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CRITICAL THINKING AND LOGIC

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CRITICAL THINKING AND PROBLEM SOLVING
INTRODUCTION
Welcome to this interactive instructional module that uses both action and collaborative learning
styles that provide you with diverse online learning experiences and effective learning processes
...

The relevance of this course is premised on the fact that the world today is confronted with various
challenges: diseases, threats from global terrorism, global warming and devastating climatic
change, poverty, bad leadership, corruption and unemployment among the growing number of
youths
...
The pressure, uncertainty, challenges, conflicting ideas and opinions occasioned by
these threats continue to overwhelm the world
...
Our ability to think
critically, and to understanding and utilize key methods of critical thinking is not only an essential
component in handling the ever-emerging challenges, but it also enables us to address the right
problems, promptly identify risks and more importantly, make better and effective decisions
...
This examination is necessary
because critical thinking and problem-solving embraces both epistemological and logical elements
which together are philosophical in nature
...
It defines critical thinking as the ability to use evaluative cognitive skills or
strategies in order to increase the probability of a desirable outcome
...
The kind
of thinking that requires following evidence where it leads; considering all possibilities; relying
on reason rather than emotion and being precise
...

On the other hand, a “problem” is an issue that is out of alignment and requires to be attended to,
fixed, and corrected to enable desired outcomes to be achieved
...
Problem solving
is therefore the process of finding solutions to difficult or complex issues that need solutions for
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the ease of our needs
...
Decision-making then is the mental processes
(cognitive process) of analyzing, evaluating and synthesizing data as received and which
culminates in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios
...
It aims at initiating you into effective, judicious and positive thinking patterns and
practices
...
The topics covered include the Concept and Methods
of Philosophy, Critical Thinking, Levels of Thinking, Critical Thinking Tools; Logic, fallacies,
the Socratic Method, thinking for oneself – the Cartesian method, Appearance and reality, Problem
Solving and Decision Making, Value Creating Education and Leadership, and Barriers to Critical
Thinking and problem solving
...


LESSON 1: PHILOSOPHY
1
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The term Philosophy is derived from two ancient Greek words; Philos, meaning love, and Sophia
meaning wisdom
...
But what kind of love and wisdom do we talk
about in philosophy? As a discipline, philosophy is the investigation of the nature, causes, or
principles of reality, knowledge, or values, based on logical reasoning
...
It covers
the definition, meaning, branches, methods and value of philosophy in the cultivation of better
thinking and meaningful living
...
2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1
...
1 Define the term Philosophy and its meaning
1
...
2 Discuss the main branches of philosophy

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1
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3 Identify the methods of doing Philosophy
1
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4 Explain the values of philosophy
1
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1 Definition of the term Philosophy and its meaning
a) Definition
The word ‘philosophy’ is derived from the combination of two ancient Greek words; philos, which
means ‘love’, and sophia, which means ‘wisdom’- φιλοσοφία (philosophia)
...
Philosophy can simply be understood as the study of knowledge, or
“Thinking about thinking”
...
It is human
attempt to understand human situation in a fundamental way in order to gain wisdom
...

b) the order is concerned about inquiries of how one should live (morals); what kinds of things
exist and what are their fundamental qualities (metaphysics); what considers certified information
(epistemology); and what are the right standards of thinking (logic) (Stanford);
c) Philosophy is the institution of knowledge from which all different orders infer and the standard
by which thoughts are coordinated and perceived
...
2
...

a) Axiology (General study of values and their impact on human behavior) (from Greek axios,
“worthy”; logos, “science”) refers to the philosophical study of values
...
The importance of axiology as a field of study lies first
in the significant development of the term that has in the end given a more extensive
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importance to the term value and furthermore in the unification that it has accommodated
the investigation of an assortment of inquiries financial, moral good, stylish, religious,
political and even logical qualities that had frequently been considered in relative
segregation
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b) Ethics – is the study of how people should act, and what is good and valuable, it is therefore
the study of practical reasoning and the normative questions which it gives rise to
...
The study involves
systematizing, analyzing, evaluating, applying, defending and recommending concepts of
right and wrong behaviour
...
In modern times, Philosophers have divided ethical
theories into three general subject areas: meta-ethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics
...
It mainly deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values,
perception and matters of taste and sentiment
...
Major aesthetical questions are:- Does art consist of music, literature,
and painting? Or does it include a good engineering solution or a beautiful sunset? What is
beauty? These are some of the questions aimed at in Aesthetics
...
It attempts to answer questions such as:
What is beauty? What is the relation of the beautiful to the true and the good? Are there
criteria by means of which we can judge a work of art in an objective sense? What is the
art itself? Is it a reproduction of a vision into ultimate reality? To what extent does the sense
of appreciation of beauty contribute to the enrichment of human life? Is art or beauty in the
eye of the beholder? Does anything that appeals to you fit to be considere art? Or does it
have a specific nature? Does it accomplish a goal?
d) Epistemology - the study of knowledge, and how and what we know
...

The word in this way signifies the philosophical investigation of knowledge its avocation
and of the group of ideas that are engaged with our investigation cases to information or
supported beliefs
...
In its broadest
sense, epistemology is the investigation of the technique for getting and handling
information
...

e) Metaphysics (the study of existence and the nature of reality) is the branch of philosophy
liable for the investigation of existence
...
Metaphysics means the study of the essence of being beyond
the physical entities
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f) Logic (the study of good reasoning, by valid inference and demonstration)
...
By and large Logic is
the investigation of the techniques and standards used to clarify right from inaccurate
thinking
...

1
...
3 Methods of Philosophy
Philosophy is an adventure, which demands hard work and intellectual rigor
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A
...
C
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A very good example
of this form of analysis is found in the Dictionaries
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However, analysis does not only consist in this kind of classification only
...
Both forms of analysis are common and extremely useful
...
Synthesis is to relate the thing to be known to something
already familiar
...
g
...
For example, the student of
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Socrates, Theaetetus, thought that it is possible to clarify “knowledge” by analyzing it into its
instances, like geometry, the art of the cobbler and carpenter
...
C
...
For Socrates, dialectic method
consists in clarifying phenomena or the words and terms that reflect them through discussion of
their central concepts
...
He does not seek to
impose his views in the process but through question and answer method, he seeks to evoke
independent positions of his students and followers on selected issues
...

Hegel, a German philosopher considered dialectic as a method through which ideas develop
...
This becomes a fresh thesis
...


LESSON 2: CRITICAL THINKING
2
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Introduction
Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and skillfully conceptualizing,
applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gathered from, or generated by,
observation, experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief and action
...
It covers definitions of
critical and thinking, nature and characteristics of critical thinking, uses and importance of critical
thinking
...
2
...
2
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Define critical thinking and explain its Dimension
...
2
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Explain the characteristics of a critical thinking its essential aspects
2
...
3
...

2
...
4
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For one to embark on the path of critical thinking
there must be some issue or concern that will inform that process
...
Thus, there is need to understand what creativity entails before discussing what critical
thinking consists of
...
The definitions change as indicated by the
inspiration basic to it
...
Accordingly,
it is normally intellectually defective, anyway pragmatically effective it may be
...

Creative thinking essentially refers to the arrangement of potential answers for an issue or
conceivable clarification of a phenomenon
...

Whereas creative thinking is concerned with the formation of possible solutions to a problem or
possible explanation of a phenomenon, critical thinking deals with the testing and evaluation of
the proposed solutions to a problem or the proposed explanations of a phenomenon
...
It is the kind of thinking that is purposeful,
reasoned and goal directed; the thinking that is involved in effective problems solving, calculation
of likelihoods, formulation of inferences and decisive decision-making
...

Critical thinking is mainly concerned with having faith in the supremacy of reason, honesty,
integrity, fair-mindedness, courage, empathy, and open-mindedness

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Dimensions of Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the intellectually restrained process of effectively and capably conceptualizing,
applying, examining, incorporating, as well as assessing data accumulated from, or created by,
perception, experience, reflection, thinking, or communication, as a manual for conviction and
activity
...
As a way of thinking critical thinking aims at reasoning
through multi-faceted ways; analyzing information and facts presented as to attain the highest
desirable good; evaluating facts as to authenticate and establish their truth value and reliability;
problem solving in order to satisfy the worth of reasoning, and; decision making as a means to
attain solutions to the myriad problems confronting the contemporary world
...
2
...
Characteristics of Critical Thinking and its Essential Aspects
There are eight characteristics of critical and creative thinking which includes: asking relevant
questions; defining a problem; examining evidence; analyzing assumptions and biases; avoiding
emotional reasoning; avoiding oversimplification; considering other interpretations, and;
tolerating ambiguity
...
They have to comprehend the framework
and disguise these qualities for viable and productive education
...

It is guided by reason and seeks to justify claims
...

It is purposeful and focused-not merely accidental and spontaneous
...

It is skillful since it employs specific reasoning skills such as intellectual standards, tools
of analysis and intellectual traits
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❖ It is flexible because it cultivates open-mindedness
...
Critical Thinking is
important in life, academics and more especially at workplace
...

To this end, critical thinking plays a greater role in human ability to think clearly, precisely and
distinctly; and helps in improving our thought patterns by:
1) inculcating habits of thought,
2) adding value to our lives through the enhancement of our ability to translate ideas (theory)
into practice through action;
3) helping us to understand ourselves and our world better and more deeply than we otherwise
would, and by permanently altering our approach to our lives and our relations to others
through encouraging a lifelong habit of reflection and harmonious coexistence;
4) immensely enriching our lives and opening to us views that would otherwise be closed or
overlooked;
5) enhancing our analytical, critical, evaluative and interpretive abilities,
6) Critical thinking greatly enhancing our ability to express ourselves clearly and to formulate
and respond to arguments in speech and writing effectively;
7) Provides us with general problem-solving skills, skills in analyzing concepts, definitions,
arguments and problems; and so on
...
1
...
It covers Tools of Analysis
(dimensions of thinking), Tools of Evaluation (Universal intellectual Standards) and Tools of
Transformation (valuable intellectual Traits)
3
...
Expected Outcomes
By the end of this topic you will be able to:
1
...
1
1
...
2
1
...
3

Explain the critical thinking tools of analysis (elements of reasoning)
Discus tools of critical thinking Critical Tools of Evaluation
Outline Critical Thinking Tools of Transformation

3
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1 Critical Thinking Tools of Analysis (Elements of Reasoning)
Critical thinking tools of analysis are also referred to as elements of reasoning
...
The tools of analysis manage the enlightening premise to which we can continue in
deciding an answer dependent on comprehensive and definitive information
...

Let us give further explanations of what exactly these reasoning tools/skills entail;
•

•

•

•

•

•

All reasoning has a Purpose
...


•

Distinguish your purpose from related purposes
...


•

Choose significant and realistic purposes
...

•

Take time to clearly and precisely state the question at issue
...


•

Break the question into sub questions
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All reasoning is based on Assumptions
...


•

Consider how your assumptions are shaping your point of view
...

•

Identify your point of view
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•

Strive to be fair-minded in evaluating all points of view
...

•

Restrict your claims to those supported by the data you have
...


•

Make sure that all information used is clear, accurate, and relevant to the question
at issue
...


All reasoning is expressed through, and shaped by, Concepts and Ideas
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•

•

•

Consider alternative concepts or alternative definitions to concepts
...


All reasoning contains Inference or Interpretations by which we draw Conclusion and
give meaning to data
...


•

Check inferences for their consistency with each other
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All reasoning leads somewhere or has Implication and Consequences
...


•

Search for negative as well as positive implications
...

3
...
2
...
These
are standards which must be applied to thinking whenever one is interested in checking the quality
of reasoning about a problem, issue, or situation
...

The ultimate goal, then, is for these questions to become infused in our thinking, forming part of
our inner voice, which then guides us to better reasoning
...
"

•

Precision: Could you give more details? Could you be more specific?- A statement can be
both clear and accurate, but not precise, as in "Saddam supports terrorism
...
)

•

Relevance: How is that connected to the question? How does that bear on the issue? - A
statement can be clear, accurate, and precise, but not relevant to the question at issue
...
Often, however, the "effort" does not measure the quality of life of the
people, and when this is so, effort is irrelevant to their appropriate well-being
...
For example, the statement "Just say No" which is often used to discourage
children and teens from using drugs, is clear, accurate, precise, and relevant
...
It fails to deal with the complexities of the issue
...
? - A line of reasoning may be clear, accurate, precise,
relevant, and deep, but lack breadth (as in an argument from either the conservative or
liberal standpoint which gets deeply into an issue, but only recognizes the insights of one
side of the question
...
When the combination
of thoughts is mutually supporting and makes sense in combination, the thinking is "logical
...

3
...
3
...
These
are transformational traits exhibited by those individuals that embrace criticality and creativity
...
The tools of evaluation
include: Intellectual Humility, Intellectual Courage, Intellectual Empathy, Intellectual Integrity,
Intellectual Perseverance, Faith in Reason, Fair-mindedness
...
Intellectual
humility depends on recognizing that one should not claim more than one actually knows
...
It implies the lack of intellectual
pretentiousness, boastfulness, or conceit, combined with insight into the logical
foundations, or lack of such foundations, of one's beliefs
...
This courage is connected with the recognition that ideas
considered dangerous or absurd are sometimes rationally justified (in whole or in part) and

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that conclusions and beliefs inculcated in us are sometimes false or misleading
...
" Intellectual courage comes into play here, because inevitably we
will come to see some truth in some ideas considered dangerous and absurd, and distortion
or falsity in some ideas strongly held in our social group
...
The penalties for non-conformity can be severe
...
This trait correlates with the ability to reconstruct accurately the
viewpoints and reasoning of others and to reason from premises, assumptions, and ideas
other than our own
...


•

Intellectual Integrity: Recognition of the need to be true to one's own thinking; to be
consistent in the intellectual standards one applies; to hold one's self to the same rigorous
standards of evidence and proof to which one holds one's antagonists; to practice what one
advocates for others; and to honestly admit discrepancies and inconsistencies in one's own
thought and action
...


•

Faith In Reason: Confidence that, in the long run, one's own higher interests and those of
humankind at large will be best served by giving the freest play to reason, by encouraging
people to come to their own conclusions by developing their own rational faculties; faith
that, with proper encouragement and cultivation, people can learn to think for themselves,
to form rational viewpoints, draw reasonable conclusions, think coherently and logically,
persuade each other by reason and become reasonable persons, despite the deep-seated
obstacles in the native character of the human mind and in society as we know it
...


Both the intellectual traits of mind and the universal standards are relevant and necessary in any
activity aimed at enhancing critical thought
...
As a critical
thinker, if you want to better separate truth from falsehood and evaluate the various claims, ideas,
and arguments you encounter, you need to equip yourself with a better understanding of logic
...
This lesson therefore, will
introduce you to; the meaning of logic and its basic concepts (inferences, propositions, premises
and conclusion) and to argument analysis and evaluation
...
1
...

5
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2 Analyse and evaluate arguments
...
2
...
It is derived from the
Greek "logos" which has a variety of meanings, ranging from word, discourse, thought, idea,
argument, account, reason or principle
...
In its broadest sense, it is the study of
evidential link between premises and conclusions
...
It manages proposition (declarative sentences, used to make an
affirmation, rather than questions, orders, or sentences communicating wishes) that are equipped
for being valid and invalid
...

The distinction between correct and incorrect reasoning is the central problem that logic deals with
...
The following are some of the basic concepts in logic; Propositions,
Argument, inference, premise and conclusion
...
2
...
The former are
said to be good arguments (at least to that extent) and the latter are said to be bad arguments
...

However, as it is apparent from the above definition, the term argument has a very specific
definition in logic
...


Deductive and inductive arguments
a) Deductive arguments
Traditionally, it is defined as proceeding from general principles or theories to specific/particular
conclusions
...

In case of deductive arguments the technical terms “valid” and “invalid” are used in place of
“correct” and “incorrect
...

Every deductive argument is either valid or invalid; valid- when premises if true, provide
conclusive grounds for its conclusion, invalid when conclusions does not follow from the premises
...

The main distinguishing feature is in the claim that premises provide conclusive grounds and it is
a relationship of necessity
...

The task of deductive logic is to clarify the nature of the relation between premises and conclusion
in valid arguments, and thus to allow us to discriminate valid from invalid arguments
...


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A deductive argument is said to be valid if and only if it takes a form that makes it impossible for
the premises to be true and the conclusion nevertheless to be false
...

A deductive argument is sound if and only if it is both valid, and all of its premises are actually
true
...

According to the definition of a deductive argument, the author of a deductive argument
always intends that the premises provide the sort of justification for the conclusion whereby if the
premises are true, the conclusion is guaranteed to be true as well
...

In effect, an argument is valid if the truth of the premises logically guarantees the truth of the
conclusion
...
An argument is valid if the premises and conclusion are related to
each other in the right way so that if the premises were true, then the conclusion would have to be
true as well
...
Consider, then an argument
such as the following:

All padlocks are items made of bronze
All items made of bronze are time travel devices
Therefore, all padlocks are time travel devices
...
It may be hard to imagine these premises
being true, but it is not hard to see that if they were true, their truth would logically guarantee the
conclusion’s truth
...
A
valid argument may still have a false conclusion
...
A sound argument is one that is not only valid,
but begins with premises that are actually true
...
However, the following argument is both valid and sound:

In some state, no felons are eligible voters, that is, eligible to vote
...

Therefore, in some states, some professional athletes are not eligible voters
...
Therefore, so is the conclusion
...

It should be noted that both invalid, as well as valid but unsound, arguments can nevertheless have
true conclusions
...

Whether or not the premises of an argument are true depends on their specific content
...
The logical form of an argument is that which remains
of it when one abstracts away from the specific content of the premises and the conclusion, that is,
words naming things, their properties and relations, leaving only those elements that are common
to discourse and reasoning about any subject matter, that is, words such as “all,” “and,” “not,”
“some,” and so forth
...

For example, consider these two arguments:
All tigers are mammals
No mammals are creatures with scales
Therefore, no tigers are creatures with scales
...

Therefore, no spider monkeys are animals
...
Validity is about
the strength of the inference, or reasoning, between the premises and the conclusion
...

To determine if an argument is valid or invalid (not valid):
1
...

2
...

Here is an example:
Premise 1: All dogs are snakes
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Conclusion: All dogs are birds
...
The argument has logical strength, or validity
...

Valid arguments may have:
•

True premises, true conclusion

•

False premises, false conclusion

•

False premises, true conclusion

Valid arguments can never have:
•

True premises, false conclusion
...

It is important to keep in mind that just because an argument does have a possibly valid
combination of premise-conclusion truth values (for example, true premises and true conclusion),
it is not necessarily valid
...
That example with dogs, snakes, and
birds is valid, because the reasoning works
...
Even if the premises are true and the conclusion is true, it does not mean that
the reasoning is valid
...
The conclusion
happens to be true but not due to any reason provided by those premises
...

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Premise 1: All dogs are mammals
...

Conclusion: All collies are dogs
...
The conclusion follows necessarily from
the logical connections or reasoning established by the premises
...
A deductive argument is sound when:
1
...
It has all true premises
...

Premise 2: All mammals are animals
...

This argument is sound because (1) it is valid (the premises support the conclusion by
necessity) and (2) all of the premises are actually true!
On the other hand, the example above used to demonstrate validity (with dogs, snakes and birds)
is not sound, because it does not have all (any!) true premises
...
)

b) Inductive arguments
Traditionally, it is the reasoning that proceeds from particular or specific cases to general
conclusions
...

An inductive argument involves the claim; not that its premises give conclusive grounds for the
truth of its conclusion, but only that it provides some grounds or probability for it
...
Inductive arguments may be evaluated as better or worse, according to the
degree of likelihood or probability which their premises confer upon their conclusions
...

A cogent inductive argument is one that is both strong and has all premises true
...

Inductive strength is the attribute of inductive arguments that denotes logical strength
...

“Strong” and “weak” are the terms used to describe the possibilities for the logical strength of
inductive arguments
...
First assume the premises are true, even if they are not; pretend for now that they are true
...
Then ask yourself whether it is likely/probable that the conclusion would be true,
assuming/pretending that those premises are true
...

Premise 2: This bird is a peacock
...

This argument is inductively strong because if all its premises were true, then it would be highly
likely or probable that its conclusion would also true
...
A weak inductive argument is one where the conclusion
probably would not follow from the premises, if they were true
...
An inductive argument is cogent when:
1
...
It has all true premises
Here’s an example:
Premise 1: Europa (a moon of Jupiter) has an atmosphere containing oxygen
...

Conclusion: Thus, there may be life on Europa
...

On the other hand, the example above concerning peacocks, used to demonstrate inductive
strength, is not cogent, because it does not have all true premises
...


Good Arguments
The important take-away from the information on the attributes of both deductive and inductive
arguments is this:
A good argument proves, or establishes its conclusion and has two key features:
1
...

2
...

Logical Strength
Logical strength is the degree of support that the premises, if true, confer on the conclusion
...
)
•

A good deductive argument is not only valid, but is also sound
...


Syllogisms
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Syllogism is a type of logical argument using deductive reasoning
...
Syllogism derives from the Greek
word syllogismos meaning conclusion or inference
...

In logic, a syllogism is a form of deductive reasoning consisting of a major premise, a minor
premise, and a conclusion
...
Also known as a categorical argument or
a standard categorical syllogism
...
A categorical
syllogism is constructed entirely out of categorical propositions
...
The major term is the predicate of the conclusion of a categorical
syllogism
...
The middle
term is the term that occurs only in the premises of a categorical syllogism
...
The major premise contains the major term
...

Here is an example of a valid categorical syllogism:
Major premise: All mammals are warm-blooded
...

Conclusion: Therefore, all black dogs are warm-blooded
...

Major premise: All books from that store are new
...

Conclusion: Therefore, these books are new
...

The minor premise presents a specific example of the belief that is stated in the major premise
...

"A syllogism is valid (or logical) when its conclusion follows from its premises
...

To be sound, a syllogism must be both valid and true
...
"
Example
All roses are flowers
...

I'm holding a flower
...

•

Major premise - All roses are flowers
...


•

Conclusion - I'm holding a flower
...


Types of Syllogism
The type of syllogism that contains three components is a categorical syllogism
...


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Categorical Syllogism Examples
As we know, our first example about roses was a categorical syllogism
...
Let's look at some examples of categorical
syllogisms
...
I drive a car
...


o

A: Major premise: All cars have wheels
...


o

C: Conclusion: My car has wheels
...
That is an insect
...


o

A: Major Premise: All insects frighten me
...


o

C: Conclusion: I am frightened
...
They're often
referred to as hypothetical syllogisms because the arguments aren't always valid
...


o

• If Johnny is eating sweets every day, he is placing himself at risk for diabetes
...


o

A: Major premise: If Gini likes Japan, then she must drive a Toyota

o

B: Minor premise: Gini likes all Japan things
...


Disjunctive Syllogism Examples
Disjunctive syllogisms follow an, "Either A or B is true, if A is false, then B is true" premise
...
But it's understood that one of them is
correct
...
Since it's not chocolate cake, it must be red velvet
...


o

False Premise: It's not chocolate
...


•

In Kamiti prison, for instance, the prisoners are either in the cell or in Kitui
...


o

Either Statement: Kamiti prisoners are either in the cell or in Kitui
...


o

Conclusion: Therefore, Kamiti prisoners are in Kitui
...
These are often used in persuasive speeches and arguments
...

•

Obama wants to create government-run healthcare
...


o

Major premise: Obama wants to create government-run healthcare
...


o

Conclusion: Therefore, Obama is a socialist
...
Diabetics shouldn't eat it
...

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o

Implied Minor premise: Diabetics shouldn't have sugar
...

In an enthymeme, one premise remains implied
...


Syllogistic Fallacy Examples
Some syllogisms contain false presumptions
...
For example, when you say, "all dogs are mammals,
cats are mammals, therefore, dogs must be cats
...
Therefore, when you make an assumption based on general
premises, you run the risk of making a false assumption
...
The bird in my cage is black
...


o

Major premise: All crows are black
...


o

Conclusion: This bird is a crow
...
I'm in Ireland
...


o

Major premise: The scenery in Ireland is beautiful
...


o

Conclusion: The scenery is beautiful
...
However, they mainly apply to categorical syllogism,
since that is the only category that requires three components: the major premise, minor premise
and conclusion
...


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•

Rule One: There must be three terms: the major term, the minor term and the middle term — no
more, no less
...


•

Rule Three: Any terms distributed in the conclusion must be distributed in the relevant premise
...


•

Rule Five: If one of the two premises is negative, the conclusion must be negative
...


LESSON 5: FALLACIES
6
...

A fallacy, at its most basic form is defined as a flaw or error in reasoning
...
It is
important to study fallacies so that you can avoid them in your daily arguments and also get a
foundation for evaluating and critiquing other forms of arguments as well
...

5
...
2
...

6
...
2 Identify and classify fallacies
...
2
...
A logical
fallacy is an argument containing faulty reasoning
...
A formal fallacy is an argument that is flawed
due to an error pertaining the structure of an argument
...

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Our interest here is on the informal fallacies because;
a) You will be able to detect poor and incorrect arguments
...

b) You will be able to horn and increase your analytical capabilities
...
This ability to think critically will help you in every aspect of your
life
...
This
confidence is necessary in order to think for yourself
...

Generally, informal logical fallacies occur because of;
a
...

b
...
They appeal to our emotions, prejudice, selfinterests or blind faith
...
Ambiguity in language – semantics/formulation of the argument
d
...

e
...
Lack of criticality
...
2
...
In fact, we cannot fully classify informal logical fallacies but there has an
been attempt to classify them into four main categories as follows;
a) Fallacies of relevance; here, premises are simply not relevant to the conclusion drawn
...
t
...

b) Fallacies of defective induction/insufficient evidence; in these fallacies, the premises of
the argument are so weak and ineffective that reliance upon them is wrong
...
t
...


29 | P a g e

Examples; False dichotomy or either-or fallacy/false dilemma, complex question, slippery
slope, pettitio principi e
...
c
d) Fallacies of Ambiguity; these are arguments whose formulations contain ambiguous
words or phrases
...

11
...

11
...
1 Fallacies of relevance
There are various types of Fallacies of relevance
...
The following are just but examples of fallacies of
relevance;
Argumentum ad populum (appeal to the masses)
The fallacy is committed in directing an emotional appeal “to the people” or “to the masses”
with a view to winning their assent to a conclusion unsupported by good evidence
...
This fallacy is a favourite device with propagandists, politicians, street preachers,
demagogues, and advertisers among others
...
For example, where the proposal is for change
and he is against it, he will express suspicion of “viability or admissibility of the program” and
praise the wisdom of the “existing order
...
”

Bandwagon fallacy
Bandwagon is a fallacy based on the assumption that the opinion of the majority is always
valid: that is, everyone believes it, so you should too
...
Argumentum ad populum proves only that a belief is popular, not that it's true
...
This is particularly true in business matters, where
competitive pressures often conspire to make perfectly upright conduct seem difficult if not
impossible
...
Although it is rare that literally everyone else is engaged in this
behavior, the 'Everyone's doing it' claim is meaningfully made whenever a practice is widespread
enough to make one's own forbearing from this conduct seem pointless or needlessly selfdestructive
...
, edited by William H Shaw and Vincent Barry, Cengage, 2016)

Argumentum ad verecundiam (appeal to inappropriate authority)
This fallacy refers to the appeal to authority to win assent to a conclusion - that is, appeal to
the feeling of respect people have for the institution or person in authority
...
If
laymen are disputing over some question of physical science and one appeals to the testimony
of Einstein on the matter, that testimony is very relevant
...

But when an authority is appealed to for testimony in matters outside the province of his special
field, the appeal commits the fallacy of argumentum ad veracundium
...

Advertising “testimonials” are frequent instances of this fallacy
...

Argumentum ad ignorantam (argument from ignorance)
This fallacy is illustrated by the argument that something is true because no one has ever proved
that it is not, for example the argument that there must be ghosts because no one has ever been
able to prove that there aren’t any commits this fallacy
...

Arguments of this nature are fallacious because our ignorance of how to prove or disprove a
proposition clearly does not establish either the truth or falsehood of that proposition
...

Argumentum ad misericordiam (appeal to pity)
This is a fallacy committed when pity is appealed to for the sake of getting a conclusion
accepted
...

For example, a youth being tried for a particular brutal crime, the murder of his father and
mother
...

Argumentum ad Baculum (appeal to force)
This is a fallacy committed when one appeals to force or the threat of force to cause acceptance
of a conclusion
...
It is
epitomized in the saying “might is right
...

On the international scale, the argumentum ad baculum means war or the threat of war by
superior powers to silence the weaker or growing nations
...

Argumentum ad hominen (abusive)
This fallacy translates literally as “argument directed to the person
...

It is committed when, instead of trying to disprove the truth of what is asserted, one attacks the
person who made the assertion
...

The argument is fallacious because the personal character of particular individuals is logically
irrelevant to the collective nature of ethnic group X
...
This kind of argument is sometimes said to commit the “genetic
fallacy,” for obvious reasons
...

Argumentum ad Hominem (circumstantial)
This is the other interpretation of the fallacy of argumentum ad hominem
...

When two persons are disputing, one may ignore the question of whether his own contention
is true or false and seek instead to prove that his opponent ought to accept it because of his
opponent’s special circumstances
...
This is not to
prove it true, but to urge its acceptance by that particular individual because of his special
circumstances- in this case his religious affiliation
...

The connection between the abusive and the circumstantial varieties of argumentum ad
hominem is that;
•

The circumstantial variety may be regarded as a special case of abusive
...


•

The hominine charges the adversary with being so prejudiced that his alleged reasons are
mere rationalisations of conclusions dictated by self-interest
...
In the English language, the
phrase generally functions as a noun; however, it's also used attributively to modify other
nouns, as in "a tu quoque argument
...
For example:
•
•

Shani: You should stop smoking
...

Kitwe: Why should I listen to you? You started smoking when you were 16!

33 | P a g e

[Here], the daughter commits the tu quoque fallacy
...
While the mother may indeed be
inconsistent, this does not invalidate her argument
...
Logicians categorize it as a fallacy of relevance,
or a casual argument based on irrelevant or unrelated observations
...

So why is your argument illogical or irrational? Let's consider the situation with your neighbor
...
Therefore, the two wrongs lead to a right
...
'
Yet, the logic in your argument is flawed
...
If what you're doing is unethical or uncaring, it's
still wrong, even if your neighbor did something similar first
...
If you assume
as a premise for your argument the very conclusion you intend to prove, the fallacy committed
is that of petitio principii, or begging the question
...

For example, when a particular proposal for housing legislation is under consideration, a
legislator may rise to speak in favour of the bill and argue that only decent housing for all the
people is desirable
...


34 | P a g e

Presumably everyone agrees that decent housing for all the people is desirable (even for those
who will pretend to agree but do not really think so)
...

An argument commits this fallacy if its premises are directed towards a conclusion different
from the one that is supposed to be established by them
...
Such questions presuppose that a
definitive answer has already been given to a prior question that was not even asked
...

Complex questions are not confined to obvious jokes like those above
...
He may
ask, “Where did you hide the evidence? Or why did you steal from him?” or the like
...
Other kinds of complex questions - a mother may ask
her youngster if he wants to be a good boy and go to bed
...
What is wrong here is the suggestion
that one and the same answer must be given to both of the questions; and this is the folly, a
fallacy of complex question has been committed
Fallacy of Accident
The fallacy of accident consists in applying a general rule to a particular case whose
“accidental” circumstances render the rule inapplicable
...

Many generalizations known or suspected to have exceptions are stated without qualification,
either because the exact conditions restricting their applicability are not known or because the
accidental circumstances that render them inapplicable occur so seldom as to be practically
negligible
...

35 | P a g e

A practical example of this fallacy is;
Premise 1: “what you bought yesterday you eat today;
Premise 2: you bought raw meat yesterday;
Therefore you eat raw meat today
...
It is not intended to cover
every accidental circumstance, such as the raw condition of the meat
...
But those examined should be typical rather than atypical
...

For example considering the effect of alcohol only on those who indulge in it to excess, one
may conclude that all liquor is harmful and urge that its sale and use should be forbidden by
law, or that the eating of too much red meat is detrimental to one’s health, and one concludes
that the sale and eating of red meat should be banned
...

Fallacy of False Cause
This fallacy is committed in instances where one mistakes what is not the cause of a given
effect for its real cause
...
Certainly we reject the claim that beating the drums is the cause of the
sun’s reappearance after an eclipse, even though one can offer as the evidence of the fact that
every time drums have been beaten during an eclipse, the sun has reappeared
...
2
...
”
They occur in arguments whose formulations contain ambiguous words or phrases, and whose
meanings shift and change more or less subtly in the course of the argument and thus render them
fallacious
...
The way in which meaning shifts depends upon what part of it may be

36 | P a g e

emphasized or accented
...

Fallacy of Amphiboly
This fallacy occurs in arguing from premises whose formulations are ambiguous because of
their grammatical construction
...
An amphibolous
statement may be true on one interpretation and false on another
...

Example of amphibolous sentences are wartime posters urging us to “save the food and waste
paper,” or the definition of anthropology as “the science of man embracing woman
...
When we keep these two meanings apart,
no difficult arises
...

A traditional example of this fallacy is:
The end of a thing is its perfection
Death is the end of life
Therefore, death is the perfection of life
This argument is fallacious because two different senses of the word “end” are confused in it
...
” Both meanings are of course legitimate
...
The premises are plausible
only when the word “end” is interpreted differently in each of them, as: “the goal of a thing is
its perfection,” and “death is the last event of life
...
For example the word tall is a relative word; a tall man and a tall building
are in quite different categories
...

•

The first may be described as reasoning fallaciously from the properties of the parts of the
whole to the properties of the whole itself
...


•

The second type of composition fallacy is parallel to the above
...


•

For example, it is fallacious to argue that because a bus uses more gasoline than an
automobile, therefore all buses use more gasoline than all automobiles
...


Fallacy of Division
The fallacy of division is the reverse of the fallacy of composition
...


•

To argue that a certain corporation is very important, and Muriuki is an official of that
corporation, therefore Muriuki is very important, is to commit the fallacy of division
...


•

To argue that since university students study medicine, law, engineering, dentistry and
architecture, therefore each or even, any student at the university studies the same would
be to commit the fallacy of division
...

•

In the latter (converse accident (hasty generalisation)), one argues that since many or most
atypical members of a class have a specified property, therefore all members of the class
(distributively) do also
...


The difference between the fallacy of division and that of accident is that,
•

The latter (accident) argues that since most members of a class have a specified property
therefore any particular member or subclass of members, no matter how atypical, must
have that property also
...


5
...
There is no sure general
way to avoid fallacies
...
A realization of the flexibility of language and the multiplicity of
its use will keep us from mistaking an exhortation to accept and approve a conclusion for an
argument designed to prove that conclusion true
...
Words are slippery, and most of them have a variety of
different senses or meanings
...

To avoid the various fallacies of ambiguity, we must have and keep the meanings of our terms
clearly in mind
...

And since shifts in the meanings of terms can make arguments fallacious, ambiguity can be
avoided by careful definition of the terms involved
...

LESSON 6: SOCRATIC METHOD
7
...
It is a method that
focuses on giving students questions, not answers
...
You will learn the discipline of
Socratic questioning so that you can use it in reasoning through complex issues, in understanding
and analyzing the thinking of others
...
Under this lesson therefore, we will look at a brief history
of Socrates as a person, the definition and features of the Socratic Method and the relevance of his
method to the subject of critical thinking and problem solving
...
2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
39 | P a g e

7
...
1 Discuss origin of the Socratic Method
...
2
...

7
...
1 The Origin of the Socratic Method
The Socratic Method is named after Greek philosopher Socrates who taught students by asking
question after question
...
Socrates lived somewhere in the range of 469 and 399 BC
...
He
is a baffling figure known mainly through the records of later classical scholars, particularly the
compositions of his understudies Plato and Xenophon, and the plays of his contemporary
Aristophanes
...

Through his depiction in Plato’s dialogues, Socrates became renowned for his contribution to
various fields through his concepts of the Socratic Method also known as the Socratic questioning
...
It informed the rise of critical thinking as a subject or
field of study
...
2
...
The Socratic method of inquiry uses a dynamic approach of questioning and intellectual
analysis in order to explore the essential nature of concepts
...
As a teaching methodology that uses probing
questions to guide about a dialogue about a text or concept, it emphasizes on dialectical exchange
among learners or between the teacher and the student
...
1 Introduction
This lesson will introduce you to the thought patterns of Rene Descartes and its impact on the
subject of critical thinking and problem solving
...
In this method, Descartes sought to doubt the truth of all beliefs in order to determine
which he could be certain were true
...
This lesson will therefore cover the following areas; a brief history of Rene
Descartes, the “Methodic Doubt”, the rules for the logical method and the meditations on first
philosophy
...

8
...
2
...

8
...
2 Analyse Descartes’ meditations on first philosophy
...
2
...
In 1629 he moved to the Netherlands where he lived in withdrawal for a long time,
changing his home regularly to save his security
...
His investigations were first confined to science, and just later did he
investigate metaphysics
...
1641 he distributed the contemplations of first way
of thinking and in 1644 he published the principles of philosophy
...

In the Discourse on the Method (1637) he describes his scholarly turn of events, and the cycle he
arrived at for logical and philosophical investigation
...
The way toward remaking, he
contends, ought to adhere to four standards of logical strategy, and keeping in mind that the
revamping is occurring he should live by observing four temporary guidelines of good lead
...
To achieve this, he employed a method of
systematic doubt where he rejected any idea that could be doubted
...
For him, everything was dubitable even his
own body; all except for the fact that he was doubting
...

7
...
2 Descartes’ meditations on first philosophy
In the Meditations on First Philosophy (1641), Descartes wrote in a similar autobiographical style
as the Discourse on method, he describes a six-day philosophical journey from radical skepticism
41 | P a g e

to rational certainty
...
The meditation are; i) Of the things which may be brought within the
sphere of the doubtful, ii) Of the Nature of the Human Mind; and that it is more easily known than
the Body, iii) Of God: that He exists, iv) Of the True and the False, v) Of the essence of material
things, and, again, of God, that He exists, Vi) Of the Existence of Material Things, and of the real
distinction between the Soul and Body of Man
...
1
...
This problem is less
problematic outside the domains of philosophy because, human mind left on its own is usually
casual and it often takes things for granted
...
As a consequence of human mental laxity and
the tendency to treat things casually, human beings have often and easily become prey to the whims
of politicians, conmen, advertiser and even lawyers in courts of law, who frequently disguise
appearance as reality
...
It aims at awakening the learners mind into understanding and appreciating
the need and importance of distinguishing appearance and reality
...

8
...
2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
9
...
1
...
1
...
Discuss the summary of appearance and reality
8
...
1
...

The problem of appearance
In life the mind presents us with only two possibilities for knowing: either we mistake appearances
for reality, or our mind is capacitated to comprehend reality or things in themselves
...
This is
caused by the fact that appearance is based on senses which are, most of the time deceptive
...
And
this, coupled with the fact that human mind has the tendency of replicating the objects of nature
makes the possibility of generating mistaken identities a common mental phenomenon, especially
when triggered in a mind which its conscience is not fully nurtured to maturity
...

Importance of distinguishing Appearance and Reality
Distinguishing Appearance and Reality helps us to understand ourselves, and the world much
better, and to be more knowledgeable about the essence and the nature of things around us
...
(Namwambah, 2012)
...
2
...
Summary of Appearance and Reality – Bertrand Russell
Russell begins by asking his reader to consider what knowledge, if any, exists that cannot be
doubted: “is there any knowledge that is so certain that no reasonable man could doubt it?” His
motivation is to deliver the acknowledgment that extreme uncertainty before long brings even the
most undeniable suppositions in our regular daily existences under reevaluation
...
"
All of these "facts" are easily called into question
...

So as to uncover the customary suspicions at issue, Russell focuses on one model, and the table
before him
...
Truly
we expect that there is just one color of the table, yet the presence of numerous colors repudiates
43 | P a g e

our supposition
...
”
Since it appears to be evident that no two individuals could share one indistinguishable perspective,
Russell enlists an uncertainty with regards to whether one genuine color of the table even exists
...
In any case, he proceeds, there is no motivation to accept that the typical
viewpoint ought to be viewed as genuine and different points of view, under different conditions,
be viewed as less genuine
...

As with color, the existence of just one texture of the table is ambiguous, because “to the naked
eye, the table appears to be smooth and hard
...
” Russell contends that one
can't consider one surface more genuine than another
...
The vibe of weight relies upon the power we
apply on the table, as does the creation of sound when we rap on the wood
...
These perceptions lead to Russell's first differentiation among
appearance and reality, "between what things seem to be and what they are" Russell recommends
that we are not hit with these discontinuities in our day to day life on the grounds that in functional
experience, one learns "to develop the 'real' shape from the obvious shape
...

He writes, "the real table, if there is one, is not immediately known to us at all, but must be an
inference from what is immediately known
...
Sense-data are not the same as our sensations
...
" Variations in our sensations indicate that sensation does
not directly reveal the reality of an object like the table
...
" To completely get a handle
on Russell's differentiation, consider sensation as a demonstration having a place with the domain
of experience and consider the object of that immediate experience to be sense-information
...
Since we have seen that specific
information on the table's world isn't accessible through the faculties, Russell asks how we can
realize that a genuine table exists at all and what sort of assurance we can have
...
While we may question the presence of a genuine table, it is more
enthusiastically to question our attention to our own sensations
...

44 | P a g e

The following issue that emerges as one of seeing how the genuine table, if there is one, identifies
with our sense-information
...
The inquiries we should initially
approach are: "is there a real table at all" and "if so, what sort of object can it be?" This relation,
between sense-data and the real table, is a substantial concern for Russell's enquiry
...
" Physical objects may be understood as "matter
...
He declares that they rely
upon our psyches
...
What we call physical objects are truly just
thoughts, mental items that we venture onto the world
...
Russell's thought of the table offers Berkeley's spirit
of enquiry while he concurs with Berkeley that "if there are any things that exist independently of
us they cannot be the immediate objects of our sensations
...

Now, Russell incorporates a significant differentiation between implications stuffed in "matter
...
Berkeley refutes this sense from of
matter
...
As per Berkeley, this freedom is conceivable;
he accepts that there is something that continues when we close our eyes or leave a room
...
It must not be "independent of seeing altogether, though it must be independent
of our seeing
...
Things can exist independently as long as they are not things essentially
unknowable
...
" Argument supporting this view maintains that "whatever can be
thought of is an idea in the mind of the person thinking it; therefore nothing can be thought of
except ideas in minds; therefore anything else is inconceivable, and what is inconceivable cannot
exist
...
Leibniz (1646–1716) thought that physical objects
existed because they were observed by some conceptually collective mind, like the universe itself
...
"

45 | P a g e

Russell also accepts the version of matter that they do not deny
...
However, Russell disagrees with the idealists over the question
of the nature of the real table, the latter question "what sort of object can it be?" Russell continues
that "almost all philosophers agree that there is a real table" and that our sense-data are signs of
something that exists independent of us, something that may be said to cause the "sense-data
whenever we are in a suitable relation to the real table
...
Russell
concludes by reemphasizing that what we gather from our senses directly in terms of "appearance"
are but signs from which we infer “reality
...
1
...
The contemporary world
seems to be at a crossroad with itself as changes continue to unfold
...
Our ability to think
critically, to effectively address and solve ever emerging problems; and to understanding key
methods and skills for problem solving and decision making enables us to effectively address the
right problems, identify risks and make better decisions
...

We will attempt to define problem, problem solving and decision and examine the process of
problem solving, problem solving skills, barriers to solving problems, and then highlight some of
the characteristics of good problem solvers
...
2
...
2
...
Define the meaning of problem, problem solving and of decision
10
...
2
...
2
...
Discuss the challenges and barriers to problem solving
10
...
1
...
We say one has a problem when he is faced
46 | P a g e

with a pressing or demand issue but has no immediate solution to it
...
(Namwambah, 2020)
Closely linked to problem solving is decision making which basically refers to the mental
processes (cognitive process) of analyzing, evaluating and synthesizing data as received and which
culminates in the selection of a course of action among several alternative scenarios
...
(ibid)
The process of problem solving
Problem solving is a process informed by various steps
...
Any attempt to mangle up the process will lead to
making decision by indecision; meaning that we will always be in a vicious circle with problems
and we will never attain a solution whatsoever
...
Problem
solvers habitually realize when something has gone wrong or when attention is required; they often
anticipate complications before they even exist and take precautionary measures to guard against
imminent destructive and inconvenient result
...
For example, only when you don’t know the consequences
of poor leadership, can you be surprised when rebellions suddenly arise; and, without being aware
of typical conduits used by corrupt officers, you won't be able to confront and stamp out corruption
from your organization
...

The following steps are necessary for effective problem-solving process:
Recognition and Defining the Problem
Why is the problem a problem? A problem is a problem because there is a pressing issue, a need
or a question but there is no obvious answer to it
...
Generally speaking, a typical process of problem solving and decision-making begins with
the recognition of a problem
...
For example, some freshmen fail in
college life because they do not recognize soon enough that their study habits are inadequate or
that they are in an unsuitable curriculum
...
Failure to attain a clear
definition of a problem will always result in obtaining unsuccessful solutions or you may end up
solving “some” problem but not the one that you were trying to solve
...
But
once you have correctly defined the problem, the rest will be relatively easy
...
Large problems can be very real, but their
solution usually require breaking them down into smaller, clearly defined segments in order to
solve them one at a time; second, the definition should not be too specific - a definition of a problem
is said to be too specific when it unnecessarily restricts alternative solutions
...
The
Dean’s definition would in itself have contained a “possible solution” that more scholarships and
financial grants be extended to masters’ program students
...

These rules are necessary to observe because quite often, there is temptation to quickly jump into
figuring out solutions without understanding the nature and magnitude of the problem
...


Establishing Causal factors
The second phase to problem solving entails finding out what caused the problem/gathering
information or conducting research
...
Some questions to ask at this stage include
the following: When and where did the difficulty, obstacle or complication occur? Why did the
problem happen? How did it happen? What led to the problem? How real or practical is the
problem? Was it caused by one thing or many things? Was it accidental or intentionally caused?
What information is missing? Where can you find more information? What could have prevented
the problem? What is known about similar problems? What solutions have been tried before?
Problem Impact analysis
48 | P a g e

Phase three of problem solving and decision-making entails analyzing the impact of the problem
...
Major guiding questions at this stage include: Is it affecting one person or many; and how
is it affecting them? How long has the problem been going on? Are there any trends? Is this a reoccurring problem or a completely new one? What would happen if the problem is not resolved?
If the problem cuts across social divide or is affecting a multitude or an institution, talk to different
people to get first-hand accounts of the impact of the problem, its possible source and their views
on how best to mitigate it
...

Formation of Tentative Solutions
The fourth phase to problem solving is brainstorming and formation of possible solutions
...
Identify as many possible solutions to the problem
through brainstorming
...
Thereafter, list down all the answers proposed and invite others to
further build upon and refine the suggested solutions or you go further to propose and share other
additional solutions that might not have been captured by your respondents and share them out
before reaching a definite solution
...
If the problem is
collective and impacting on many people or an institution, it is advisable to use a good facilitator
to listen attentively to participants, encourage input by all and drive the discussion before you
subject their opinions to the scrutiny of analytical reason
...
The key question to this phase is: How do
you select the best alternative/solution? Once a good number of options have been gathered, the
next step is to go through the alternatives and narrow down the ones that are most viable
...
In the process of synchronizing alternatives it’s important to identify the advantages and
disadvantages of each of the top choices
...
e
...


Decision Making
The sixth and last step in brainstorming is deciding the best solution among the top alternatives
available, let’s call it choosing the best option or making the decision
...
As a result of such fear, there is always a tendency for people to want
to continue digging further in order to come up with more information or more alternatives
...

Additionally, choosing an alternative could also entail making compromises, forcing some parties
to make concessions for the benefit of all; there is a possibility that not everyone would be happy
with the final solution
...
Following your rational gut instinct and seeking advice from
others can help in making decision agreeable across board
...

And where consensus is unforeseeable, then taking a poll would similarly be a simple way to
determine the solution that should be implemented for bigger institutional problems
...
2
...
Aspects of problem-solving mistakes
Problems are real
...
Problem is just
problem and it need all the seriousness and mental input to handle
...
The following are some of examples of problem solving
mistakes: i) refusing to admit or acknowledge that a problem exists; ii) looking for quick fixes; iii)
thinking that there won’t be any problems; iv) fixing symptoms instead of the root cause or real
problem;
...

Other problem solving mistakes include: a) thinking that you should have all the answers; b)
solutions that are not clearly defined; c) lack of clear communication; d) assuming that people
already know what to do; failing to give credit to staff who have fixed problems; e) fear of making
50 | P a g e

the wrong decision; assuming contributions of others; f) wrong assumptions; g) getting scared or
panicking when a problem arises; h) getting emotionally excited with tentative solutions; i)
procrastinating to make a decision or choose among alternatives; j) refusing to acknowledge when
a solution is not working, k) doing nothing when a problem arises; l) taking a long time before
attending to a problem; m) believing that time will naturally fix the problem; and, n) not being
flexible or adaptable when assumptions and conditions change
...
These skills are
enhanced by our ability to think critically and creatively and they include: Decision making skills –
this skill is useful especially in choosing between alternatives, identifying the best solution and
being able to explain why the chosen solution is the best one under the circumstances
...
Effective communication skills is also instrumental in assigning
responsibilities and explaining to others what they should be doing and, in letting others know that
the problem solving process is on course or it has been resolved; iii) Risk taking -the ability to
identify the pros and cons of an alternative and then arming oneself with enough knowledge to
carry out the plan effectively and efficiently; iv) Prioritization - when faced with many problems
in your study or at work, being able to identify the most urgent and important problem to be
addressed and fixed is a skill definitive of success and effective organization; v) Flexibility conditions and situations change all the time therefore, willingness to re-analyze plans and
assumptions and re-calibrate them as needed is essential
...

9
...
3 Challenges and Barriers to effective Problem Solving
Our ability to solve problems vary from individual to individual
...
At the individual level, inability to handle
and solve problems has led to many unconventional actions – suicide, stress, depression and mental
breakdown, family breakdown and other uncivil behaviors
...

Other challenges and barriers include: resource constraints; insufficient resources such as
manpower and finances to properly address large scale problems; too many problems at the same
time or difficulty in prioritizing problems; resistance to change or new ways of doing things; not
following through on solutions after the brainstorming stage; mental fatigue and giving up too
soon when it takes long to solve a problem; inability to measuring progress; abrupt change in
external factors causing the need to rethink or revise solutions; inexperience in handling and
solving problems; and, not wanting to deal with uncertainty
...
1
...
The importance of education in nurturing well-polished
and visionary leadership has been underscored by various writers
...
They need to embrace and display, in their actions and deeds,
a complex set of skills, dispositions and attitudes, which together describe a virtue which has both
intellectual and moral component
...

This range of skills, dispositions and attitudes serves to prevent the emergence of numerous vices,
including dogmatism and prejudice in thinking
...
2
...
2
...
Discuss the meaning, qualities and main aspects of leadership
11
...
2
...
2
...
Meaning of Leadership Qualities and Main Aspects of Leadership
Leadership is the ability of an individual or a group of individuals to influence and guide others
toward their actualization
...
Leaders permeate all the spectrums of
society, ranging from religion to business to politics to region to community-based organizations
to states and at global level
...

The leaders are supposed to ensure and guarantee the functionality of the state institutions; secure
and ensure proper utilization of state assets; commit to on-time, efficient and effective service
delivery; and, front for secure, serene, motivating and friendly environment conducive for the
prosperity of their communities and nation
...

Good leadership on the hand is a prerequisite to the survival of the community and the
actualization of individuals’ aspirations
...
The agreement here is that leaders make a dream and can effectively get
others to progress in the direction of accomplishing that objective
...
They are
additionally fit for getting individuals energized and roused to move in the direction of the vision,
thereby improving their lives
...
The initial indicators of leadership qualities in an individual manifests through stages of
growth and early enough in education circle
...
When one joins professional cadre, these early qualities,
transiting to maturity persist and in addition; uncompromised honesty, professional etiquette and
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commitment to duty and service, value addition and ability to think beyond conventional level,
courage to transcend all forms of manipulation, intimidation and threats take centre stage in an
individual’s life
...
The ability to think beyond the ordinary and address
issues inflicting the community easily bestows authority of leadership on such individuals; and
their diversified ways of thinking, acts of goodness and humility to all becomes a motivating and
inspiring pendulum to the rest of members in the community
...

These traits can, to some extent be inborn, but are best cultivated and acquired through rigorous
training and value-based education
...
They require one to
transcend the self, awaken the inner spirit (conscience) from perpetual dogmatic slumber often
occasioned by prejudices, biases, native egocentricism, and other vices; they need critical thinking
in order to transform one into society’s incendiary flame of wisdom and reflection
...
2
...
Value Creating Education Skills for Leadership
In addition to the gains of access to impartial supply of knowledge, there is need for the leadership
to train and develop some skills, dispositions and traits that will enable them to transcend the limits
of ordinary education
...
The critical skills of value
creating education include: i) the ability to form an opinion for oneself, which involves being able
to recognize what is intended to mislead, being capable of listening to eloquence without being
carried away, and becoming adept at asking and determining if there is any reason to think that
what you belief is true and good for the society and its institutions; ii) the ability to find an
impartial solution, ability to recognize and control your own biases, coming to view your own
beliefs with the same objectivity with which you view the beliefs of others, judging issues on the
basis of their merits, trying to ascertain the relevant facts, and exhibiting the power of weighing
arguments before making decision; iii) the ability to identify and question assumptions – being not
gullible; applying constructive doubt in order to test unexamined beliefs, and resisting the notion
that some authority has captured the whole truth about the needs, dynamism and operations geared
towards the good of the community; knowledge that ideas work but human society is not static,
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and as a result, unprecedented challenges can occasion new modes of thinking and change in
approach and tact
...
2012, Sheffield 2014)
...
There are essential critical thinking dispositions which
guarantee that the imbued relevant skills are actually exercised
...

The essential critical thinking dispositions for effective leadership include: i) the habit of impartial
inquiry, suggesting that we must think in a multi-faceted way and refuse to accept that one-sided
opinions hold solutions to the challenges bedeviling human society; and, resist the notion that truth
is a reserve for the privileged and it solely depends on time and place of their education, their
social or economic standing, and political fortification; being cognizance that biases, prejudices
and native egocentricism often lurk beneath seductive and often persuasive yet superfluous and
empty rhetoric; ii) the habit of weighing evidence, coupled with the practice of not giving full
assent to propositions which there is no reason to believe as true; iii) the habit of attempting to see
things truly, which contrasts with the practice of merely collecting whatever reinforces existing
prejudice and stereotypes; and iv) the habit of living from one's own centre, being astute and selfdirected- a certain independence in the will, intelligently motivated and constantly inspired by
reason
...
(Namwambah
2011, Paul, R & Elder, L
...
Some examples of this readiness include: i) a readiness to admit new
evidence against previous beliefs, which involves an open-minded acceptance of whatever a
critical examination has revealed and acting accordingly; ii) a readiness to discard hypotheses
which have proved inadequate, where the critical test proves otherwise, the willingness and
preparedness to abandon beliefs which once seemed promising but now ineffective; and iii) a
readiness to adapt oneself to the facts of the world, instead of merely going along with whatever
happens to be in the ascendant, which might be wrong and misleading, taking a leap to transform
through creative prowess for the wellbeing of humanity
...
What these dispositions have in common is the virtue
of truthfulness which is comprehensively emphasized within the communities’ ethical
jurisdictions, and, effectively and widely articulated and enshrined in constitutions of various
nations
...
This is so because leadership is
supposed to steer the citizens towards the realizations of their potentials, attainment of their
aspirations and trigger development and growth
...
By critical attitude we mean a temper of
mind central to which a certain stance with respect to professional etiquette, resolve to serve and
pragmatic opinions dangle; it entails: i) a realization of human fallibility, a sense of the
uncertainty of many things commonly regarded as indubitable, bringing with it humility – being
conscious of the limits of knowledge, including that of the self; including a sensitivity to
circumstances in which native egocentrism is likely to function self-deceptively; being sensitive
to prejudices, stereotypes and limitations of one's own viewpoint; not claiming more than what
one actually knows, and owning up to what is unknown; it’s the absence of cerebral
pretentiousness, boastfulness, or conceit
...
(Namwambah 2012, Paul, R & Elder, L
...
1
...
Despite the
fact that people are brought into the world with intrinsic interest and feeling of wonder, the journey
to find and uncover the truth is hampered by these berries they encounter as they grow up
...

To understand why human beings and especially University students often exhibit less than
encouraging levels of interest and understanding, we need look no further than two general
predispositions that many students bring with them from previous socialization and schooling
environment: an attitude of intellectual passivity or disengagement, and negative preconceptions
about academic disciplines and cultural integration
...
Youngsters who
are slowly examining the world around them and wondering about it ask perfectly good
questions, like, Why is the grass green?´ because they can envision it purple, or
Orange… The adult who is answering the question is annoyed
...
What colour do you expect it to be”
...

Some of the obstacles to critical thinking result from individuals’ mental laxity, lack of exposure,
paternalism, indoctrination, religious dogmas and influence, peer-group and social influence,
schooling environment and authoritative systems, arrogance and intolerance, biased experiences,
egocentric thinking, social conditioning and drone mentality
...
To understand why human beings and especially trainees in many
institutions often exhibit less than encouraging levels of interest and understanding, we need look
no further than two general predispositions that many people bring with them from previous
socialization: i) an attitude of intellectual passivity or disengagement; and, ii) negative
preconceptions about disciplines and cultural integration
...
Thus,
natural inquisitiveness is soon replaced by passivity and a tendency to take cues from others
...
And by the
time most students reach University age, the inner-directed child has become the other-directed
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young adult
...

ii) Structure of the Education system
Other pressures inherent in the Structure of the traditional public school also encourage
intellectual caution and discourage reflective thinking
...

Elkind (1978) suggests that by the time most students reach the third or fourth grade in school,
their natural inquisitiveness has already been discouraged, if not actually impaired, by a schooling
process that constantly shuttles them back and forth between different activities every hour on the
hour
...
It takes time or anyone to settle down and become seriously engaged in a topic
of interest
...
To cope with the demands of this constant barrage of competing
subjects, students learn to disengage their intellectual capacities
...
By the ripe old age of nine or ten, most younger-stars have learned
well the lesson that school is not the place to get any serious thinking done
...
Some of these attitudes may
result from previous encounters with poor teachers, while others may arise from student’s own
idiosyncratic likes or dislikes, over which teachers have no control
...
If a student really thinks of critical and creative thinking, as one student put
it; “
...
You can take a cow to the river but you cannot force it to drink watersuch student cannot just learn unless convinced otherwise
...
”

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A better approach would then be to take some time at the start of each term or semester to ask
students what value they perceive a given discipline to have in the context of their lives
...

iv) Philosophy´ or Ideology
A fourth factor that impedes reflective thinking is the `Philosophy´ or Ideology that informs some
political establishments of a nation
...
When the system is so rigid as not to respect the freedom and
liberties of its citizens, does not allow people to freely express themselves, hold opinions, associate
and make choices such a system contain within itself seeds of self destruction
...
Such individuals become
submissive, naive and loose identity of the self
...


v) Propaganda
Propaganda- a form of communication that is aimed at influencing the attitude of a community
towards some cause or position so as to benefit the propagator or his group
...
Propaganda is often biased, with facts selectively presented (thus possibly
lying by omission) to encourage a particular synthesis, or uses loaded messages to produce an
emotional rather than rational response to the information presented
...

Propaganda can be used as a form of political warfare
...

Richard Alan Nelson(1998) looks at propaganda as a systematic form of purposeful persuasion
that attempts to influence the emotions, attitudes, opinions, and actions of specified target
audiences for ideological, political or commercial purposes through the controlled transmission of
one-sided messages (which may or may not be factual) via mass and direct media channels
...


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Propaganda generally appeals to emotion, not intellect
...
Propaganda impedes
thinking
...
The impact of our
contemporaries and especially when they nurse vested interests in our lives and the direction our
thinking takes tend to impact positively or negatively us
...
Excommunication or group justices in such groups often curtail the freedom of
independent thoughts
...

Seventh is Paternalism
...
Many timid persons- those lacking self confidence
or self trust are products of intimidating environment or humiliating life styles and experiences
...
Be it known that personality is a
product of environment in which one is nurtured: - dead environment produces dead minds
...
In most of religious set ups there are rules, regulations, dogmas and
principles that govern those religions
...
Today
it is not uncommon to find in some churches cards resemblance to those used by football referees
being the darling companion of the pastor or shepherd
...
In such churches a flock is not supposed to talk but to listen and take
what he/she hears as the gospel truth
...
Dogmas of certain religious groupings and churches are explicit- the roles of men
and women are defined, what to wear, what to do during prayers, how to behave, when to get
married and how, what to eat and what time to pray etc are all spelt out
...
The buzzwords that characterize these sects are faith, submission,
loyalty, obedience and generous tithing
...
3
...
He claims that his method will lead to indubitable conclusions “as if by
machinery,” and believes that the unfallen human mind would naturally work in the way he
envisaged, if it were not corrupted by “idols” or false images which cause men to see everything
in relation to the universe - appearances as opposed to realities
...
But in order to attain clarity of thought, Bacon insists
that the idols (barriers to clear thinking) must be pointed out explicitly
...
J
...
144)
...
And since there are some predispositions of the mind which impede the mental
progress towards certain definitions, we are better advised by Bacon that we avoid falling prey to
the Idols and all those constraints related to them
...
So the idols of the tribe are the natural
tendencies towards bias such as reading our own wishes into what we suppose we see looking for
patterns or a purpose to everything
...
The nature of the animal spirit which pervades the human
body itself distorts the sensations recorded in the mind from external stimuli
...

Accordingly, a natural function of reason is to generalize from what is observed, to prepare humans
for the future
...
Whether influenced by the
imagination, which can “feign” order and similarity where none is to be found in nature, or by the
affections, which naturally abhor tedious and extended investigations, these errors lead to
systematic misrepresentation in the mind of natural data
...


•

Idols of the Cave

The cave is the little box we each live in as individuals
...

They entail errors arising from an individual investigator’s personal habits of mind and
predilections
...
Such errors can only be avoided by regarding with deep
suspicion any interpretation of the data which is immediately and strikingly appealing
...
The only solution which avoids such
distortions is to alternate the two procedures
...
The common uses of words are not necessarily fit for the scientific and philosophical
use and common sense and the logic we presume we are using when we speak is not that logical
...

Idols of the market place are errors which are automatically introduced into any discussion of
natural phenomena if the investigator accepts the received terminology and holds to the basic
classifications which are assumed in all application of terms according to common usage
...
Even definitions, Bacon stresses, involve accepting some terms as given, and may not,
therefore, avoid this difficulty
...
He is prepared to use
them as building blocks for definitions which are not formed according to vulgar notions
...

•

Idols of the Theatre

The theatre refers to the show places of scientific ideas and theories; journals, books, famous
names and theories, particular scientific designs or methods that have won recognition; the
appearances of truth
...

These are errors resulting from the adoption of fully-fledged and fallacious systems offered as
explanations for natural processes, which persuade by their internal consistency
...

He says:
“As for the detection of False Appearances or Idols, Idols are the deepest fallacies of
the human mind
...
For the mind
of man (dimmed and clouded as it is by the smooth covering of the body), far from
being a smooth, clear, and equal glass (wherein the beams of things reflect according
to their true incidence), is rather like an enchanted glass, full of superstition and
imposture
...

On the whole, Bacon’s attitude is that these errors are best avoided, rather than corrected, since
the effectiveness of correction is not guaranteed
...
The Idols therefore bear a relation to the
inductive method analogous to that which cautionary lists of fallacious arguments bear to
syllogistic:
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Critical thinking focuses on the use of reason to arrive at acceptable conclusion
...
They insist on the need
to question, interrogate, understand and be convinced before accepting anything as true, the
purpose of critical thinking is to establish knowledge founded on reason
...


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