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Human Anatomy (Biology 2)
Lecture Notes

Updated July 2017
Instructor: Rebecca Bailey

1

Chapter 1

The Human Body: An Orientation

• Terms
- Anatomy: the study of body structure and relationships among structures
- Physiology: the study of body function
• Levels of Organization
- Chemical level
1
...
the basic unit of all living things
- Tissues
1
...
tissues join together to perform a particular function
- Organ system
1
...
the whole body
• Organ Systems
• Anatomical Position
• Regional Names
- Axial region
1
...
neck
3
...
thorax
b
...
pelvis
d
...
limbs
• Directional Terms
- Superior (above) vs
...
Posterior (toward the back)(Dorsal vs
...
Lateral (away from the midline)
- Intermediate (between a more medial and a more lateral structure)
- Proximal (closer to the point of origin) vs
...
Deep (away from the surface)
• Planes and Sections divide the body or organ
- Frontal or coronal
1
...
divides into right and left halves
2
...
divides into superior/inferior
• Body Cavities
- Dorsal
1
...
vertebral cavity
- Ventral
1
...
viscera (organs) covered by serous membrane
3
...
two pleural cavities contain the lungs
b
...
the cavities are defined by serous membrane
d
...
abdominopelvic cavity
a
...
pelvic cavity has reproductive organs, bladder, portions of large intestine
c
...
8 - 140 µm in diameter, but typically 10 - 20 µm (µm=1/1000 mm or 1/25,000 inch)
- the Generalized Cell and its major parts
1
...
intracellular fluid (ICF)
b
...
nucleus is the control center
3
...
cytosol - semiliquid portion (ICF), which suspends the other parts and is a site of chemical
reaction
b
...
inclusions - temporary storage structures
• The Plasma Membrane
- Structure
1
...
important for fluidity
b
...
cholesterol
a
...
proteins
a
...
peripheral proteins are on one side only, may be enzymes or anchors for cytoskeleton
4
...
on outer surface only, includes glycoproteins and glycolipids (collectively called
glycocalyx), important for recognition of self, attachments to other cells
- Basic functions
1
...
defines boundaries and protects
3
...
selective permeability - controls what gets in and out
- Membrane Transport
1
...
diffusion - molecules move down their concentration gradient from greater → lesser
concentration, charged molecules move down electrochemical gradients
1) simple diffusion - moves through bilayer or protein channel
2) osmosis - water moves across bilayer
3) facilitated diffusion - uses a protein carrier
b
...
Active (requires the cell to use its ATP)
a
...
endocytosis - substance brought into cell
1) piece of membrane surrounds substance and pinches off inside cell (vesicle)
2) pinocytosis (cell drinking) and phagocytosis (cell eating)
c
...
double membrane
2
...
contains nucleoli - parts to make ribosomes
4
...
in the form of chromatin when cell not dividing (long thin strands)
b
...
membranous network of channels
2
...
has ribosomes (rRNA plus proteins)
b
...
smooth ER
a
...
specialized in some cells for lipid synthesis or detoxifying chemicals
- Golgi complex
1
...
processing, sorting, packaging of ER products
3
...
sacs contain digestive enzymes
a
...
breaks down substances brought in by endocytosis
- Peroxisomes
1
...
double-membraned, makes ATP via cellular respiration
a
...
gel inside called matrix
- Vaults
1
...
found near nucleus
2
...
organizing center for parts of the cytoskeleton
• Cytoskeleton
- protein filaments running through cytosol
1
...
supports cell and organelles
- cell projections for movement made of microtubules
1
...
cilia are many small projections that move substances across the surface of the cell
• Inclusions
- No membrane, temporary storage of products like fat or glycogen

5

• Cell Division
- Cells must divide for growth, replacement of dead cells, reproduction of the organism (making
sperm/eggs)
- in somatic cells (typical body cells), division involves making two "daughter cells" that are identical to
the "parent cell"
- Cell cycle
1
...
cells divide at different rates
a
...
rapid dividers include skin cells and the cells lining the digestive tract
c
...
Interphase
a
...
lots of metabolic activity, performing the cell's usual functions
c
...
Mitosis (nuclear division, lasts about 2 hours)
a
...
metaphase - chromosomes line up in center of mitotic spindle
c
...
telophase - chromosomes uncoil, nucleoli and nuclear membrane form, mitotic spindle
breaks down
5
...
division of the cytoplasm
b
...
covers and lines body parts (sheets of cells)
2
...
two major types
1) endocrine glands secrete hormones to blood (no ducts)
2) exocrine secrete products into ducts that open to skin or lumen of organ
b
...
g
...
g
...
functional classification of exocrine glands
1) holocrine - cell accumulates product, cell dies, bursts open and substance secreted
(e
...
, sebaceous)
2) merocrine - secrete by exocytosis (most glands)
3
...
continuous sheets of closely packed, tightly joined cells
b
...
attached to 2-layered basement membrane
1) basal lamina - proteins and polysaccharides secreted by epithelial cells
2) reticular lamina - protein fibers and glycoproteins secreted by underlying connective
tissue
d
...
have nerve supply
f
...
basic functions - protection, secretion, absorption
- Connective tissue
1
...
made up of living cells plus non-living extracellular matrix
1) -blasts are immature cells that secrete matrix (e
...
, fibroblasts, chondroblasts,
osteoblasts)
2) -cytes are mature cells that help maintain matrix (e
...
, chondrocytes, osteocytes)
3) other cell types include macrophages, plasma cells (secrete antibodies), mast cells
(store chemicals that help fight invaders)
4) matrix consists of protein fibers embedded in ground substance (polysaccharides and
proteins); supports cells structurally and functionally
5) fibers include collagen (strong, flexible), elastin (strong, very stretchy), reticular fibers
(collagen with coating of glycoprotein, forms branching networks that support tissues
and organs)
b
...
most highly vascular, except cartilage which is avascular, and tendons/ligaments which
have a low supply
d
...
generates force, movement, generates heat
2
...
initiates and transmits electrical signals
2
...
adjacent plasma membranes are fused
2
...
common in epithelial sheets
- Gap junctions
1
...
allow small molecules to pass between cells
3
...
g
...
scattered over membrane surface
2
...
g
...
epithelium with underlying CT
- Cutaneous membrane covers body surface (skin)
- Mucous membranes (mucosa)
1
...
in respiratory, digestive, reproductive and urinary systems
2
...
tight junctions prevent leakage
4
...
underlying CT layer called lamina propria
6
...
lines body cavities not open to exterior, covers organs
2
...
two layers
a
...
visceral - covers organs
c
...
includes pleurae, pericardium, peritoneum
- Synovial membranes
1
...
no epithelium
3
...
secretes synovial fluid to lubricate joint

8

Chapter 5

Integumentary System

• Epidermis
- Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
1
...
produce fibrous protein keratin (as intermediate filaments of cytoskeleton)
b
...
melanocytes (8%)
a
...
have projections that extend between keratinocytes, keratinocytes phagocytize projections
to take in melanin
3
...
produced in red bone marrow
b
...
projections form a network in some layers
4
...
associated with nerve endings (tactile discs)
b
...
1 mm – 2 mm
- Layers of epidermis (strata, from deep → superficial)
1
...
one row of mainly cuboidal or columnar keratinocytes
b
...
divide often, older cells push upward and become parts of other layers (accumulate more
keratin)
d
...
stratum spinosum
a
...
some keratinocytes can still divide
c
...
stratum granulosum
a
...
nuclei and organelles degenerate, lots of keratin (many cells dead)
c
...
also lamellar granules (membrane, lots of lipids, forms waterproof barrier between this
and superficial layers)
4
...
only in thicker skin (palms and soles)
b
...
lots of keratin and keratohyaline
5
...
25 - 30 cells thick, very flat, dead keratinocytes
b
...
waterproof barrier that protects from light, heat, chemicals and invaders
d
...
cells include fibroblasts, macrophages
2
...
glands and hair follicles are embedded

9

- Regions of dermis
1
...
areolar CT with elastic fibers
b
...
loops of capillaries
d
...
cause ridges in epidermis (fingerprints)
2
...
dense irregular CT with lots of collagen and some elastin
b
...
differs in thickness in different body areas (up to 2 mm)
• Hypodermis
- Attaches dermis to underlying structures
1
...
evaporation of sweat decreases body T
2
...
physical barrier to invasion, dehydration and UV radiation
2
...
nerve cells with receptors for pain, touch, pressure, temperature
- Excretion
1
...
flow can be shifted to hard-working muscles if needed
- Vitamin D synthesis
1
...
important in absorption of calcium
• Derivatives of the Epidermis (skin appendages)
- Hair
1
...
shaft projects from surface of skin
3
...
surrounded by hair follicle (from epidermis)
b
...
arrector pili
a
...
can make hair "stand up" with cold or emotional stress
5
...
protect from light
b
...
protect eyes and nose from particles
d
...
hold chemical signals (pheromones)

10

- Sebaceous (oil) glands
1
...
ducts usually open to hair follicle
3
...
mix of fats, cholesterol, proteins, salts, pheromones
b
...
holds moisture in the skin
d
...
eccrine sweat glands (functionally merocrine)
a
...
ducts open to skin surface
c
...
apocrine sweat glands (functionally merocrine)
a
...
ducts open to hair follicles
c
...
may function in sexual signaling (pheromones)
- Nails
1
...

3
...


hard, keratinized cells
nail body is visible
root is under skin
functions - grasp and manipulate objects, scratching

11

Chapter 6

Bones and Skeletal Tissues

• Functions of bone
- Support soft tissues
- Protection of internal organs
- Movement
1
...
form joints
- Mineral storage
1
...
red marrow in some bones
- Energy storage
1
...
longer than they are wide (e
...
, most bones of limbs)
- Short bones
1
...
g
...
sesamoid bones- in tendons, provide support (e
...
, patella)
- Flat bones
1
...
g
...
complex shapes (e
...
, vertebrae and hip bones)
• Basic structure of a long bone
- Diaphysis
1
...
ends of the bone
- Articular cartilage
1
...
decreases friction and absorbs shock
- Periosteum
1
...
outer fibrous layer
1) dense irregular CT
2) blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves
b
...
functions
a
...
repair of fractures
c
...
point of attachment for ligaments and tendons

12

- Medullary cavity
1
...
lining of marrow cavities
2
...
osteoblasts
a
...
on inner and outer bone surfaces
c
...
osteocytes
a
...
in cavities within bone called lacunae
c
...
osteoclasts
a
...
on inner and outer bone surfaces
c
...
25% water
2
...
collagen gives bones flexibility and strength
3
...
mainly calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate (hydroxyapatite = mineral salts)
b
...
makes up outer portion of all bones and diaphyses of long bones
2
...
blood and lymphatic vessels and nerves run through canals
b
...
osteocytes in lacunae
d
...
makes up most of bone tissue in short, flat and irregular bones, and epiphyses of long bones
a
...
no true osteons
3
...
bone forms within a CT membrane
a
...
basic steps
a
...
osteoblasts are now osteocytes in lacunae
c
...
trabeculae develop (woven bone)
e
...
bone replaces cartilage (most bone formed this way)
2
...
hyaline cartilage model surrounded by perichondrium
b
...
cartilage in center of diaphysis calcifies
d
...
secondary ossification centers form in epiphyses
• Bone Growth
- Growth in length of long bones
1
...
other side of epiphyseal plate ossifies
3
...
eventually the whole plate ossifies and becomes epiphyseal line
- Appositional growth (growth in diameter)
1
...
osteoblasts in periosteum produce new bone on outer surface
• Bone Remodeling
- Bone is constantly being broken down and reformed
1
...
due to broken blood vessels, hematoma forms (mass of clotted blood)
2
...
fracture site become swollen and painful
4
...
fibroblasts and osteoblasts migrate from periosteal and endosteal membranes
2
...
chondroblasts secrete cartilage matrix
4
...
this callus "splints" the bone
- Bony callus
1
...
fibrous joint
a
...
fibrous CT holds bones together
2
...
no cavity
b
...
synovial joint
a
...
articular capsule and ligaments hold bones together
• Functional Classification
- Based on movement allowed
1
...
amphiarthroses are partially movable
3
...
in skull
a
...
functionally synarthrotic
2
...
complete fusion of bone
b
...
more CT than a suture (longer fibers)
2
...
functionally amphiarthrotic (depends on length of fibers)
- Gomphoses
1
...
functionally synarthrotic
• Cartilaginous Joints
- Synchondroses
1
...
epiphyseal plate is functionally synarthrosis, later becomes synostosis
3
...
fibrocartilage
2
...
ends of bones covered with articular cartilage (hyaline), which reduces friction and absorbs
shock
2
...
fibrous capsule is outer layer
1) mostly dense irregular CT
2) helps stabilize joint

15

b
...
accessory ligaments
a
...
some are extracapsular
c
...
articular discs (menisci)
a
...
allow better fit of bone surfaces
c
...
rich nerve supply
a
...
sensory nerves for pain and body position
6
...
bursae
a
...
provide extra cushioning between bones, tendons, ligaments, muscles and skin
8
...
like bursae, but wrap around tendons where there's lots of friction
b
...
gliding
a
...
example: intercarpal
ii
...
angular
a
...
flexion (decrease in angle), example: bending elbow
c
...
abduction (moving bone away from midline), example: moving arm laterally
e
...
circumduction (moving in a circle, involving b-e), example: move arm in circle at shoulder
4
...
movement of bone around its own longitudinal axis
b
...
special movements
a
...
elevation (upward motion), examples: closing mouth, shrugging shoulders
c
...
protraction (anterior movement), examples: moving jaw forward, move clavicles forward
e
...
inversion (move soles of feet medially)
g
...

i
...

k
...


dorsiflexion (move dorsum of foot toward tibia)
plantar flexion (move sole of foot to "point the toe")
supination (turning palm anteriorly or superiorly)
pronation (turning palm posteriorly or inferiorly)
opposition (move thumb toward fingertips)

- Types of synovial joints
1
...
articulating surfaces usually flat
b
...
nonaxial (does not involve movement around an axis)
2
...
convex surface fits into concave surface
b
...
monaxial (allows movement in a single axis)
3
...
rounded or pointed surface articulates with a ring of bone and ligament
b
...
monaxial
4
...
oval shaped projection fits into oval shaped depression
b
...
biaxial
5
...
modified condyloid with more freedom of motion
b
...
biaxial
6
...
ball shaped surface fits into a cup
b
...
triaxial

17

Chapter 10

Muscle Tissue

• Muscle Basics
- Three types (cells are long and thin, called fibers)
1
...
striated
b
...
many nuclei per cell
d
...
cardiac
a
...
involuntary control
c
...
smooth
a
...
involuntary control
c
...
movement
a
...
of substances within body (cardiac - pumps blood, smooth - substances move through
hollow organs)
2
...
maintain posture and stabilize joints (skeletal)
- Characteristics
1
...
contractility - ability to develop tension (muscle fiber may shorten)
3
...
elasticity – assumes original length after stretching
• Skeletal Muscle
- Associated Connective Tissue
1
...
areolar & adipose
1) stores water and fat
2) decreases heat loss
3) protects underlying tissues
2
...
dense irregular
1) holds together functional groups of muscle
2) allows free movement of muscles
3) packs spaces between muscles, nerves and blood vessels pass through
3
...
protect and support muscle cells, reinforce whole muscle, provide elasticity
1) epimysium - dense irregular CT, wraps whole muscle
2) perimysium - dense irregular CT, wraps bundles of fibers called fascicles
3) endomysium - similar to areolar CT, lots of reticular fibers, wraps each fiber
4
...
tendons are dense regular CT
b
...
very large
a
...
plasma membrane called sarcolemma
3
...
lots of glycogen (stored form of glucose) and myoglobin (a protein that binds O2)
b
...
myofibrils
a
...
made up of contractile units called sarcomeres
1) sarcomeres are made up of myofilaments
2) the arrangement of myofilaments causes the striations
c
...
sarcoplasmic reticulum
a
...
T tubules
a
...
conducts electrical signals throughout the cell so all myofibrils contract at once
7
...
when a nerve impulse signals the muscle cell, calcium is released from the SR
b
...
ATP required
- Blood supply
1
...
vessels penetrate CT layers, lot of capillaries in endomysium
- Nerve supply (see Chapter 14)
1
...
a motor unit is one motor neuron plus all the muscle fibers it innervates
b
...
fewer muscle fibers per motor unit where fine, delicate control needed (eyes, fingers)
d
...
activating more motor units at one time means a more powerful contraction
2
...
area where a neuron meets a muscle fiber
b
...
when an electrical signal (action potential) travels to the end of a neuron, the neuron
releases a chemical message called a neurotransmitter (specifically, acetylcholine at the
neuromuscular junction, also known as ACh)
d
...
this ultimately results in the muscle fiber contracting
- Muscle tone
1
...
this keeps the muscle ready to contract

19

- Fiber types
1
...
k
...
slow oxidative)
a
...
contract slowly (use ATP at a slow rate), have lots of mitochondria, myoglobin, good
capillary supply (for using O2 to make ATP)
c
...
postural muscles in back and lower limbs have lots
2
...
k
...
fast glycolytic)
a
...
contract quickly, with lots of power (use ATP at a fast rate)
c
...
fatigue quickly, good for high intensity activity
e
...
intermediate fast twitch (a
...
a
...
medium sized
b
...
have component for making ATP with oxygen (like red slow twitch)
d
...
muscles used for walking have lots
4
...
exercise can change fiber types
a
...
g
...
intense activities (e
...
, weight lifting): intermediate fast twitch → white fast twitch
c
...

d
...

- Cells connected by intercalated discs
1
...
cells contract as a unit
- Main electrical stimulation from specialized cells that spontaneously activate (autorhythmicity)
- Use oxygen to make ATP
• Smooth Muscle
- 30 - 200 µm long, 2 - 10 µm diameter at middle
- Arranged in sheets
- Has thick and thin filaments, but not in the same pattern as other muscle types
- Two basic types
1
...
groups of cells function independently
b
...
found in large blood vessels, large airways, eye (for adjusting lens and iris), arrector pili
2
...
cells electrically linked by gap junctions and contract as a unit
b
...
most smooth muscle in the body is this type (hollow organs)
d
...
can be influenced by local metabolic changes or hormones

20

Chapter 11

Muscles

• Lever Systems
- A lever is a rigid bar that moves on a fixed point (the fulcrum) when a force is applied to it; the force
(effort) applied is used to move a resistance (load)
1
...
joints = fulcrum
3
...
mechanical advantage
a
...
little effort moves a large load over a small distance
2
...
load is farther from fulcrum, effort is closer to fulcrum
b
...
first-class
a
...
seesaws, scissors, lifting head off chest
c
...
second-class levers
a
...
wheelbarrow, standing on toes
c
...
third-class levers (most muscles in the body are set up this way)
a
...
tweezers, lifting using biceps
c
...
longer fibers can shorten more and have greater range of motion
2
...
parallel (tend to be less powerful)
2
...
circular
4
...
pennate (tend to be the most powerful)
• Group Actions
- Functional types of muscles
1
...
antagonist: opposes the action of the agonist
3
...
add extra force
b
...
fixator: stabilizes prime mover
- One muscle may act as any of the functional types

21

• Origin and Insertion
- Origin: the attachment point on the more stationary (less movable) bone, usually proximal
- Insertion: the attachment point on the more movable bone, usually distal
- The insertion moves toward the origin when the muscle shortens
• Naming Muscles
- Names may be based on
...
location
2
...
relative size
4
...
location of attachments
6
...
action
• Selected Skeletal Muscles (see handouts)

22

Chapter 12

Nervous Tissue

• Organization of the Nervous System
- Central nervous system (CNS)
1
...
integrating and command center
- Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
1
...
carry electrical signals to and from brain
2
...
carry electrical signals to and from the spinal cord
3
...
sensory (afferent) division
1) carries signals toward CNS, from skin, muscles and joints (somatic), and from visceral
organs (visceral)
b
...

1
...
cells that receive and transmit electrical signals
2
...
supporting cells of CNS and PNS
- Neuroglia
1
...
astrocytes
1) hold neurons together
2) repair of injury and scar formation
3) induce changes in blood vessels to form the blood-brain barrier hold neurons together
4) take up and break down some neurotransmitters (chemical signal molecules)
5) maintain ion concentrations
b
...
ependymal cells
1) line cavities in brain and spinal cord
2) help form and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
d
...
in PNS
a
...
satellite cells support clusters of neuron cell bodies (in ganglia)
- Neurons (nerve cells)
1
...
can vary in structure but all have some common features
3
...
cell body (soma)
1) nucleus and other organelles
2) well developed rough ER
3) plasma membrane has receptors for neurotransmitters (receives chemical signals)
4) clusters in CNS called nuclei, in PNS called ganglia

23

b
...
axon (nerve fiber)
1) one long projection from cell body, begins at axon hillock
2) may be up to a few feet long
3) may have branches called collaterals
4) ends in many branches called axon terminals
5) carries electrical signals away from the cell body (signal called depolarization or action
potential or nerve impulse)
6) when AP reaches terminals, neurotransmitters are released
d
...
connect to other neurons at synapses
• Bundles of Axons
- Called a nerve in PNS
1
...
endoneurium wraps each fiber
b
...
epineurium wraps entire nerve
- Called a tract in CNS
• Structural classification of neurons
- Multipolar neurons
1
...
most neurons of the brain and spinal cord
- Bipolar neurons
1
...
in retina of eye, inner ear, olfactory (smell) neurons
- Unipolar neurons
1
...
sensory neurons
b
...
central process enters CNS
• Functional Classification of Neurons
- Sensory (afferent) neurons
1
...
unipolar
3
...
conduct signals away from CNS to muscles and glands
2
...
cell bodies usually in CNS

24

- Association neurons (interneurons)
1
...
multipolar
3
...
about 99% of neurons in the body
5
...
nerve cell bodies and dendrites
2
...
unmyelinated axons
4
...
bundles of myelinated axons

25

Chapter 13/14

The Brain and Cranial Nerves

• Major Parts of the Brain
- Cerebrum
1
...
thalamus
2
...
epithalamus
- Brain stem
1
...
pons
3
...
two cerebellar hemispheres
• Protection and Coverings
- Cranial meninges
1
...
dura mater
1) tough outer layer
2) dense irregular CT
b
...
pia mater
1) inner layer
2) delicate CT covering brain
3) subarachnoid space is between arachnoid mater and pia mater, contains
cerebrospinal fluid
2
...
periosteal layer (outer)
1) periosteum of cranial bones
b
...
between layers are dural sinuses
d
...
similar to plasma
2
...
functions
a
...
maintained at optimal chemical levels (ions, nutrients, etc
...
the ventricles are cavities within the brain that contain CSF
a
...
lined with ependymal cells

26

c
...
CSF formed at choroid plexuses
a
...
CSF reabsorbed into venous circulation
a
...
circulation of CSF
- Blood-brain barrier
1
...
only things that can get through the lipid bilayer of capillary cells can pass easily (e
...
, O2,
CO2), and some things are specially transported (glucose, amino acids)
3
...

1
...
allows us to perceive, understand, communicate, remember, do voluntary movements
b
...
three major kinds of functional areas
1) motor areas- control voluntary motor function
2) sensory areas- conscious awareness of sensation
3) association areas- integrate diverse information
d
...
hemispheres not equal in function
1) left side generally more involved in logical, analytical tasks like language and math
2) right side generally more involved in spatial perception, art, music
2
...
provides for communication between all areas of CNS and PNS
b
...
basal nuclei (basal ganglia)
a
...
corpus striatum (caudate nucleus and lentiform nucleus, which consists of putamen and
globus pallidus)
c
...
mostly important in motor pathways (communicate with cortex)

27

• Diencephalon
- Epithalamus
1
...
part of endocrine system
b
...
masses of gray matter and tracts of white matter
a
...
made up of several nuclei, each with a functional specialty
3
...
preliminary processing of sensory input - screens out unimportant stimuli and passes on
significant input to the appropriate area of cortex
b
...
some degree of consciousness
- Hypothalamus
1
...
integrating center for homeostasis, links the ANS and endocrine system
a
...
regulates water balance through urine output and has "thirst center" (contains
osmoreceptors that sense concentration of body fluids)
c
...
controls endocrine functioning (produces hormones, regulates pituitary)
e
...
controls ANS centers in brain stem (cardiovascular, respiratory)
g
...
pituitary connected by infundibulum
a
...
cerebral peduncles- motor and sensory fiber tracts
2
...
reflex centers
a
...
inferior colliculi- auditory reflexes, like turning toward a loud noise
4
...
substantia nigra and red nucleus- involved in motor pathways, interact with basal nuclei
b
...
periaqueductal gray matter- sympathetic responses like increased heart rate and blood
pressure and pain suppression
- Pons
1
...

3
...


motor and sensory fiber tracts
middle cerebellar peduncles- carry info from cortex to cerebellum
nuclei for cranial nerves V, VI and VII
respiratory centers- smooth out inspirations and expirations

28

- Medulla oblongata
1
...
motor and sensory fiber tracts
3
...
inferior cerebellar peduncles- carry info on equilibrium from vestibular nuclei and info on
proprioception from spinal cord to cerebellum (olives are nuclei acting as relay stations)
5
...
ANS nuclei
a
...
respiratory center- regulates basic rhythm of respiration
c
...
an area of gray and white matter running through the core of the brain stem
2
...
important in maintaining consciousness and overall alertness of cortex (reticular activating
system, RAS)
- Limbic System
1
...
deals with all aspects of emotion and physical expression of emotion (e
...
, anger, fear, crying,
laughing, gestures)
• Cerebellum
- Consists of vermis and cerebellar hemispheres with lobes (anterior, posterior, flocculonodular)
- Has gray and white matter (white matter forms "arbor vitae")
- Cerebellar peduncles connect it to brain stem
- Receives sensory information, especially from proprioceptors
- Sends information to motor areas of brain
1
...
adjusts posture to maintain equilibrium
• Cranial Nerves
- Mnemonic device- Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet, AH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

I
II
III
IV
V
VI
VII
VIII
IX
X
XI
XII

OLFACTORY
OPTIC
OCULOMOTOR
TROCHLEAR
TRIGEMINAL
ABDUCENS
FACIAL
VESTIBULOCOCHLEAR
GLOSSOPHARYNGEAL
VAGUS
ACCESSORY
HYPOGLOSSAL

29

Chapters 13/14

The Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

• Protection and coverings
- Vertebral column
1
...
vertebral ligaments also protect
- Fat in the epidural space between wall of vertebral canal and meninges
- Meninges (spinal meninges), cover cord and spinal nerves until they exit vertebral column
1
...
extended thickened portions of pia mater called denticulate ligaments fuse with arachnoid
mater and dura mater to hold cord in place laterally
• External Anatomy
- Extends from brain to second lumbar vertebra
- Two thickened areas
1
...
nerves to and from upper limbs arise from this area
2
...
nerves to and from lower limbs arise from this area
- Two grooves
1
...
posterior median sulcus
- Conus medullaris
1
...
extension of pia mater attaches cord to coccyx
- Cauda equina
1
...
has two sides, connected by gray commissure
a
...
anterior (ventral) horns - contain cell bodies of motor neurons supplying skeletal muscle
c
...
lateral horns- contain cell bodies for autonomic motor neurons which supply
smooth/cardiac muscle and glands, only in thoracic, lumbar and sacral segments
2
...
anterior (ventral) white columns, posterior (dorsal) white columns, lateral white columns
a
...
descending (motor) tracts- carry signals away from brain
2
...
ascending tracts
a
...
posterior column tracts (fasciculus gracilis, fasciculus cuneatus)
1) carry info on proprioception (sense of body position, comes from muscles, tendons,
joints), fine touch, pressure
c
...
descending tracts
a
...
k
...
pyramidal tracts)

30

1) precise voluntary movements
b
...
all spinal reflexes are unlearned and involuntary
a
...
no brain involvement necessary, but brain is informed of what happened
2
...
integrating center is brain
b
...
g
...
most reflexes can be modified with conscious effort
- Reflex arcs
1
...
sensory neuron - electrical signal travels to
...
integrating center - the part of the CNS that decides on response, brain stem or spinal cord
for unlearned reflexes
4
...

5
...
named and numbered by where they exit the vertebral column
a
...
12 thoracic (T1-T12)
c
...
5 sacral (S1-S5)
e
...
all are "mixed" nerves, meaning they carry both sensory and motor info
3
...

a
...
ventral rami, which serve the rest of the trunk and limbs
c
...
rami communicantes, which branch from thoracic ventral rami and contain ANS fibers
4
...
the ventral rami of all the spinal nerves (except thoracic) branch into networks
a
...
brachial plexus (from C5-T1)
1) serves upper limbs
c
...
sacral plexus (from L4-S4)
1) serves lower limbs
• Dermatomes
- A segment of skin served by cutaneous branches of a particular spinal nerve (all except C 1)
- Some areas overlap (trunk tends to have lots of overlap, less on limbs)

31

Chapter 14

General Senses

• Basics
- Sensation: conscious or subconscious awareness of internal or external stimuli
- Perception: conscious awareness and interpretation of sensation
- Components of sensation
1
...
a change in the environment capable of activating sensory neurons
2
...
sensory receptor or sense organ transduces stimulus into a nerve impulse
3
...
nerve impulse conducted to CNS by afferent fibers
4
...
CNS receives and interprets information
• Sensory Receptors
- Display selectivity
1
...
exteroceptors
a
...
sense the external environment
c
...
interoceptors
a
...
sense internal environment
c
...
proprioceptors
a
...
sense body position and movement
- Classification by stimulus type
1
...
sense mechanical pressure or stretching
b
...
thermoreceptors
a
...
chemoreceptors
a
...
taste, smell, changes in body fluids
4
...
sense light
5
...
sense pain

32

- Structural classification
1
...
mostly sense pain and temperature, itch
b
...
root hair plexuses sense movement of hairs (adapt quickly)
2
...
tactile corpuscles - in dermal papillae of hairless skin; sense light pressure, discriminative
touch, vibration
b
...
bulbous corpuscles - deep skin layers, joint capsules; deep pressure and stretch (adapt
slowly)
d
...
first-order neurons
a
...
carry signals to brain stem (along cranial nerves) or to spinal cord (along spinal nerves)
c
...

2
...
carry signals from spinal cord and brain stem to thalamus
b
...
synapse with
...
third-order neurons
a
...
general visceral sensory neurons
a
...
g
...
general visceral motor neurons
a
...
two neuron pathway from CNS to effector organ
a
...
sympathetic division
1) preganglionic fibers originate in thoracic and lumbar regions of spinal cord
2) preganglionic fibers are short, synapse in a sympathetic chain ganglion lying along the
vertebral column, release ACh (some pass through the chain and synapse later in a
collateral ganglion closer to the effector organ)
3) postganglionic fibers are long, terminate on effector organ and release norepinephrine
(NE)
c
...
most visceral organs are innervated by both sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers
2
...
can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on the organ innervated
4
...
sympathetic or parasympathetic tone, or tonic activity
5
...
sympathetic dominance
1) increase in blood flow to skeletal muscles (vessels dilate)
2) heart beats faster and more forcefully
3) blood pressure increases (most vessels constrict)
4) respiratory airways dilate
5) stored nutrients are broken down
6) digestive and urinary activities are inhibited
7) pupils dilate
8) sweating
b
...
g
...
white rami
a
...
contain sympathetic preganglionic fibers
2
...
branch from sympathetic chain ganglia back to a nerve
b
...
groupings of ANS fibers in thorax, abdomen and pelvis
2
...
pass along large blood vessels, supplying the vessels with fibers, then on to visceral organs
4
...
cardiac plexus
c
...
celiac (solar) plexus
e
...
e
...
, adjustments made in heart rate and force of contraction, blood pressure, respiration,
digestion, defecation, urination, pupil size changes
• Control of ANS
- mainly by hypothalamus
1
...
preganglionic sympathetic fibers innervate adrenal medulla
a
...
receptors lie in nasal epithelium of superior portion of nasal cavity
a
...
supporting cells
a
...
basal cells
a
...
stem cells that replace old receptor cells about every month
4
...
produce mucus that empties onto the olfactory epithelium by ducts (odor molecules must
dissolve in mucus to be sensed)
- Olfactory pathway
1
...
sends signals along olfactory tract to olfactory area on medial surface of temporal lobe,
limbic system and part of frontal lobe
• Gustatory Sensations: Taste
- Taste buds
1
...
in papillae (elevations on tongue)
a
...
fungiform papillae are scattered over tongue surface
c
...
three kinds of epithelial cells
a
...
supporting cells
c
...
five primary taste sensations
a
...
tongue maps no longer believed accurate, an individual receptor may respond to more
than one kind of taste
- Gustatory pathways
1
...

a
...
glossopharyngeal nerves (from posterior 1/3)
c
...
The three cranial nerves end in the medulla, from there fibers project to gustatory area in
parietal lobe via the thalamus
• Visual Sensations and the Eye
- Accessory structures of the eye
1
...
shade eyes from sunlight, protect from perspiration
2
...
protective, when disturbed trigger reflex blinking
3
...
upper and lower lids separated by palpebral fissure, they meet at medial and lateral canthi

36

(medial canthus contains lacrimal caruncle with sebaceous and sweat glands)
b
...
conjuctiva
a
...
lacrimal apparatus
a
...
blinking spreads tears to lacrimal canals, which drain to lacrimal sac and nasolacrimal
duct, and empties into nasal cavity
c
...
extrinsic eye muscles
a
...
origins are in bones of orbit, insert into outer surface of eyeball
- Eyeball structure
1
...
outer part of eye wall
b
...
vascular tunic
a
...
choroid
1) nourishes the tunics (has blood vessels)
2) contains melanin that absorbs light and prevents scattering
c
...
suspensory ligament (a
...
a
...
iris
1) colored portion of eye, continuous with ciliary body posteriorly
2) pupil is the opening
3) made up of smooth muscle
3
...
pigmented layer prevents reflection and scattering of light within the eye (melanocytes)
b
...
lens
a
...
changes shape to allow focusing of light on retina

37

5
...
anterior segment
1) filled with aqueous humor secreted by ciliary processes (drains into scleral venous
sinus)
2) nourishes lens and cornea, maintains shape of eye
b
...
light hits rods and cones, which send signals to bipolar cells, then ganglion cells
2
...
auricle (a
...
a
...
elastic cartilage covered with skin
b
...
external auditory canal (meatus)
a
...
lined with skin
1) hairs, sebaceous glands, ceruminous glands (produce cerumin, a
...
a
...
tympanic membrane
a
...
vibrates when hit by sound waves, transferring vibrations to the bones of the middle ear
- Middle ear
1
...
medial end has oval window and round window
3
...
ossicles are the bones that transmit vibration to the inner ear
a
...
the bony labyrinth is a cavity in the bone, filled with fluid (perilymph) that conducts vibrations
2
...
the cochlea contains the structures for hearing
a
...
the structures inside vibrate and hair cells are stimulated, resulting in nerve impulses
being sent along the cochlear branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve, to the medulla
where most fibers cross over, to thalamus where they synapse with fibers heading to
primary auditory cortex on the temporal lobe
5
...
vestibule contains sacs called saccule and utricle
1) each contains a macula which senses static equilibrium (head position) and linear
acceleration
b
...
when hair cells are stimulated by changes in body position or movement, they send
signals along the vestibular branch of the vestibulocochlear nerve, to the vestibular nuclei
in the medulla, then on to nuclei that control eye/head/neck movements and to cerebellum

38

Chapter 18

Blood

• Blood Basics
- about 5 liters, about 8% of body weight
- pH ranges 7
...
45
- Is a connective tissue
1
...
erythrocytes (RBCs)
b
...
platelets
2
...
transport of O2, CO2, nutrients, wastes, heat, hormones
2
...
establish osmotic pressure (holds water)
2
...
albumins- bind substances for transport
b
...
fibrinogen- blood clotting
• Formation of Blood Cells (Hematopoiesis)
- Occurs in red marrow
• Erythrocytes
- About 45% of whole blood
- Very small, about 8 µm in diameter, can squeeze through even smaller capillaries
- About 5 million/mm3
- Mature cells have no nucleus or other organelles
- Make ATP anaerobically
- Live about 120 days, most die in spleen capillaries
- Contain hemoglobin
1
...
carries some carbon dioxide
3
...
controlled by hormone erythropoietin, which is released from the kidneys in response to low
oxygen levels
- Blood types
1
...
100+ kinds of antigens
b
...
sense chemicals released from damaged tissues and move by chemotaxis
- Granulocytes
1
...
three kinds
a
...
eosinophils
1) function: kill parasites, active in ending allergic responses
2) granules contain digestive enzymes
3) 1 - 4% of all WBCs
c
...
5% of all WBCs
- Agranulocytes
1
...
two major kinds
a
...
monocytes
1) function: become active macrophages in tissues
2) 4 - 8% of all WBCs
3) very large, may look like big blobs

40

Chapter 19

The Heart

• Basics
- Found in mediastinum
- Enclosed in pericardium
1
...
attached to diaphragm, fused to vessels going to/from heart
b
...
protects heart, attaches it to surrounding structures, prevents over-filling
2
...
parietal layer lines inside of fibrous pericardium
b
...
both layers are simple squamous epithelium and areolar CT
d
...
k
...
pericardial fluid)
which decreases friction for the beating heart
-Cardiac muscle cells
1
...
contraction triggered by electrical signals
a
...
some cells are autorhythmic (they generate their own electrical activity), but can also be
influenced by ANS
- Layers of the heart
1
...
myocardium
a
...
fibrous skeleton
1) dense CT fibers that reinforce myocardium and support valves
2) limits spread of electrical activity
3
...
endothelium (simple squamous epith/areolar CT)
b
...
continuous with lining of blood vessels
• Anatomy of Heart
- Know all structures from figs
...
5bde
• Pathway of blood through the heart
- Pulmonary circuit
1
...
gas exchange occurs in lungs (picks up O2, drops off CO2)
3
...
short distance, low pressure circulation
- Systemic circuit
1
...
gas exchange at tissues (drops off O2, picks up CO2)
3
...
long distance, high resistance pathway
• Heart Valves
- Keep blood flowing in one direction only

41

- Atrioventricular valves
1
...
attached to chordae tendinae (collagen cords) which attach to
...
papillary muscles
a
...
CT covered with endothelium
2
...
branches from ascending aorta
2
...
veins carry blood back to the circulation via coronary sinus, which empties into right atrium
- Most blood delivered to heart when ventricles are relaxed
• Intrinsic Conduction System
- Sets basic rhythm of heart beats
- Autorhythmic cells
1
...
specialized to initiate and distribute electrical signals
- Located in
...
sinoatrial (SA) node (the pacemaker)
2
...
atrioventricular bundle (AV bundle)
4
...
Purkinje fibers (subendocardial conducting network)
• Extrinsic Innervation
- Modifies basic rhythm as needed
- ANS
1
...
parasympathetic slows rate
• Cardiac cycle
- All the events associated with blood flow during one complete heartbeat
- Systole is contraction phase
- Diastole is relaxation phase
• Heart sounds
- Described as lub-dup
- Caused by blood turbulence when valves close
1
...
"dup" - closing of semilunar valves

42

Chapter 20

Blood Vessels

• General Pattern
- heart → arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → heart
• Basic Structure
- Three tunics surrounding a lumen
1
...
endothelium- slick surface reduces friction
b
...
elastic lamina
2
...
smooth muscle and elastin sheets
b
...
tunica externa
a
...
larger vessels have their own blood vessels to supply outer tissues (called vasa vasorum)
• Arteries
- Carry blood away from heart
- Withstand high pressure
- Three groups
1
...
aorta and major branches
b
...
5 cm in diameter)
c
...
muscular arteries
a
...
3 mm – 1 cm in diameter
c
...
active in vasoconstriction
3
...
10 µm -
...
larger ones have all three tunics
c
...
most tissues receive blood from more than one artery
2
...
also occur between veins
4
...
e
...
, muscles, liver, kidneys, lungs, and nervous system have lots

43

- Types
1
...
tight junctions
b
...
most common type
2
...
some cells have "windows" covered with a thin membrane
b
...
found where absorption or filtration needed (small intestine, endocrine glands, kidney)
3
...
very "leaky" with fenestrations and large intercellular clefts
b
...
found in liver, bone marrow, lymphoid tissues, some endocrine glands
- Capillary beds
1
...
parts
a
...
metarteriole
c
...
thoroughfare channel
e
...
smallest are mostly endothelium (8 – 100 µm diameter)
2
...
have 3 tunics
2
...
not much smooth muscle or elastin
4
...
folds of tunica intima
b
...
venous sinuses
a
...
receive blood draining from certain areas of body (e
...
, brain, heart)
• Circulatory Routes
- The "vascular tree" is constructed so all organs get a fresh supply of blood
- Systemic circulation
1
...
elastic arteries are the aorta, brachiocephalic, common carotid, subclavian, vertebral,
common iliac
b
...
all systemic veins drain into one of the following:
a
...
inferior vena cava (lower parts of body)
c
...
picks up nutrients absorbed from digestive tract and brings them to liver
a
...
breaks down toxins
- Fetal circulation
1
...
gets nutrients and oxygen from mother's blood
b
...
must send blood to and from placenta
a
...
one umbilical vein
1) brings blood from placenta to fetus
2) some blood goes to hepatic portal vein so liver can process
3) most diverted to a shunt called ductus venosus
4) eventually goes to inferior vena cava then heart
3
...
foramen ovale
1) hole in interatrial septum with a valve (blood goes from right atrium → left atrium)
2) a bit less than half the blood entering the heart is diverted this way
b
...
postnatal changes (begin immediately)
a
...
umbilical vein → ligamentum teres (round ligament)
c
...
foramen ovale → fossa ovalis
e
...
begin at lymphatic capillaries (initial lymphatics)
a
...
found most anywhere capillary beds are (not in avascular tissues, not in CNS, red bone
marrow, parts of spleen)
c
...
lymphatic collecting vessels
a
...
have 3 tunics, but very thin walls
c
...
flow maintained mainly by squeezing from surrounding skeletal muscles (also smooth
muscle of vessels, also breathing - the lymph flows toward low pressure of thoracic
region)
3
...
filters lymph, catches invaders
4
...
lymphatic ducts
a
...
right lymphatic duct
1) receives lymph from upper right side of body
2) empties into right subclavian vein
• Lymphoid Organs and Tissues
- Lymph nodes
1
...
lots in neck, axillary region and groin
2
...
capsule made of dense fibrous CT extends into node as trabeculae, which form
compartments
b
...
cortex
1) lymph sinuses (filter lymph)
2) lymphoid tissue - has lots of lymphocytes and other defense cells, has germinal center
where B lymphocytes reproduce during an immune response
d
...
lymph flows in through afferent lymphatic vessels, through sinuses, exits through efferent
lymphatic vessels
4
...
macrophages destroy particles
b
...
produces blood cells
2
...
T lymphocytes migrate here and go through a maturing process signaled by thymic hormones
2
...
reticular tissue and cells
- Spleen
1
...
other cells include RBCs, macrophages, lymphocytes and other WBCs
3
...
houses defense cells and immune responses are activated
b
...
stores platelets
- Lymphoid nodules
1
...
in lamina propria of mucous membranes (mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue or MALT)
a
...
respiratory tract
c
...
reproductive tract
e
...
houses defense cells and destroys invaders
- Appendix
1
...
similar to lymphoid nodules

47

Chapter 22

Respiratory System

• Basics
- Two zones
1
...
respiratory zone (site of gas exchange)
- Function
1
...
other functions such as acid/base balance, route for water and heat loss
- Four major processes
1
...
external respiration
a
...
gas transport
a
...
internal respiration
a
...
airway
2
...
bone and hyaline cartilage
- Nasal cavity
1
...
divided by nasal septum (cartilage and bone)
3
...
respiratory mucosa is pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
b
...
nasal conchae
a
...
allow air to bounce around, so most debris is caught by mucosa
5
...
nasopharynx
a
...
pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids) in posterior walls
c
...
oropharynx
a
...
stratified squamous epithelium
c
...
laryngopharynx
a
...
stratified squamous epithelium

48

• Larynx (voice box)
- Air passageway
- Made up of cartilages, ligaments, muscles
- Epiglottis
1
...
contains the vocal folds
a
...
vibrate as air passes by
c
...
mucosa
a
...
submucosa
a
...
adventitia
a
...
cartilage keeps trachea open
• Bronchi and bronchial tree
- Right and left primary bronchi
- Secondary bronchi are branches that supply each lobe of lung (3 right, 2 left)
- Tertiary (segmental) bronchi are further branches
- Branches finally lead to bronchioles which are <1 mm in diameter
- Terminal bronchioles (<
...
past primary bronchi cartilage rings become irregular plates of cartilage (no cartilage in
smallest bronchioles)
2
...
smooth muscle becomes more important as the tree branches
4
...
no cilia in smallest bronchioles, macrophages take on role of debris removal
• Lungs
- Three right lobes, two left
- Covered by plurae
1
...
simple squamous epithelium (type I cells) with thin basal lamina
2
...
macrophages

49

Chapter 23

Digestive System

• Basics
- Two groups of organs
1
...
accessory organs (teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver, pancreas)
- Digestive processes
1
...
motility (propulsion and mixing)
3
...
mechanical - teeth, stomach, small intestine
b
...
absorption (small molecules absorbed into blood and lymph)
5
...
covers most organs below diaphragm
a
...
parietal layer
c
...
mesenteries
a
...
some organs are retroperitoneal (parts of intestines, pancreas, kidneys)
- Tunics
1
...
epithelium
1) stratified squamous in mouth, esophagus, anal canal
2) simple columnar in stomach and intestines
b
...
muscularis mucosae
1) thin layer of smooth muscle creates folds
2
...
areolar connective tissue, lots of vessels and nerve fibers
3
...
thicker layers of smooth muscle
1) circular, longitudinal layers
2) nerve fibers
4
...
network of nerves in digestive tract wall that regulate and coordinate (submucosal and
myenteric)
2
...
hard (maxillae and palatine bones)
2
...
mixes food with saliva, sense of taste
- Salivary glands
1
...
begin digestion of carbohydrates
3
...
mixing and storing food (makes chyme)
2
...
surface epithelial cells
a
...
mucous neck cells
a
...
parietal cells
a
...
secrete intrinsic factor for absorbing vitamin B12
4
...
secrete inactive enzyme pepsinogen (becomes the active pepsin)
5
...
G cells - make hormone gastrin

51

• Small Intestine
- The major digestive organ (most chemical digestion, nearly all absorption)
- Three parts
1
...
retroperitoneal
b
...
most digestion & absorption occurs here
2
...
ileum
a
...
modifications increase surface area available for absorption
a
...
villi are large projections of mucosa
1) between villi are intestinal crypts
c
...
mucus producing cells and enteroendocrine cells
• Pancreas
- Acinar cells secrete digestive enzymes (for protein, carbohydrates, fat)
- Duct cells secrete alkaline fluid to neutralize acidity of chyme
- Pancreatic duct and accessory duct lead to duodenum
• Liver
- Four lobes (right, left, caudate, quadrate)
- Made up of lobules
1
...
bile ducts carry bile to larger ducts which eventually fuse to form the common hepatic duct
3
...
emulsify fats (break it up into small droplets to increase surface area available to digestive
enzymes)
2
...
cecum (appendix attached)
2
...
rectum
4
...
muscle arranged in bands
a
...
absorbs water, electrolytes, vitamins made by bacteria
2
...
main excretory organ
2
...
regulates chemical makeup of blood (water/solutes, acid/base)
4
...
other structures enter and leave here
- Supporting tissue
1
...
fibrous CT on surface adds protection
2
...
holds kidney in place, cushions, protects
- Internal anatomy
1
...
medulla (made up of medullary pyramids)
3
...
sinus (space made by the hilus)
a
...
contains renal pelvis which drains collecting ducts (pelvis is continuous with ureter and
has major and minor calyces)
- Blood and nerve supply
1
...
renal veins
3
...
functional unit of kidney (about 1 million/kidney)
2
...
glomerulus and parts of tubule
a
...
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)
1) begins cuboidal epithelium
2) lots of microvilli for reabsorption and secretion
c
...
distal convoluted tubule (DCT)
1) some microvilli
e
...
most nephrons are cortical (lie mainly in the cortex) and some are juxtamedullary (loops dip to
the end of the medulla, which is called the papilla)
5
...
glomerulus has afferent and efferent arterioles, and pressure forces fluid into the nephron

53

b
...
juxtaglomerular apparatus
a
...
mucosa (transitional epithelium)
2
...
adventitia
• Bladder
- Muscular sac that stores urine
- Trigone
1
...
mucosa (transitional epithelium)
2
...
adventitia
• Urethra
- Drains urine from bladder
- Mucosal epithelium changes along length
1
...
stratified/pseudostratified columnar (in typical male)
3
...
internal urethral sphincter (smooth muscle, involuntary)
2
...
in typical female ovaries produce eggs
2
...
gonads also secrete sex hormones
- Accessory reproductive organs
• Biological sex (different from gender)
- Genetic (chromosomal)
- Internal and External Structures
- Intersex and other differences from typical
• Typical Male
- Scrotum
1
...
two compartments
3
...
outer serous membrane is tunica vaginalis
2
...
divides each testis into a few hundred lobules
1) contain seminiferous tubules which produce sperm
2) sustentacular (Sertoli) cells support developing sperm
3) interstitial (Leydig) cells produce testosterone
- Spermatic cord contains nerves, blood vessels, ducts
- Duct system
1
...
sperm mature and are stored
2
...
runs through spermatic cord into pelvic cavity
b
...
urethra
a
...
three regions - prostatic, membranous, penile
- Accessory glands
1
...
prostate - produces about 30% of semen
3
...
semen contains alkaline fluid to neutralize the acidity of the female reproductive tract, and
fructose to provide sperm with an energy source
- Penis
1
...
contains spongy CT and smooth muscle filled with vascular spaces
a
...
supported by ligaments
2
...
cortex has follicles with gametes
4
...
receive ovulated oocyte
2
...
open end is infundibulum (ciliated fimbriae sweep oocyte into tube)
4
...
receives, retains and nourishes fertilized egg
2
...
cervical glands in mucosa secrete mucus that covers os (opening)
3
...
perimetrium (visceral peritoneum)
b
...
endometrium (mucosa - simple columnar)
1) fertilized egg implants here
2) functional layer has cyclic changes
3) basal layer forms a new functional layer each cycle
4) uterine glands are invaginations from lumen down to myometrium
- Vagina
1
...
receives semen
3
...
mucosa (stratified squamous) has rugae
b
...
adventitia
4
...
extension of vaginal mucosa at external opening
- External genitalia (vulva)
1
...
labia majora
3
...
vestibule - contains vaginal and urethral openings
5
...
fat
2
...
most cells in the body are diploid
a
...
one set from mom, one from dad
c
...
gametes are haploid
a
...
indicated by "n"
c
...
key differences from mitosis
a
...
the amount of genetic material is cut in half because homologous chromosomes pair

57

Chapter 17

Endocrine System

• Basics
- Many interactions among endocrine glands
- Interacts with nervous system
- Acts via hormones
1
...
function at very low concentrations
3
...
includes neurohormones
5
...
regulate metabolism
2
...
coping with stress
4
...
reproduction
6
...
digestion/absorption
- Glands
1
...
Thyroid
3
...
Adrenal (cortex and medulla)
5
...
Pineal
7
...
Thymus
9

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