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GEOG 322: URBAN GEOGRAPHY
Y3S2

Introduction
The study of urban places is central to many social sciences, including geography, because of
their importance not only in the distribution of population within countries but also in the
organization of economic production, distribution and exchange, in the structuring of social
reproduction and cultural life, and in the exercise of political power
...
"
(Johnston 2000, p
...

What is Urban Geography?
It is the study of how people use space in the cities
...
It
spatially analyzes how cities function i
...
their internal systems and structure, as well as
external influences on them (states etc)
...

To do this, they study the site, evolution and growth, and classification of villages, towns and
cities as well as their location and importance in relation to different regions and cities
...

An essential component within urban geography is defining what a city or urban area actually
is
...
Specialized land uses, a variety different institutions and use of resources also help in
distinguishing one city from another
...
Because it is
hard to find sharp distinctions between areas of different sizes, urban geographers often use the
rural-urban continuum to guide their understanding and help classify areas
...

History of Urban Geography
The earliest studies of urban geography in the United States focused on site and situation
...
In the 1920s, Carl Sauer became influential in urban geography as he
motivated geographers to study a city's population and economic aspects with regard to its
physical location
...

Throughout the 1950s and 1970s, geography itself became focused on spatial analysis,
quantitative measurements and the use of the scientific method
...

Using this data allowed them to do comparative studies of different cities and develop
computer based analysis out of those studies
...

Shortly thereafter, behavioral studies began to grow within geography and in urban geography
...
Instead, changes in a city arise from decisions
made by individuals and organizations within the city
...
For example, urban geographers
at this time studied how capital investment could foster urban change in various cities
...
For example, a city's site and situation is still regarded as important to
its growth, as is its history and relationship with its physical environment and natural
resources
...

Themes of Urban Geography

Although urban geography has several different focuses and viewpoints, there are two major
themes that dominate its study today
...
This approach focuses on the city system
...
This
theme mainly looks at a city's inner structure and therefore focuses on the city as a system
...
Basic land use
patterns found in all cities are:
• residential, including single-family housing and apartment buildings
• industrial, areas reserved for manufacturing of goods
• commercial, used for private business and the buying and selling of retail products
The core of a city is almost always based on commercial activity
...
Business offices and stores are found in this part of the city
...
Predictably, the value of the
land in the CBD is very high
...

URBAN MORPHOLOGY
Urban morphology is the study of the form of human settlements and the process of their
formation and transformation
...

Core and Periphery interactions




Core-periphery model of urban growth
Core-Periphery Stages of Development in a Urban System
Causes and effects of core-periphery interactions

References:
Qi et al
...
Evolving core-periphery interactions in a rapidly expanding urban landscape: The case of
Beijing
...

https://link
...
com/article/10
...
0000030415
...
f5

Xu et al
...
int/sites/default/files/2_2_Zheng%20Xu_Paper_T1
...
, 2021
...

https://transportgeography
...

The core periphery model shows spatially how economic, political, and cultural authority is
dispersed in core or dominant regions and the surrounding peripheral and semi-peripheral
regions
...
From an initial process that favors the setting of spatial inequalities, these are
eventually reduced and a functionally integrated urban system emerges
...
The pre-industrial (agricultural) society, with localized economies and
a small scale settlement structure
...
There are limited differences between spatial entities in terms of levels of
economic development
...
The concentration of the economy in the core city begins as a result of
innovation
...
The specific reasons behind this
concentration are often not too clear, location (better access) being a significant factor, but the
fact remains that a dominant center emerges within an urban system to become its growth pole
...
Among the numerous examples of such a phase are the early
industrialization of Great Britain in the late 18th century or the beginning of the colonial
incorporation of Latin America, Africa or Asia
...
Through a process of economic growth and diffusion, other growth centers
emerge
...
This diffusion is linked with increased interactions between elements of
the urban system and the construction of transport infrastructures
...
The urban system becomes fully integrated and spatial inequalities
are reduced significantly
...
The factors
that have favored spatial inequalities in the previous phases of development have structured
dominant poles of the urban system and favored the setting of a large commercial gateway,
usually a world city
...
It V - x
refers to change in both place and people
...
Urbanization means
that an increasing proportion of human society become townsfolk, and as this
happens, towns grow in population, spread in area, and make an ever-increasing
impact on the country side, both upon its appearance and upon the life of its
inhabitants
...

The degree of urbanization of a nation is generally defined as the proportion of
population resident in urban places
...
For purposes of continence, especially in statistical studies, “Urbanization
is usually considered merely in demographic sense as an increase in the proportion of

urban population (u) to the total population (t) over a period of time’s long as u/t
increases, there is urbanization, however, theoretically it is possible that this
proportion remains constant over time in a situation where there is absolutely no rural
to urban migration and both the rural and urban populations grow at the same rate
...

URBANISATION - CONCEPT AND CHARACTERISTICS
Man has spent most of his history on earth as a nomad, a wanderer without any
settled habitation due to an extremely unproductive level of technology
...
While the most
impressive fact about man's urban existence is that it is quite recent in origin — some
five or six thousand years old
...
How and where urban traits first appeared? This question is
unavoidably involved with the question of when cities began
...

(i)

Environment - that is, the degree to which a given climate, topography
and set of natural resources can support physical requirements of man
...
For any urban settlement a high
technological competence is required to produce enough food and other
facilities for dense population living permanently at a fixed place
...


Of all changes that human beings have made in the physical appearance of the world,
perhaps none is more striking than the construction of cities
...
They promoted division of labour and specialization and generated new
ideas
...
"The history of great civilization is
largely the history of what was accomplished in cities

Industrialization is the occupational or professional aspect of modern urbanisation
...
It has many other dimensions too
...
Broadly speaking urbanisation is the transformation of the total way of life of
a particular community
...
As a concomitant factor industrialization
no doubt, may affect the other aspects of social life of the community
...
Industrialization, therefore, plainly refers to the techniques CJF work, the
physical instruments of production, the scale and the size of the enterprise of the
people to sustain their life
...
It involves the
cultural elements and ideology borrowed from the western societies
...
In the Indian context it
usually refers to the pattern of life and ideology borrowed distinctly from the west
European and American countries
...
But westernization cannot be said to be the necessary element
of urbanisation
...
is yet observed
...
Saving of human labour by
replacing it with machines is an essential part of modernisation
...
Modernisation, though
goes generally with urbanisation, may occur in non-urban places as well
...

In fact, industrialisation, westernization and modernization are usually taken as the
necessary elements of urbanisation
...

There is a great deal of confusion in the use of the term 'urbanisation' and 'urbanism'
...
Urbanism represents a
particular way or style of life contrast with that of rural agriculturally dominated
communities while urbanisation refers to the process whereby a traditionally rural
bound community wholly or partially moves to adopt a different pattern of living
...
According to
Louis Wirth it is a way of life of urban places
...
Lynch calls 'urban' to what Wirth termed urbanism
...


According to Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences: "urbanisation is characterised by
movement of people from small communities concerned chiefly or solely with
agriculture to other communities generally larger, whose activities are primarily
centred in Government, trade, manufacture or allied interests
...
e
...
) pattern of economy
...
The above analysis shows that urbanisation includes the
development of urban locales and urban traits
...
It is often true
that the urban man must think faster and may speak faster keeping his thoughts to himself
...
He is likely to be
mode-conscious in matters of dress, conversation and manners
...
Let us now give some of the most obvious characteristics
...
Ways of Work
Urban work is usually described as industrial which does not mean work in factories only
...
Some work may not be
different from work in a village, but the ways of work may be different
...
More than in a rural setting, work is sold and bought by time units
...
ore efficient man becomes
in his work, the more leisure he gains
...
Mobility:

The urban way of life has never been one of fixed and enduring relationships
...
The individual may be
subjected to many social, economic and cultural pressures to hold him within fixed structures of
occupation, family, caste and others
...
It is called social or vertical mobility if one in his work life
time moves to a higher occupation with more income or to a lower occupation with less income
...
This may call for moving to a residence more suited to his
new status
...


3
...
The stranger feels
freer than in the village
...

Acquaintance and contacts must be selective and in general social interactions must be
impersonal as they are also passing
...
Thus the impersonality of urban life is a necessary and convenient way of
urban living
...
Time and Tempo Compelsions
Mainly due to the nature of work, life in the urban community becomes "clock regulated"
...

But urban life increasingly separated from the rule of nature as it becomes increasingly
industrial
...
We think of water supply system,
drainage and sewage systems, telephone and other communication networks, the street lighting
and traffic control networks as mechanisms
...
Thus the urban way of 10 life adopts a special type of rhythm in
which the going and coming of mil' ions must be coordinated and must move at a definite
tempo
...
Family Living and the Individuals
Traditionally in rural life the family has been and in large measures remains, the unit of most
production and consumption
...
But in most urban
relationships it is the individual and not the family that becomes the unit in the labour market,
in citizenship and other relations
...


6
...
Trees, grass and flowers are
selected and may be found only where man wishes them to do
...
Lines of transportation may be on the surface, under
the surface or overhead
...
There are
intricate and far reaching systems for communications
...

Demographically, the focus is on the size and density of population and nature of work of the
majority of the adults
...
Tonnies (1957) differentiated between gemeinschaft
(rural) and gesellschaft (urban) communities in terms of social relationships and values
...
Other sociologists like
Max Weber (1961) and George Simmel (1950) have stressed on dense living conditions, rapidity
of change and impersonal interaction in urban settings
...
It reflects an
organization of society in terms of a complex division of labour, high levels of technology, high
mobility, interdependence of its members in fulfilling economic functions and impersonality in
social relations
...
);
• as a set of attitudes, ideas and constellation of personalities (increased personal
disorganization, suicide, crime, delinquency and corruption)
...
Urbanization results due to the concentration of large-scale

and small scale industrial and commercial, financial and administrative set up in the cities;
technological development in transport and communication, cultural and recreational activities
...

Urbanization implies a cultural and social psychological process whereby people acquire the
material and non-material culture, including behavioral patterns, forms of organization, and ideas
that originated in, or are distinctive of the city
...

Urbanization seen in this light has also resulted in what Toynbee has called the ―Westernization‖
of the world
...
Urbanization may be manifest either as intra-society or intersociety diffusion, that is, urban culture may spread to various parts of the same society or it may
cross cultural or national boundaries and spread to other societies
...
On the other side of the diffusion coin is acculturation, the process whereby,
individuals acquire the material possessions, behavioural patterns, social organization, bodies of
knowledge, and meanings of groups whose culture differs in certain respects from their own
...

Sub-Urbanization, is closely related to over-urbanization of a city
...
Delhi is a typical example
...
It results due to the excessive development of urbanistic traits
...

Urbanization as a Socio-Cultural Process
Cities are social artifacts and stands apart from the countryside, in terms of the higher degree of
its acceptance of foreign and cross-cultural influences
...
Seen in this light, urbanization is a socio-cultural
process of transformation of folk, peasant or feudal village societies
...
The administrative or political factor often acts
as an initial stimulus for urban growth; which is then further advanced by the growth of
commercial and industrial activities
...
Today, the city is a focal point
of productive activities
...
It is the level and nature of economic activity in the city that generates growth and,
therefore, further urbanization
...
Population growth in urban areas is partly a
function of natural increase in population and partly the result of migration from rural areas and
smaller towns
...
Hence, migration or change of location of residence of people
is a basic mechanism of urbanization
...

There are three major types of spatial moments of people relevant to the urbanization process
...
It is essentially a product of the centralization of administrative, political and
economic forces in the country at the national and state capitals
...

c) The spatial overflow of metropolitan population into the peripheral urban feigned villages
leading to a process of sub-urbanization
...

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF URBANIZATION
Urbanisation has far reaching effects on larger societal process and structures
...


Family and kinship
Urbanization affects not only the family structure but also intra and inter family relations, as well
as the functions the family performs
...
Several empirical
studies of urban have pointed out that urban joint family is being gradually replaced by nuclear
family, the size of the family is shrinking, and kinship relationship is confined to two or three
generations only
...
They migrate at the time of
marriage and also when they are potential workers in the place of destination
...
Women are also found in the formal sector as industrial workers
...
Women were
traditionally relegated to the informal and family setting
...
Increasing number of women have taken to white-collar jobs and
entered different professions
...
The traditional and cultural institutions remaining the
same, crises of values and a confusion of norms have finally resulted
...

Urbanization and Rural Life
Urbanization through migration to urban centres is a global phenomenon
...
Migration has become a continuous process affecting
the social, economic and cultural lives of the villagers
...
In villages from where a large number of people have sought employment in far off
cities, urban employment becomes a symbol of higher social prestige
...
In villages situated near an industrial town with a sizable number of emigrants working in
towns and cities, face the problems of housing, marketing and social ordering
...
The growth of metropolitan cities accounts for the third type of urban impact on the
surrounding villages
...
Hence the villagers participate directly in the economic, political and social
activities, and cultural life of the city
...
Ethnic
groups get politicized and act as vote banks and pressure groups articulating their interests, and
compete for various benefits of urban life
...

Another important feature of urban politics is violence resulting from communal conflict,
political disturbance, student strikes and regional armies such as the Shiv Sena in Bombay
...


URBAN SOCIOLOGY
Urban sociology is the sociological study of life and human interaction in metropolitan areas
...
In
other words it is the sociological study of cities and their role in the development of
society
...

The philosophical foundations of modern urban sociology originate from the work of
sociologists such as Karl Marx, Ferdinand Tönnies, Émile Durkheim, Max Weber and Georg
Simmel who studied and theorized the economic, social and cultural processes of urbanization
and its effects on social alienation, class formation, and the production or destruction of
collective and individual identities
...
In what became known as the Chicago School of sociology the work of Robert
Park, Louis Wirth and Ernest Burgess on the inner city of Chicago revolutionized the purpose of
urban research in sociology but also the development of human geography through its use of
quantitative and ethnographic research methods
...


Problems of Urbanization
The patterns of urbanization in many parts of the world has been marked by regional and
interstate diversities, large scale rural to urban migration, insufficient infrastructural facilities,
growth of slums and other allied problems
...
This problem has tended to worsen over the years due to
rapid increase in population, fast rate of urbanization and proportionately inadequate addition to
the housing stock
...
In our
profit-oriented economy, private developers and colonizers find little profit in building houses in
cities for the poor and the lower middle class, and they concentrate in meeting the housing needs
of the rich as it is gainful
...
Slums are characterised by sub-standard housing, overcrowding, lack of
electrification, ventilation, sanitation, roads and drinking water facilities
...

Over Crowding
In some cities, some homes have up to five to six persons living in one room
...
One effect of dense urban living is people‘s apathy and indifference
...
It is a distinct way of life that develops among the
lowest stratum in capitalistic societies in response to economic deprivation and inequality
...

Water supply, Drainage and Sanitation
Many cities of the world especially in developing countries suffer intermittent supply which
results in a vacuum being created in empty water lines which often suck in pollutants through
leaking joints
...
Drainage situation is equally bad
...


Removing garbage, cleaning drains and unclogging sewers are the main jobs of municipalities
and municipal corporations in cities
...
The spread of slums in congested urban areas and lack of civic
sense among the settlers in these slums further adds to the growing mound of filth and diseases
...
Majority of people use buses and cars
...
They cause air pollution as well
...

Power Shortage
Power supply has remained insufficient in a majority of the urban centres
...
Conflict over power supply often creates
severe power crisis for people in the city
...
Several cities discharge 40 to 60
percent of their entire sewage and industrial effluents untreated into the nearby rivers
...
All these,
increases the chances of diseases among the people living in the urban centres
...

because of poor sanitary conditions and water contamination
...

All the above-mentioned urban problems are because of migration and overurbanization,
industrial growth, apathy and inefficiency of the administration and defective town planning
...

References:
Rao, M
...
A
...
), 1974
...

Ramachandran, R
...
Urbanization and Urban Systems In India, OUP, Delhi
...
P
...
Urbanization in India: Challenges and Opportunities, Regency Publications,
New Delhi
...
That is, goods, services, resources, production, and consumption are more concentrated at
some locations and less concentrated at other locations due to natural endowments and human
activity
...
This is a fundamental principle underlying the study of urban and regional economics
and implies that firms and households must include transportation cost and location in
production and consumption decisions
...
This sociospatial division of the urban area may result from institutional principles of social organization,
or may be the outcome of individual or collective actions, deliberate or not
Segregation as a form of unequal spatial distribution of population groups in the space;
segregation as a process relying on various mechanisms of residential and social clustering,
filtering, selection and/or exclusion; segregation as a problem revealing social ostracism and/or
discrimination, relegation, isolation of vulnerable and underprivileged groups
...
All these factors not only contributed to shape the urban landscape, but
have also influenced the socio-economic composition of the population residing in various
localities
...

SPATIAL PATTERNS OF SQUATTERS AND SLUMS

Quiz: Discuss the determinant factors for the formation and development of informal
settlements and the typologies of informal settlements (30mks)
Reference: Suditu, B
...
G
...
Informal settlements and squatting in
Romania: Socio-spatial patterns and typologies
...

Quiz: Discuss the spatial patterns and differentiation of informal settlements (30mks)

Reference: Sirueri, F
...
(2015)
...
ITC, University of Twente, Netherlands
...
In this regard, the entrance of settlers into
the city, primary habitation and their movement in the later stages, affects the rate and direction
of movements inside the cities to a great extent
...
The residential characteristics of
one city or one urban neighborhood are generally developed through localizing behavior or
individual decisions or family decisions
...

Factors forcing families to change their place of residence in the city, is subject to the desires,
ambitions and expectations which in itself it is subject to the family status, education, income,
lifestyle and the dwelling condition of these families
...

Quiz: Discuss the causes of residential mobility and their effects
...

It is important that the density of the areas with middle class and lower middle class income
which have the most residential mobility in them be increased, through observing other civil
engineering criteria and rules so that it can respond to the demand in these areas
...


http://uijs
...
ac
...
php?a_code=A-10-1-80&slc_lang=en&sid=1&sw=Old+texture

Three Models of urban Land use
The study of urban land use generally draws from three different descriptive models
...
S
...
Further, because these are general models devised to
understand the overall patterns of land use, none of them can accurately describe patterns of
urban land use in all cities
...
S
...
Other criticisms have focused on
the fact that the models are static; they describe patterns of urban land use in a generic city, but
do not describe the process by which land use changes
...

Below, we will examine the Concentric Zone Model, Sector Model and Multiple Nuclei Model
of urban land use
...
CONCENTRIC ZONE MODEL - Burgess Urban Landuse model
The Concentric Zone model is a model of the internal structure of cities in which social groups
are spatially arranged in a series of rings
...
It was originally based off Chicago
(although the model does not apply well to Chicago today)
...
The idea behind this model is that the city grows outward
from a central area in a series of rings
...
This model suggests that the social structure extends outwards from the
central business district (CBD), meaning that the lower classes live closer to the city center,
while the upper classes live farther from the city center because they can afford the commute
...
The rent tends to increase as you
get further away from the CBD and residents are more likely to rent near the center
...
Indianapolis is
a city that can be applied to the concentric zone model today
...
However, this model has its weaknesses
...


An important feature of this model is the positive correlation of socio-economic status of
households with distance from the CBD — more affluent households were observed to live at
greater distances from the central city
...
As the city grew and developed
over time, the CBD would exert pressure on the zone immediately surrounding it (the zone of
transition)
...
The process was thought to continue with each successive
neighborhood moving further from the CBD
...
As the city grew and
the CBD expanded outward, lower status residents moved to adjacent neighborhoods, and more
affluent residents moved further from the CBD
...
This states that the concentric circles are based on
the amount that people will pay for the land
...
The center of the town will have the highest number of
customers so it is profitable for retail activities
...
Residential
land use will take the surrounding land
...
This area s called downtown in the U
...
and city center in Europe
...
Also, due to the high land cost in this area, a lot of sky scrapers are built in
order to take full advantage of that land
...

2) Zone of Transition- the zone of transition contains industry and has poorer-quality
housing available
...

Most people in this area rent
...


3) Zone of the working class- This area contains modest older houses occupied by stable,
working class families
...

4) Zone of better residence- This zone contains newer and more spacious houses
...
There are a lot of condominiums in this area
and residents are less likely to rent
...
Mostly
upper class residents live in this area
...


Problems/limitations/ criticisms of the model or Burgess Theory
The model has been challenged by many contemporary urban geographers
...
Even in the United States, because of changes such as advancement
in transportation and information technology and transformation in global economy, cities are no
longer organized with clear "zones"









o
o
o
o

It assumes an isotropic plain - an even, unchanging landscape
Physical features - land may restrict growth of certain sectors
Commuter villages defy the theory, being in the commuter zone but located far from the
city
Decentralization of shops, manufacturing industry, and entertainment
Urban regeneration and gentrification - more expensive property can be found in 'low
class' housing areas
Many new housing estates were built on the edges of cities in Britain
It does not address local urban politics and forces of globalization
The model does not work well for cities which are essentially federations of similar sized
towns, for example Stoke-on-Trent?
Other Names for the Concentric Zone Model
The Burgess Model
The Bull's Eye Model
Concentric Ring Model
Concentric Circles Model

Sources: http://www
...
com/wiki/tiki-read_article
...
hofstra
...
html
http://en
...
org/wiki/Concentric_zone_model

2
...
One of these academics was Homer Hoyt, a land
economist who was mostly interested in taking a look at rents within a city as a means of
modeling the city's layout
...
His thoughts were that rents could remain relatively consistent in certain "slices" of the
model, from the downtown center all the way to the suburban fringe, giving the model a pie-like
look
...

-certain areas are more attractive for different activities because of an environmental factor or by
mere chance
...

-Hoyt theorized that cities would tend to grow in wedge-shaped patterns, or sectors, emanating
from the CBD and centered on major transportation routes
...

-For example a rail line or major highway to a nearby city may result in business development to
preferentially develop parallel to the rail line or major highway
...

Assumptions of this Model




Transportation is only easy, rapid and cheap in certain directions within the city;
The city is served by several radial routes (arteries), and that there is a difference in
accessibility between arteries



Wealthy people, owners of private cars, choose the best sites & live further from industry
and nearer to main roads;



“Attract and repel” process in action -- land uses concentrating a function in a
particular area and repelling others;



new working-class -- likely to be built next to the existing working-class housing;



new industries adjacent to old industries;



Once an area had developed a distinctive land use, it tended to retain that land use as the
city extended outwards;

Problems / Criticisms
 paying not enough attention to the existence of residential & industrial suburbs;
 areas of low cost housing do occur beside main roads near to the boundaries of most
cities;
 Little focus on the segregation of residence according to racial difference and religious
creeds Vs economic status
...

 The theory is based on early twentieth century rail transport and does not make allowances for
private cars that enable commuting from cheaper land outside city boundaries

 Physical features - physical features may restrict or direct growth along certain wedges
 The growth of a sector can be limited by leapfrog (When development skips over empty
land to build in a remote location) land use
...
Many exurbs are the product of leapfrog development
...
Multiple Nuclei Model
By 1945, it was clear to Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman that many cities did not fit the
traditional concentric zone or sector model
...
These smaller business districts acted as satellite nodes, or nuclei, of activity
around which land use patterns formed
...
At the center of their model is the CBD,
with light manufacturing and wholesaling located along transport routes
...
They are as
listed:
1
...
Outlying business district
2
...
Residential suburb

3
...
Industrial suburb

4
...
High-class residential
6
...
For example, some
economic activities that support one another (for instance, universities and bookstores) will
create a nucleus
...
g
...
Finally, other nuclei can develop from their economic
specialization (think of shipping ports and railway centers)
...
Each nucleus acts like a
growth point
...
This increase of movement allows for the specialization of regional centers (e
...

heavy industry, business park, Retail Areas)
...
The number of nuclei around which the city expands depends upon situational as well as
historical factors
...
Certain industrial activities require transportation facilities e
...
ports, railway stations etc
...

2
...
g
...

3
...
g
...

4
...
Certain events are benefited from the adjacent distance like the positions of factories and
residence
...
Certain events are easily lead negative influences to others so these events should be
avoid to exist at the same place, for example the graceful and wide greenbelt should not
be arranged beside the steel factories which make a surge of smoke
...
Certain constructions have to be built at an unsuitable area because can‘t afford the
expensive cost, the warehouse was set at the border district of a city for example
...
But the individual maintained because
the regions have their own center
...


Assumptions of the Model
1
...

3
...


Land is Flat
Even Distribution of Resources
Even Distribution of people in Residential areas
Even Transportation Costs

Criticisms of the Model
What are the problems or criticisms multiple nuclei theory??
Reference: http://www
...
com/topic/multiple-nuclei-model

Revision Questions
1
...
What are the shortfalls of the concentric zone theory?
3
...
Which theorists contributed to the concentric zone theory of urban development?
5
...
Differentiate between sector and concentric zone theory

7
...
Which theory fits best to the growth of Nairobi city?
9
...
How can these theories be applied in our modern society?
PUBLIC UTILITY SERVICES AND FACILITIES IN CITIES
Types





Water
Electricity
Sewer systems
Health care

WATER

Half of humanity now lives in cities, and within two decades, nearly 60 per cent of the
world's people will be urban dwellers
...
The exploding
urban population growth creates unprecedented challenges, among which provision for
water and sanitation have been the most pressing and painfully felt when lacking
...
These problems have enormous consequences on
human health and well-being, safety, the environment, economic growth and
development
...
Though water supply and sanitation
coverage increased between 1990 and 2008, the growth of the world's urban populations
jeopardizes those results
...

An estimated 96 per cent of the urban population globally used an improved water
supply source in 2010, compared to 81 per cent of the rural population
...

Globally, 79 per cent of the urban population used an improved sanitation facility in
2010, compared to 47 per cent of the rural population
...

Cities cannot be sustainable without ensuring reliable access to safe drinking water and
adequate sanitation
...
Sustainable, efficient and
equitable management of water in cities has never been as important as in today's
world
...
amongst yourselves

URBAN PLANNING
Urban planning (also known as regional, city, or town planning) is a technical and
political process concerned with the use of land and design of the urban environment,
including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas such as
transportation and distribution networks
...
It concerns itself with research and analysis, strategic thinking, architecture,
urban design, public consultation, policy recommendations, implementation and
management
Background of urban planning
The modern origins of urban planning lie in the movement for urban reform that arose
as a reaction against the disorder of the industrial city in the mid-19th century
...
Urban planning
can include urban renewal, by adapting urban planning methods to existing cities
suffering from decline
...

Blueprint planning
Following the rise of empiricism during the industrial revolution, the rational planning
movement (1890–1960) emphasized the improvement of the built environment based on
key spatial factors
...
To identify and design for these spatial factors, rational planning relied on a
small group of highly specialized technicians, including architects, urban designers, and
engineers
...
Through the
strategies associated with these professions, the rational planning movement developed
a collection of techniques for quantitative assessment, predictive modeling, and design
...
In both theory and practice,
this shortcoming opened rational planning to claims of elitism and social insensitivity
...
In areas
undergoing industrialization themselves, British influences combined with local
movements to create unique reinterpretations of the rational planning process
Throughout both the United States and Europe, the rational planning movement
declined in the later half of the 20th century
...
By focusing so much on design by technical elites, rational planning
lost touch with the public it hoped to serve
...
Lane (2005) describes synoptic
planning as having four central elements:
(1) an enhanced emphasis on the specification of goals and targets;
(2) an emphasis on quantitative analysis and predication of the environment;
(3) a concern to identify and evaluate alternative policy options; and
(4) the evaluation of means against ends
...
However, the problem was that the idea of a
single public interest still dominated attitudes, effectively devaluing the importance of
participation because it suggests the idea that the public interest is relatively easy to
find and only requires the most minimal form of participation
...
The rational model is perhaps the most widely accepted model among
planning practitioners and scholars, and is considered by many to be the orthodox view
of planning
...
Proponents of this paradigm would
generally come up with a list of steps that the planning process can be at least relatively
neatly sorted out into and that planning practitioners should go through in order when
setting out to plan in virtually any area
...

Participatory planning

Participatory planning is an urban planning paradigm that emphasizes involving the
entire community in the strategic and management processes of urban planning; or,
community-level planning processes, urban or rural
...
Participatory planning aims to harmonize views among all of
its participants as well as prevent conflict between opposing parties
...

Incrementalism
Lindblom’s School of thought describes planning as ―muddling through‖ and states
that practical planning requires decisions to be made incrementally
...

Mixed scanning model
The mixed scanning model, developed by Etzioni, takes a similar, but slightly different
approach
...
He posited that organizations could accomplish this by
essentially scanning the environment on multiple levels and then choose different
strategies and tactics to address what they found there
...

By the late 1960s and early 1970s, planners began to look for new approaches because as
happened nearly a decade before, it was realized that the current models were not
necessarily sufficient
...

Lane (2005) notes that it is most useful to think of these model as emerging from a social
transformation planning tradition as opposed to a social guidance one, so the emphasis
is more bottom-up in nature than it is top-down
...
Instead of considering
public participation as method that would be used in addition to the normal training
planning process, participation was a central goal
...
Transactive
planning focuses on interpersonal dialogue that develops ideas, which will be turned
into action
...

Advocacy planning
Advocacy planning is another radical departure from past theoretical models
...
It concerns itself with ensuring that all
people are equally represented in the planning process by advocating for the interests
of the underprivileged and seeking social change
...
A plurality of public interests is assumed, and the role of
planner is essentially the one as a facilitator who either advocates directly for
underrepresented groups directly or encourages them to become part of the process
...
It argues that this bargaining is
the best way to conduct planning within the bounds of legal and political institutions
...
Decisions are made first and
foremost by the public, and the planner plays a more minor role
...
It
focuses on using communication to help different interests in the process understand
each other
...
Again, participation plays a central role under this model
...
In this model, participation is
actually fundamental to the planning process happening
...


Q
...


URBAN PRIMACY
Definition
Urban primacy is when one city dominates the country it is in
...
Urban primacy emerged in many developing
countries during the twentieth century
...
A primate city distribution is a rank-size distribution that
has one very large city with many much smaller cities and towns, and no intermediate-sized urban
centers
...
He defines a
primate city as being "at least twice as large as the next largest city and more than twice as
significant
...

Urban primacy indicates the ratio of the primate city to the next largest i
...
In other words, urban primacy can be defined as the central place in an urban or city network
that has acquired or obtained a great level of dominance
...
Higher functions and population will result in
higher dominance
Significance
Not all countries have primate cities, but in those that do, there is debate as to whether the city serves a
parasitic or generative function
...
However, the urban structure is not directly dependent on a country's level
of economic development
...
This can be
because the number of traditional workers have been reduced because of mechanization in the
manufacturing industry, agriculture, and other blue-collar industries, which are generally located
throughout all of the country
...


URBAN PRIMACY IN KENYA

Kenya like many developing countries suffers from urban primacy which has worked in stemming growth
and development of the economy in a manner that is sustainable and inclusive, among the root causes of
our societies inequality lies in over dependence on Nairobi and a few other towns
...

Urban primacy is denying us the ability to realize our full potential in terms of economic growth and
development
...
Urban Primacy leads
to poverty and high rates of inequalities
...


EFFECTS OF PRIMATE CITY ON THE ECONOMICS OF A COUNTRY
1
...

2
...
Often better paid
...
TRANSPORT- international ports and airports are often located here, encouraging further
investment and migration
...
GOVERNMENT- large power is often located in primate cities
...

Dependency Theory / World-System Approach
Frank`s (1966) exposition of the development of underdevelopment suggested that the colonial city
served to suck economic surplus out of satellites to the world metropolis
...
The modern world system has exhibited the
dynamics of core-periphery exploitation
...
The core, be it a nation or city, is able to extract surplus from periphery, which
simultaneously causes the core to be disproportionately greater and the periphery lesser than would
otherwise be anticipated
...

Other Theories

Ecological approaches such as Berliner`s (1977) Pull Theory that immigrants are attracted to urban
centers
Firebaugh`s (1979) Push Theory – that rural adversity drives rural populations towards cities, are not
replaced but enhanced by a world-system approach
...

Strategies to CURB Urban Primacy
It is accepted among regional planners that there is no 'optimal' hierarchy of city sizes, despite the
normative connotations often given to the 'rank size' rule
...
The attempt to block big-city growth by imposition of controls (a strategy adopted for a
time in Indonesia in the early 1970s) distorts natural forces and entails large social costs
...
These market-based adjustments to 'excessive' metropolitan growth
should be complemented by a strategy of eliminating biases in macro and sectoral policy that
unnecessarily promote the growth of large cities
...
If the metropolis contains a large proportion of the total
urban population, and there are no other fairly large cities capable of absorbing a big absolute increase in
population, then the prospect of holding back the growth of the metropolis through promoting
intermediate cities is, at least in the shots teen, rather dismal

REFERENCES
http://en
...
org/wiki/Theories_and_process_of_urban_planning
Gunder, Michael, 2003, "Passionate Planning for the Others' Desire: An Agonistic Response to
the Dark Side of Planning," Progress in Planning, Vol
...
3, October, pp
...

Hoch, Charles, Linda C
...
So, editors (2000)
...
ISBN 0-87326-171-2
(The "Green Book")
Wheeler, Stephen (2004)
...


http://www
...
com/topic/concentric-zone-theory
http://en
...
org/wiki/Multiple_nuclei_model
http://angelicaavila
...
com/multiple-nuclei-model
...
ednet
...
ca/mcfadden/GGS12/Urbanization%20Unit/theories_urban_structure
...
com/wiki2011/tiki-read_article
...
weebly
...
pdf
http://geography
...
com/od/urbaneconomicgeography/a/Urban-Geography-Models

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