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1
Chapter 18
Chemical Coordination
Q1
...
They may have or may not have ducts
...
Secreting substances are enzymes sweats saliva and milk
...
The control short-term activity
...
Functions are regulation of body temperature by producing sweat
...
Production of milk etc
...
These are ductless
...
Secreting substance are hormones
...
Control long term activity of target organ
...
Functions are metabolism growth development water and electrolyte balance
...
Why anterior pituitary gland is called master gland?
Answer:
Pituitary gland:
This is the most important gland of the body located under the hypothalamus in brain
...

Reason:

2
Because this lobe of pituitary gland releases some hormones that act on the other endocrine
gland and regulate their function
...
g:


THS act on thyroid gland
...


3
...
Hyperthyroidism can accelerate your body's metabolism, causing
unintentional weight loss and a rapid or irregular heartbeat
...
It can also cause a wide variety of signs and symptoms, including:


Unintentional weight loss, even when your appetite and food intake stay the same or increase



Rapid heartbeat (tachycardia) — commonly more than 100 beats a minute



Irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)



Pounding of your heart (palpitations)



Increased appetite



Nervousness, anxiety and irritability



Tremor — usually a fine trembling in your hands and fingers



Sweating



Graves' disease
...
It's the most common cause of
hyperthyroidism
...
Why pancreas is known as double gland?
Answer:
Pancreas:It is the important part of digestive system because its secret different enzyme that help in
digestion of food
...

“It is called as double gland”
...

Exocrine function:
Acinar cells belong to exocrine pancreas and secret digestive enzymes into gut through system
of duct
...


Cell secret glucagon
...
β cell secret insulin
...
Why insulin is so vital for normal survival?
Answer:Insulin:It is a hormone secreted by β cells of pancreas
...

“It is vital for human survival”
...

6
...
This hormone
is considered a gonadotrophic hormone because of its role in controlling the function of ovaries
in females and testes in males, which are known as the gonads
...
Two weeks into a woman's
cycle, a surge in luteinizing hormone causes the ovaries to release an egg during ovulation
...

For men, luteinizing hormone stimulates the production of testosterone from Leydig cells in the
testes
...

6
...

Answer:

The Differences Between Hypothyroidism and Hyperthyroidism
Hypothyroidism causes symptoms like slowed metabolism, tiredness, and weight gain
...

With hyperthyroidism, you may find yourself with more energy, as opposed to less
...
And you may feel anxious as
opposed to depressed
...

Hypothyroidism leads to a decrease in hormones
...

In the United States, hypothyroidism is more common than hyperthyroidism
...
Finding a skilled doctor who specializes in the thyroid, typically an
endocrinologist, is an important part of your treatment plan
...
What are the effects of hypothyroidism (observed during pregnancy) on the development
and maturation of a growing baby ?
Hypothyroidism:
Hypothyroidism is the term of disease in which thyroid hormone secretes in less amount
...


6
Chapter#19:
Behavior
1
...
Innate behavior usually involve basic life function, such as food
finding or caring for offspring
...

How it help in survival?
This behavior is important because there is no risk of incorrect behavior being learned
...

2
...
How insight learning is different from other learning?
Answer:
Insight learning:
“Persistent change in behavior that occur as a result of experience”
...
It occur when people recognize relationships or(make novel association between
objects or action) that can help them solve new problem
...
First
is that it represents seeing clearly into the essence of a situation and the other is that we do not do this
by a step by step process but partially by unconscious processes
...
Write brief note on altruism in honey bee?
Answer:
Page# 149-150
5
...
List down the function of glands associated with male reproductive system
...

2
...

I
...


Sertoli cells: sertoli cells provide factors necessary for the successful progression of
spermatogonia into spermatozoa
...


Roles of hormones: normal testicular function is dependent upon hormones acting through endocrine
pathway
...

I
...

III
...

V
...

Role of FSH: it acts on the sertoli cells to complete the development of sperms from
spermatids
...

Role of testosterone: it causes the growth and development of germinal epithelium to
generate sperms
...


8
3
...

Answer:
End of pregnancy:
The pregnancy can be ended before the required time by the two mishaps such as:
I
...

Abortion
There are some differences between the two
...

Miscarriage: is the accidental expulsion of the fetus or termination of pregnancy, in which the fetus
cannot survive on its own
...
During the situation, the women
does not have control over the event, which usually occurs because of accidents or when the women
not capable of supporting the fetus due to some health conditions
...

Types of abortion:
Spontaneous abortion: may even be considered as miscarriage
...

Therapeutic abortion: may be done when the pregnancy is dangerous for both the mother and the
fetus, in which case, saving the mother life is the priority
...

Induced abortion: is done to remove unwanted child
...
List down contract control measure against HIV?
Answer:
Human immune deficiency virus causes AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) so
protection or prevention can safe persons from this syndrome
...

 Any one if have chance of HIV infection should not donate his blood
...

 Use proper sterilization method for needles use in acupuncture, tattooing, ear piercing
etc
...


5
...
It is the phase in a womans life when menopause occurs ovulation and menstruation
stop
...


9

6
...
Ordinarily, it’s secreted at very low
levels throughout menstrual cycle
...
This hormone surge is what triggers ovulation about
24 to 36 hours later
...
It signals the beginning of fertile period
...
It then begins to secrete progesterone
...

Once the egg is released, it’s only viable for about 24 hours
...
This makes it very important to be able to identify this best time to conceive
...
The ovulation (ovulatory phase) is followed by the luteal phase during which
the remaining parts of the Graafian follicle transform as the corpus luteum
...

Such an endometrium is necessary of implantation of the fertilized ovum and other events of
pregnancy
...
What is the reason for the entry of only one sperm into an ovum during fertilization of
human?
At the initial stage sperm goes into various changes because fresh male gametes are not able to
fertilize
...

The sperm enters the cytoplasm and the tail and the outer layer of the sperm diminish and the cortical
reaction takes place
...

Once the sperm enters the ovum then the ovum wall becomes thick also due to which some chemicals are
released into the surrounding which leads to the death of the other sperm
...
If the egg has not been fertilized, the corpus luteum dies and progesterone levels
drop
...
If a woman becomes pregnant, the placenta produces progesterone
...

Chapter# 21
Development and Aging
1
...

Why it is so?
Answer:
Corpus luteum: it is a temporary endocrine structure found in the female body
...

Appearance: it is appeared yellow colored because of carotenoids as lutein
...
So corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone and degenerates in the
corpus albicans which is the mass of tissues
...

2
...

Parturition: the termination of pregnancy which leads to the birth of the baby is called parturition
...

I
...


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II
...


Role of foetal hormones
...


Increased rate of estrogen to progesterone:
Both estrogen and progesterone secrete throughout the pregnancy but by the 7th month the level of
estrogen increased and the progesterone decreased which form abundant oxytocin receptor which
bring tutrine contraction
...

Production of ACTH:
It stimulates the fetal adrenal gland to release the corticosteroid which affects the progesterone and
prostaglandins which controls the uterine contraction
...

Labour:
When the cervix stretches and forces the baby to expel is called the parturition or labour
...

Feto-placenta contribution:
CRH---Pituitary, ACTH--- fetal adrenal gland
...


Mechanical factor
1
...

II
...

Increase prostaglandin (maintain labor)
IV
...
The placenta is a marvelous but ………
...


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Composition:
It is composed of both material and foetal part
...
These increase the surface area for absorption
...

Weight: its weight is 600g
...

Thickness: it is 3cm thick
...

II
...


IV
...

VI
...


Supply of nutrients: Placenta is bisected only by the umbilical cord so it serve a bridge
between the mother and fetus to transport the nutrients
...

Hormones estrogen and progesterone production: the placenta also produces vast amount
of the female hormones estrogen and progesterone
...

Hormones lectogen production: The hormones produced in largest amount is human
placental lectogen
...

Disposal of waste: The placenta also ensure these waste products from the baby are
released into the mother’s circulation
...

Protection from infection: It also helps to protect the baby from infection because it keeps
the mother’s blood and the baby’s blood separate by acting as an effective filter
...

Occurrence: it occurs in the fallopian tube after 36hrs of fertilization
...

I
...

III
...


Formation of blastomeres: The two identical cells which are formed in the result of first
cleavage is called blastomeres
...

Formation different parts of body: cleavage of an egg makes the asymmetrical segregation
of cytoplasm which helps to make different parts of the body
...


13

Chapter# 22:
Inheritance
Question 1: why pea was most suitable plant for Mendel genetics?
Answer:
Mendel genetics:
Mendel considered as the father of genetics, and he worked on the pea plant to to study the
genetics and proposed the law of genetics and inheritance
...

Reason of selection pea:
The main reasons for the selection of pea plants are:
Easy cultivation:
Is easy to cultivate
...

Hermaphrodite flower:
Pea has hermaphrodite flower as it contains both stamen and carpate
...

Life cycle:
It has short life cycle and can be complete short time
...

Large seeds:
Its plant to produces a large number of seeds
...

Mendel genetic:
Mendel studied only inheritance with dominance
...


Definition:
When a gene or pain of gene effect the expression
of gene at other focus is called epistasis
...

Types:
There are two types
 Epistaic genes
 Hypostatic genes

Example :
Bombay blood type in which the blood is
genolypaically A, AB,O,B but phenotypically O
...

Blood group system:
Blood group genotype is controlled by the multiple allele expressions
...

In ABO system IA and IB are automatically dominant over all?
Co-dominance:
Alleles IA and IB are dominant to each other by because each express equally in heterozygotes (IA IB) state
to produce AB phenotype
...

Genotype:
The genetic makeup of an organism is called genotype
...

Observation of f2 generation:
When the heterozygous tall is crossed with the hydrozygous tall (F1) two different phenotypes
and three different genotype were observed in (f2)
...

Genotype ratio:
In F2 1/4 the offerings are homozygous (tt) will be tall, 2/4 are heterozygous (tt) will be tall and
1/4 homozygous (tt) will be dwarf
...

These trades are not necessarily sex-linked
...

Types:
Sex limited traits:

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Sex influenced:
Sex limited traits

Sex influenced traits

Definition:

Those trails which are limited to only both sex bot
influenced one specifically
...


Control:

Example:

The genes of sex influenced trails are present in
autosomes
...


Baidness occurs more commonly in man but
sometimes occurs in female
...


Chapter # 23
Chromosomes and DNA
Exercise
Short question
Q1
...

Chromosomes:
These are colour bodies discovered by and are found in nucleus of eukaryotes
...

For example: human has 46 chromosomes wheat has 42 chromosomes
...

For example:
Humans are diploid organisms
...

Wheat has haploid genome which means it has 6 of monoploid
...

For example:
Human has diploid genome whose half is haploid
...


17
S#
1
2
3

Species
Human
Wheat
Oenothera gigas

Genome
2n = 46
6n = 42
4n = 26

Monoploid
23
7(7x6)
7 (7x4)

Haploid
23
3n = 21
2n = 14

Q2
...

Types:
Core histones:
Histones H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 are known as the core histones
...

Nucleosome:
Two of each of the core histones assembles to form one octameric nucleosome score of 200
base pairs of DNA wrap around this core particle
...
Thus
looking the DNA into place and allowing the formation of higher order structure
...

Q3
...

Answer:
Introduction: The Sutton chromosomes theory is a fundamental unifying theory of genetics
which identifies chromosomes as the Carriers of genetic material
...

That in meiosis one member of a pair of homologous chromosomes goes to a one daughter cell
the other to the second daughter cell
...

Reproduction:
It involves the union of egg and sperms to form zygote in sexual in sexual reproduction
...

Q4
...

Objective:
They did so to determine which molecule in the heat kill bacteria was most important for
transformation
...

Experiment: Avery's and his colleagues prepare mixture of Dead s type and live R- type bacteria and
apply following enzymes
...

Treating with RNAse:

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They treated the extract with an enzymes RNAse that destroyed RNA
...

Treating with RNAse:
Avery and other scientist repeated the experiment
...
When they destroyed the nucleic acid DNA in the extract, transformation did not occur
...
They
were not responsible for the transformation
...
Different between conservation and semiconservative of replication?
Answer:
It is process which the DNA molecular makes its copy
...

Model of replication:
There are 3 proposed model of replication which is:
1
...

2
...

3
...

Difference between conservation and semi-conservation model:
Conservation model

In this model the two parental DNA strands are back together after
replication has occurred
...

Semiconservative model
In this model the two parental DNA strands separate and each of
those strands then serves then as a template for the synthesis of a
new DNA strands
...

6
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new strand
...

templates of DNA so need helicase
...
Genetic code is universal butt not quite universal?
Answer:
The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded within genetic material (DNA
or mRNA sequences) is translated into proteins by living cells
...

For Example:




In the organisms nuclear mRNA codon UGA act as slop codon but in mitochondrial mRNA it
codes for tryptophan
...

It codes for Methionine
...


So it is prove that genetic code is not quite universal
...
Summarize the structure of eukaryotic gene?
Answer:
Gene:
A gene is segment of specific DNA nucleotides and act as inheritance unit
...

Structure of gene:
Eukaryotic gene has following parts:



Promoter
Terminator

21



Introns
Exons

Promoters:
It is sequence of specific nucleotides which help to bind the RNA polymerase
...

Location:
It is present upstream the gene
...
Terminator:
It is sequence of specified nucleotides to stops the movement of RNA polymerase
...

3
...
They must be removed before
translation
...

4
...
Define RNA splicing?
Answer:
RNA splicing is a modification of the messenger RNA (pre-mRNA) transcript in which introns are
removed and exons are joined
...

Importance:
This is very important because unlike bacteria eukaryotic mRNA is discontinuous
...

Method:

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

For many eukaryotic introns, splicing is done in a series of reactions which are catalyzed
by the splice some a complex of small nuclear rib nucleoproteins (snRNAs)
...

10
...
Different between special creation and evolution?
Answer:
Special creation theory:
The theory was put forwarded by father Suarezi
...
The world was
created in six natural days
...

On the third days all from of plant were created
...

On the sixth day human being was created
...

Descent with modification means that all new types of organism living today are evolved
from organisms living in the remote past (their ancestor form)
...

2
...

Explanation:
Evolution:
During Mesozoic era when the flora and fauna arose there was a land connection but when this
connection finish due to evolution then this area gets separated
...

Some distinguished flora and fauna:
The result is a wealth of wildlife not found anywhere else in the world Australia sports at least
25000 species of plants 8000 species of birds, more than 4000 fish varieties and thousands of species of
invertebrates, palms and microorganisms
...
What is endosymbiont theory of eukaryotic origin?
Answer:
Endosymbiosis:
Definition:
This is kind of internal symbiosis in which one organism resides permanently inside other
organisms
...

The host cell profited from the chemical energy the mitochondria produced and the
mitochondria are benefited from the protected nutrient rich environment surrounding it
...

Most important are there are many striking similarities between prokaryotes like bacteria and
mitochondria
...

DNA____Mitochondria has its own circular DNA genome like bacteria genome but much smaller
...

Q4
...

Or
Statistic allele frequency in a population will remain constant unless one or more factor change
...

There must be no mutations because mutation introduces new genes in a population thus
changes the allele frequencies
...

Artificial selection must not occur
...

All the members of population should be given equal reproductive chances
...
Define speciation
...
Summaries the significance of biochemical cycles?
Answer:
Biogeochemical cycle:
Definition:
The flow of chemical elements and compounds between living organism and the physical
environment is called biochemical cycle
...

Bio elements regulation:
Those elements which are present in the environment and important for the survival of
organisms are called by elements such as H, O, C, N, O, H, S their amount is specified by the biochemical
cycle
...

sedimentary reservoirs cycle (the cycle that regulate the S and P)
...
What is nitrogen fixation what are the methods of fixation?
Answer :
Nitrogen fixation:
the process of converting N2 into biologically available nitrogen is called nitrogen fixation
...

N2 breakage
N2 gas is a very stable compound due to the strength of the triple bond between the nitrogen atoms and
it requires a large amount of energy to break the sound the whole process requires 8 electrons and at
least 16 ATP molecules
...
”

26
Causes of Ozone Layer Depletion
The ozone layer depletion is a major concern and is associated with a number of factors
...
These are released by
solvents, spray aerosols, refrigerators, air-conditioners, etc
...
These atoms react with ozone and destroy it
...
If not controlled, this might result in a huge loss of the ozone layer by the
year 2050
...

Natural Causes
The ozone layer has been found to be depleted by certain natural processes such as Sun-spots
and stratospheric winds
...

The volcanic eruptions are also responsible for the depletion of the ozone layer
...



Function as sponges:

A wetland functions as a sponge and releases water throughout the year and recharge is groundwater
supplies - stream flow regulation
...



Biological diversity:

Wetlands provide habitat for a wide variety of species
...



Providing food:

Wetlands support a variety of fish and birds which can be a source of food
...

Question 7: what are the causes of depletion of natural resources?
Answer:
Definition:
Resource depletion in the consumption of a resource faster than it can be replenished
...
e species
and ecosystems with its ecosystems services)
Irrigation
Overconsumption, excessive or unnecessary use of resources
...


Question 8: English the type of population distribution?
Answer:
Population distribution:
Population distribution means the pattern of people live world population distribution is uneven
as:
Less populated places: which are less populated contains few people rarely populated places tend to be
difficult places to live
...

Question 9: define and give the type of ecological succession?
Answer:
Definition:
It is the observed changes in an ecological community of our time
...
Within an ecological community, the species
composition will change over time as some species become more prominent while other may fade out
of existence
...
)

28
Question 10: how does deforestation influence the environment?
Answer:
Deforestation:
The unwise and unplanned destruction of removal of trees is called deforestation
...
Our life is greatly dependent on forests
...
Forest provide green cover to the Earth, a living place of wildlife,
fuel and recreation two men they control floods prevent formation of deserts and keep the airplane
...

More land is required for cultivation
...

Wood is used both as timber or fuel wood
...

Some plants are removed to give us fiber
...


Effects on the environment:
Deforestation has many negative effects on the environment
...
70% of the earth's land and animals and plants live in forests and many
cannot afford deforestation since it results in the destruction of their homes
...
Forest soils are moist but without protection from sunblocking tree cover, they quickly dry out
...
Without trees to fulfill these roles, many former forest lands can
quickly become barren deserts
...


Chapter# 26
Biotechnology
Question# 1
Restriction Endonuclease are found in bacteria as a part of defense mechanism from
bacteriophages(viruses infecting bacteria) called Restriction- Modification System in which the bacteria
restrict the propagation of phage infection by cleaving its genetic material at specific sites of nucleotides
recognized by the enzyme Restriction Endonuclease through precise and specific cleavage by Restriction
Endonuclease
...


29
Question 2: what are essential features of vector?
Answer: book page# 332
Question 3: what is monodonal antibody?
Answer: book page# 358
Question 4: Name two condition which differ animal from plant cell culture?
Answer:
Animal tissue cell culture differences from plant tissue culture:




Animal cell lines have limited numbers of cell cycle before they begin to degrade
...

tissue culture media is not as fully defined as that of plant in addition to inorganic salt,
energy sources, amino acids, vitamins etc
...


Animal cell culture versus plant tissue

30

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Question 5: give away two human protein are produced biotechnological?
Answer:
Insulin:
Insulin is a hormone which plays a key role in the regulation of blood glucose level a lack of
insulin or an inability to adequately respond to insulin can each lead to the development of the
symptoms of diabetes in addition to its role in controlling blood sugar levels is also involved in the
storage of fat
...

Insulin regulates how the body uses and stores glucose and fate many of the body cells rely on insulin to
take glucose from the blood for energy
...

It is a serum protein (EC 3
...
2 1
...

As an enzyme catalyzes the conversion of plasminogen to plasmin the major enzyme responsible
for clot breakdown
...

Use is contraindicated in hemorrhagic stroke and head trauma
...

It is a single standard fees of DNA (sometimes RNA), which can range in size from as little as 15
BP to several hundred kilo bases
...


Question 7: what are aims and objective of HGP?
Answer:
The human genome project was an international research effort to determine the sequence of
the human genome and identify the genes that it contains
...


32







Human genome project was discovered by Collins and rhetoric
...

It aim to find out all is limited to 20000 to 25000
...

Identification of disease causing jeans and their elimination
To introduce new genes that code for desired protein products

Goals of human genome project
1
...

2
...

3
...

4
...

5
...

6
...

7
...

8
...

9
...

Question 8: Differentiate between Gilbert method and Sanger method of gene sequencing?

33

Question 9: what is DNA library?
In eukaryotic cells the mature mRNA is already spliced, hence the cDNA produce lacks introns
and can be readily expressed in a bacterial cell
...


34
Question 10: what is type of vector or carrier?
Answer:
Vectors:





Small DNA molecule capable of self-replication
...

Career of DNA fragment
...
g
...


Characteristics:










Self-replication multiple copies
...

Cloning site
...

Small size
...

Easily isolated and purified
...

Control elements promoted, operator, ribosome binding site
...

Examples: plasma korma phage or virus
...

Ease of working
...

Suitability
...

Target host cell

35
Plasma:
Bacteriophages:
Cosmid:
Yeast cloning vectors:
Ti and Ri plasmid:

Bacteria, Streptomyces
Bacteria
Bacteria
Yeast
Transformation of cloned gene in higher plants

Chapter# 27:
Biology and human welfare
Question 1: differentiate between animals husbandry and livestock management?
Answer:
Livestock:
Live stocks on domestic animals raised in agricultural setting to produce commodities such as
food fibre etc
...

Question 2: what is importance of artificial insemination?
Answer:
Page#380 (artificial insemination)
Question 3: what is biogas?
Answer: page 389 (biogas)
Question 4: write note on process of cheese making?
Answer: Page 386
Question 5: what is acclimatization?
Answer: page 381
...

Other name:
It is also called as "toxoid vaccine"
...

Example:
Vaccine against diphtheria, tetanus

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