of virtual representation is not consistent
with Classical Liberal ideology which stresses that all individuals are
important and rational and also highlights the need for toleration
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Consequently, it might be more accurate to
say that that classical liberal ideology really believes in universal
representation
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John
Mill also well known for his ideas on tolerance which in his view was
fundamentally differences as a result of the innate difference
between individuals

Modern liberals:
•

•

Universalist
o All individuals important and rational
o People with less rights do not have the same freedom, and therefore the
state needs to ensure that everyone has the same legal and political rights
and actively intervene to achieve this (positive freedom)
Virtual Representation for groups unable to look after themselves
o Children
o Disabled

Overall – in reality modern liberals and classical liberals largely agree that everyone should
have the same legal and political rights
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Para 2 – Extent of inequality
All Liberals:
•

Some inequality in society is necessary
o Agency and innate difference
o Individuals inherently selfish – need incentives to work hard

Classical Liberals:
•

More prepared to accept inequality
o Negative freedom
o Liberty primary political value – freedom far more important than equality

Modern Liberals:
•

•

Aim to reduce inequality
o Positive freedom – state must take an active role in enabling individuals to
reach their potential
▪ Some materialism – inequality reduces the chance of individuals to
flourish
However, argue against full equality
o Equality of outcome would not reflect the innate difference between
individuals and would actually mean that individuals do not have any
freedom

Para 3 – Extent of role of state to ensure equality
Classical Liberals:
•
•

Night watchman state – protects natural rights of individuals
o Foundational equality
Negative freedom – freedom comes from the absence of restraint
o Therefore, for individuals to have equality of opportunity, it is far better for
the state not to intervene
▪ Minimise role of state

Modern Liberals:
•

•

Qualified intervention
o Positive freedom
o State needs to create a level playing field to provide equality of opportunity
Agree in a somewhat limited state
o John Rawls explains the state only intervenes to the extent necessary to
provide positive freedom



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