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TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
(1)

TOPICS OF CONTENT

1
...
Tissues of body
 Epithelial tissues
 Connective tissues
 Bones, Cartilages, and Joints
3
...
Cardiovascular system
5
...
Urinary system
7
...
Endocrine system

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Anatomical Terminologies
What is ANATOMY?
Anatomy is the science of the structure and function of the
body
...


GROSS

MICROSCOPIC

surface

cytology

regional

histology

Gross anatomy:
The branch of anatomy that deals with the structure of organs
and tissues that are visible to the naked eye
...
In birds this is termed topography
...

 The head is level, and
the eyes look forward
toward the observer
...


1
...
Sagittal plane: is any plane parallel to the median plane
that divides the body into unequal right and left portions
...
Coronal (frontal) plane: is a vertical plane situated at a
right angle to the median plane
...

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4
...
A horizontal plane divides the body
into upper and lower parts
...
Transverse plane: lies perpendicular to the long axis of a
given structure and divides that structure in a crosssectional orientation
...
However, they are not
necessarily equivalent
...
Relative to front (belly side) or back (back side) of the
body
 Anterior = In front of; toward the front surface
 Posterior = In back of; toward the back surface
 Dorsal =At the back side of the human body
 Ventral = At the belly side of the human body
2
...
Relative to the midline or center of the body:
 Medial = Toward the midline of the body
 Lateral = Away from the midline of the body
 Deep = On the inside, underneath another structure
 Superficial = On the outside
4
...
Flexion and Extension:
Flexion is the movement in which a joint angle is
decreased (closed) during motion occurring in a
sagittal plane
...
g
...


2
...

3
...

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Medial (internal) rotation is the movement that
results in the anterior surface of the part facing
medially,
Lateral (external) rotation is the movement that
results in the anterior surface of the part facing
laterally

4
...

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5
...

6
...

Retraction is to move a part backward
...

All tissues consist of cells and variable amount of extracellular matrix
(intracellular substance)

TYPES OF TISSUES
The human body is generally classified into four main types of tissues:
1
...

3
...


The epithelial tissues (epithelium)
The connective tissues
The muscle tissues
The nervous tissues

EPITHELIUM
The epithelium is defined as
“A collection of closely apposed cells with very small amount of
extracellular matrix”
 The epithelium is avascular (having no vessels), therefore it
is supported by a layer of loose connective tissues containing
blood vessels
 There is a layer known as basement membrane or basal
lamina present between epithelium and connective tissues

Groups of epithelia
The epithelium is divided into two major groups
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1
...
Covering epithelia:
also known as lining epithelium
form continuous sheets, consisting of one or more layers of cells
of the body cavities

Classification of covering epithelium
The covering epithelium is classified as
 Simple epithelium
 Stratified epithelium
 Pseudostratified epithelium

1) Simple epithelium:
 These epithelia, also known as UNILAMINAR EPITHELIA,
consists of only a single layer of cells
 Each cell of epithelial layer has a basal surface which rests on the
basement membrane, and a free surface which faces the cavity or
lumen of an organ or body
 According to the shapes of their cells, the simple epithelia is
divided into following types:
i
...
Simple cuboidal
iii
...


Simple squamous epithelium:

 Consists of single layer of thin flat cells which are roughly
polygonal in outline
 The free surface of each flat cells faces a cavity or lumen of a
tub0075lar structure, while the basal surface rests on basement
membrane
 The cells have serrated or wavy margins and adjacent cells fit
closely together to form a continuous sheet
 Each cell has a flattened nuclei in the center of the cell

Examples
 Endothelium covering internal surface of heart, blood vessels and
lymph vessels
 Mesothelium covering pericardial, pleural and peritoneal cavities

i
...
Simple columnar epithelium:
 This type consists of single layer of columnar cells
 On surface view, the cells appear in a mosaic resembling that of
cuboidal
 On perpendicular view, the column becomes more evident as the
height of cells is greater than that of width

Examples
 Internal surface of stomach, intestines, gallbladder and uterus

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2) Stratified Epithelium:
 The epithelia consists of two or more layers off cells, in which
bottom layer rests on the basement membrane
...
Stratified squamous epithelium
ii
...
Stratified columnar epithelium
iv
...
Stratified squamous epithelium:
 It lines those surface which are subject to wear and tear 
 The deepest layer is formed by low columnar or cuboidal cells
which rest on basement membrane

...
Keratinized
ii
...
Keratinized:
 In keratinized the cytoplasm of superficial cells accumulate large
number of keratin filaments
...

Example
Skin

2
...

Examples
Oral cavity esophagus, oropharynx and vagina
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ii
...
its probable function is to
provide ducts with stronger lining than simple cuboidal or simple
columnar epithelium

Examples
1
...
Salivary gland
3
...


Stratified columnar epithelium:
 It consist of columnar cells which rest on one or more layers of
roughly cuboidal cells

Examples
1
...
Conjunctiva of eye

iv
...
Neuroepithelial cells:
 These are tall columnar cells including microvilli, cilia or
stereocilia on the free surface

Example:
These cells are found in sense organs like taste buds and
vestibulocochlear receptor system of internal ear

2
...

ii
...


Basal lamina:

 It is a finely fibrillar layer having a thickness of 80-100 nm
 It lies directly beneath the connective tissues
 Major components include collagen type IV and glycoprotein
called laminin, and perlecan
 Under electron microscope, it consists of lamina lucida and lamina
densa

ii
...
It serves to bind the epithelial cells to the underlying or
surrounding connective tissues
B
...
The basement membrane serves as a scaffolding during epithelial
regeneration or wound healing
D
...
Protection:
All covering epithelium protect underlying connective tissues
Example include the stratified squamous epithelium of epidermis, oral
cavity protect against mechanical trauma

2
...
Absorption:
Some epithelial cells are selectively permeable to substances in solution
Example, in epithelial lining of small intestine the absorptive epithelial
cells take up appropriate material from lumen but leave unwanted
substance behind

4
...
Transport:
Mucus and particulate matter are transported along the surface of
ciliated epithelium of conducting respiratory passages

6
...


General features
It contains
1
...
Extracellular matrix
The extracellular matrix consists of ground substance and fibers
Fibers are
1
...
Reticular fiber
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3
...
Embryonic
connective tissue
Mesenchymal
Mucoid

2
...
Specialized connective
tissue
Bone
Cartilage
Blood

Functions of connective tissues
i
...


Role as a medium of exchange

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The ground substance part of the connective tissue matrix serves as a
medium through which oxygen, nutrients and metabolic wastes are
exchanged between body cells blood
iii
...
Intracellular substance of connective tissues acts as a
physical barrier to the bacteria
2
...
Some cells produce antibodies which react with and inactive
the antigens
iv
...


Migrant cells:

 These include those cells that enter the connective tissues from
the bloodstream
 These cells include
1) Macrophages
3) Plasma cells
2) Mast cells
4) Various types of WBCs

i
...
Migrant cells
1) Macrophages
 Also known as histiocytes
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 These cells are motile, phagocytic cells found in loose
connective tissues throughout the body
 Under LM, it is difficult to distinguish the resting (inactive)
macrophages from fibroblast
Inactive macrophages:
 These are generally in fusiform or stellate in shape and lie in close
association with collagen fibers
 The nucleus is smaller and darker staining than that of a fibroblast
and a cytoplasm contains numerous granules which represents
lysosomes

Active macrophages:
 These can be easily distinguish from the fibroblast
 An active macrophage is a large, spherical or oval cells measuring
10-35µm in diameter
 Their nucleus is eccentric in position and kidney-shaped in
appearance
 Their cytoplasm is basophilic and contains many small vacuoles
and dense granules

Functions:
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 Their function is phagocytosis of unwanted particulate matter as
a defensive activity
 Some macrophages acts as antigen-presenting cells (APCs)
 Macrophages secrete a number of cytokines which belong to the
interleukin-1 (IL-1) family, these cytokines stimulate
proliferation and maturation of lymphocytes

2) Mast cells
 The mast cells are large, ovoid cells measuring 20-30µm in
diameter
 Their characteristic feature is the presence of large secretory
granules in the cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm contains a few mitochondria, small amount of RER
and Golgi apparatus
 The cytoplasmic granules cannot be identified easily because they
are water soluble and are washed out when ordinary aqueous
fixatives are employed to preserve the tissues
 The mast cells secrete mediators of inflammation, which are
classified into two categories

i
...


Secondary mediators of inflammation:

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 These are not stored in the cytoplasmic granules but are
synthesized and released by mast cells upon activation
 These include leukotrienes C4, D4, E4, tumor necrosis factor
(TNF), prostaglandin D2 and several types of interleukins

Functions:
 Mast cells plays an important role in the development of allergic
reactions that are called Immediate hypersensitivity reactions
 The cell membrane of mast cells contains receptors for
antibodies of the immunoglobulin E (IgE)
 Although best known for their role in allergy and anaphylaxis,
mast cells play an important protective role as well, being
intimately involved in wound healing, angiogenesis, immune
tolerance, defense against pathogens, and vascular permeability
in brain tumors

3) Plasma cells
 The plasma cells are also known as plasmacytes
 These cells are derived from activated lymphocytes of B type
 Under LM, they are ovoid cells having basophilic cytoplasm
except area around nucleus
 They are abundant Golgi apparatus and RER that is the reason
they are well suited for proteins synthesis
 These cells have short life span of 10 to 20 days after which
they are destroyed by apoptosis

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Functions:
 Plasma cells secrete antibodies (proteins), they have a capacity
of secreting several thousands of antibodies molecules per
second
 When comes in contact with antigen, it engulfs it and presents
the antigenic determinant (epitope) of the antigen to help T
cells, the helper T cells releases proteins that causes B
lymphocytes to differentiate into antibody – secreting cells
...
Once reached in blood stream, the
antibody molecule reaches the targeted antigen and destroys it

4) Leukocytes
 Also known as white blood cells, normally migrate from
blood stream to connective tissue through capillary walls
 This migration increases during inflammation
 The lymphocytes of B type develop into plasma cells and
monocytes give rise to macrophages

Extracellular matrix of Connective tissue
 It is composed of ground substance and fibers
 The nature of components determines the physical properties of
various types of connective tissue like ability to withstand
shearing forces, stretch, and compression

Ground substance of connective tissue
 Mixture of glycoproteins & proteoglycans
Proteoglycans (glycosaminoglycans)
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 hyaluronic acid, chondroitin sulphate, heparan sulphate, keratan
sulphate, dermatan sulphate

Glycoproteins
 fibronectin (dermis), chondronectin (cartilage), laminin
(basement membrane)
Properties:
 Colorless
 Highly hydrated
Functions:



Provides medium through which substances are exchanged
between blood and cells

Connective Tissues Fibers
1
...
Elastic fibers







Very thin but strong
Composed of elastin protein
Branch and anastomose freely
Can be stretched
Run singly & branch forming network in loose areolar tissue
In bundles, found in ligamentum flava & ligamentum nuchae

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Synthesis:
Synthesized by fibroblast

Location:
Found in skin, ligamentum flava & nuchae and large arteries

3
...

2
...

4
...
Loose connective tissue
 It is the packaging and anchoring material and acts as embedding
medium for many structures as blood vessels and nerves
 It binds with other tissues and organ and allows, owing its
flexibility
 It also acts as a supporting framework of most of the organs
 All three basic components of connective tissues are best
represented in this type
 The ground substance of ECM is dissolved out by chemical agents
used during the tissue fixing and staining procedures
...
These structures are called areolae and loose connective
tissue is also known as LOOSE AREOLAR CONNECTIVE
TISSUE

Cells:
 The most common cells is this type are fibroblasts and
macrophages
 Mast cells and adipose cells are also present

Fibers:
The fibers commonly present in their ECM is collagen fiber,
elastic fiber is also present

Examples
Examples include subcutaneous tissues, mesentery, and omentum

2
...
Dense irregular connective tissues
b
...
Dense irregular connective tissues:
 This variety of dense connective tissue usually occurs in the
form of sheets
 It consists of bundles of collagen fibers interwoven as
meshwork, elastic fibers are also available

Examples:
Deep fascia and capsules of organs like thyroid gland, prostate gland,
liver, kidneys and testes

b
...
Dense regular collagenous connective
tissues
b
...
Dense regular collagenous connective tissues
 These can be in the form of cords or band like structures (tendons
or ligaments) or broad like structures (aponeuroses)
Tendons and ligaments:
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Tendons are cords like structures that connect muscles to the bone,
while ligaments are the band like structures that connects bone to
the bone

Aponeuroses:
These structures are broad, flattened tendons that attach sheet like
muscles to the bone

b
...
Reticular connective tissues
 This variety of tissues consists of reticular cells and reticular fibers
Reticular fibers:
The reticular fibers are made up of collagen type III and are arranged in
the form of meshwork like network
Reticular cells:
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The reticular cells are considered to be a special variety of fibroblasts
 Most of the protoplasmic processes of reticular cells are wrapped
around or extend along the reticular fibers
 This arrangement creates a special trabecular system that forms
architectural framework of hemopoietic and lymphoid organs

4
...
White adipose tissues:
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 The color of this tissue varies from white to pale yellow
 Histologically, the white adipose tissues is characterized by the
presence of adipocytes which contains a single fat droplet called
unilocular adipocytes
 These cells have large sizes and the diameter is about 50-150 µm
 Isolated adipocytes have spherical shape but appear polyhedral
because of close packaging of cells
 The nucleus of the cell is displaced from the center to one side of
the lipid droplet
 In H and E section, stained tissue sections the fat tis dissolved out
and the space previously occupied by fat appears as a colorless or
oval area
 The cytoplasm and the nucleus of the unilocular adipocytes are
seen as a rim around the central empty spaces
 The eosinophilic cytoplasm and the basophilic nucleus of the cell
together exhibit a Signet ring appearance

Distribution:
 The white adipose tissues are widely distributed in human body
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 It is present in the subcutaneous tissues as a layer called
Panniculus adipose

Functions:
 The layer acts as an insulator under the skin, preventing heat loss
from the body
 The white adipose tissue is the chief site of storage of excess
energy in the body
 When in fed state, the fat cells stores excess amount of energy in
the form of triglycerides and when in fast state, the triglycerides
are split into the blood
 The fatty acids are also released as a source of energy for the body
cells
ii
...

2
...

4
...


Skin
Hair
Nails
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands

FUCNTIONS OF INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
1
...
It prevents the
entry of harmful microorganisms and foreign particles in
body
 It also prevents loss of body fluids
2
...
Excretion:
Through perspiration, waste material can be excreted
4
...
Sensory Perception:
Skin is an important sensory organ, it contains sensory receptors
for heat, cold, touch, pressure, and pain

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SKIN
The skin is the largest organ of the body that covers all the external free
surfaces

Layers of skin:
There are two layers of skin as
i
...


Epidermis (the outer layer with stratified squamous epithelium)
Dermis (the thickest layer of skin consisting of connective
tissues)

1
...

ii
...

iv
...


Stratum basale
Stratum spinosum
Stratum granulosum
Stratum lucidum
Stratum corneum

i
...


Stratum lucidum:
 The layer next to stratum corneum is stratum lucidum

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 The stratum lucidum is a thin, transparent layer of keratinocytes
that are becoming less round and have a flatter shape
iii
...


iv
...

 This layer mostly consists of keratinocytes held together
by sticky proteins called desmosomes
 The stratum spinosum helps make your skin flexible and
strong
...


Stratum basale:
 It is also known as stratum germinativum
 The deepest layer of epidermis
 New skin cells develop in this layer, and it also contains
the keratinocyte (cur-at-in-o-site) stem cells, which
produce the protein keratin
...

 It also contains melanocytes, which are responsible for
producing melanin, which provides the pigment of your
epidermis
...
Dermis
 Beneath the epidermis, is the dermis layer
 It contains a thick layer of dense connective tissue
 The dermis layer consists of blood vessels, nerves, and nerve
endings
 It lodges hair follicles, sebaceous glands, and sweat glands
which are extended into the epidermis

Layers of Dermis:
This connective layer is arranged into two layers
i
...
Reticular layer
i
...


Reticular layer:
 This is a deep layer
 It chiefly consists of interlacing bundles of connective
tissues fibers

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APPENDAGES OF SKIN
The skin has four appendages
1
...

3
...


Hair
Nails
Sebaceous glands
Sweat glands

1
...

2) Eyelashes and eyebrows protect eyes
...

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4) Help in sensing light touch due to the touch receptors associated
with the hair root plexuses

2
...

ii
...


Body
Root
Free edge

i
...


Roots:
It is the hidden part that extends proximally deep to the fold of
skin called NAIL FOLD

iii
...
5mm per week
 The toe nails grow at a constant rate of 0
...
Help in preventing bone damage
2
...
Enhance delicate movement of distal digits through counter
pressure

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3
...
Sweat glands
 Sweat glands are also known as sudoriferous glands
 They are found in almost all parts of the body, mostly in
palms and soles
 The secretory portion of the glands lies in the subcutaneous
tissues
 The duct runs through dermis, joins the epidermis and spirals
through it to reach skin surface

Sweat pores:
The opening in the skin surface for the production of sweat is
called SWEAT PORES

Function:
Evaporation of the sweat from the skin surface helps to cool the body

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Cardiovascular system
HEART
 The heart is a hollow, muscular organ within the pericardium in the
middle mediastinum
...

2
...

4
...

It also has an apex, which is directed downward, forward, and to
the left

Apex:
The apex of the heart lies at the level of the fifth left intercostal space,
approximately 3
...
(9 cm) from the midline
...
Left border:
It is made up of left auricle and below by left ventricle
2
...
Lower border:
Right atrium and right ventricle
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Importance of borders:
They are important to recognize when expanding a radiograph of the
heart

Structure of heart
The heart is divided by vertical septa into four chambers:
1
...
Left atrium

3
...
Left ventricle

The right atrium lies anterior to the left atrium, and the right ventricle
lies anterior to the left ventricle

Valves of heart
Tricuspid Valve
• The tricuspid valve guards the atrioventricular orifice
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• It consists of three cusps, the bases of which are attached to the
fibrous ring of the skeleton of the heart
• To their free edges and ventricular surfaces are attached the
chordae tendineae, which connect the cusps to the papillary
muscles
...
anterior
2
...
inferior

Pulmonary Valve
• The pulmonary valve guards the pulmonary orifice, and the three
semilunar cusps of this valve are attached by their curved, lower
margins to the arterial wall
• The open mouths of the cusps are directed upward into the
pulmonary trunk
...

• The pulmonary sinuses are three dilatations at the root of the
pulmonary trunk, with one being situated external to each cusp

Mitral Valve
• The mitral valve guards the atrioventricular orifice and consists of
two cusps, one anterior and one posterior
...

• One cusp is located on the anterior wall, and two are located on the
posterior wall
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Chambers of heart
RIGHT ATRIUM
The right atrium lies anterior to the left atrium and consists of a main
cavity and an auricle
...
Superior vena cava:
• The superior vena cava opens into the upper part of the right
atrium; there is no valve
...
Inferior vena cava:
• The inferior vena cava, which actually is larger than the superior
vena cava, opens into the lower part of the right atrium;
• There is a rudimentary valve
...
Coronary sinus:
• The coronary sinus opens into the right atrium between the inferior
vena cava and the atrioventricular orifice
• It is guarded by a rudimentary valve
...
Right atrioventricular orifice :
• The right atrioventricular orifice lies anterior to the inferior vena
caval opening
...

• The approach to the pulmonary orifice is funnel shaped and known
as the infundibulum
...
The internal surface shows projecting ridges called
trabeculae carneae
• There are three types of these ridges
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Papillary muscles
Papillary muscles are attached by their bases to the ventricular wall
...

• It conveys within it the right branch of the atrioventricular bundle,
which is part of the conducting system of the heart
...


LEFT ATRIUM
• The left atrium lies posterior to the right atrium
...

• The interior of the auricle possesses muscular ridges as in the right
auricle
...

• The left atrioventricular orifice is guarded by the mitral valve
...

• The left ventricle communicates with the left atrium through the
atrioventricular orifice and with the aorta through the aortic orifice
...

• There are trabeculae carneae and two papillary muscles; however,
there is no moderator band
...


Walls of heart
The walls of the heart consist of three layers:
1
...

2
...

3
...

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The skeleton of the heart consists of fibrous rings that surround the
atrioventricular, pulmonary, and aortic orifices and are continuous with
the membranous upper part of the ventricle septum

PERICARDIUM
 The pericardium is a fibroserous sac that encloses the heart and the
roots of the great blood vessels
 It lies within the middle mediastinum
...

 It is strong and limits unnecessary movements of the heart
...

 It is attached anteriorly to the sternum by the sternopericardial
ligaments
...

 The pericardial cavity is the slitlike space between the parietal and
the visceral layers
...

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Pericardial Sinuses
 The transverse sinus is a passage on the posterior surface of the
heart between the reflection of the serous pericardium around the
ascending aorta and the pulmonary trunk and the reflection around
the great veins
 The oblique sinus is a recess formed by the reflection of the serous
pericardium around the venae cavae and the four pulmonary veins

Nerve Supply of Pericardium
The phrenic nerve supplies the pericardium

Conducting System of heart
The conducting system of the heart is composed of modified
cardiac muscle
...
Sinoatrial node
2
...
Atrioventricular bundle

SINUATRIAL NODE
(PACEMAKER)
• The sinuatrial node initiates the heartbeat
...


ATRIOVENTRICULAR NODE
• The atrioventricular node is in the lower part of the atrial septum,
just above the attachment of the septal cusp of the tricuspid valve
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• It receives its blood supply from the right coronary artery
...

• The terminal branches of the atrioventricular spread out into the
ventricular walls
...

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CORONARY CIRCULATION

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Gastrointestinal tract
Alimentary canal

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The digestive system is defined as the bodily system concerned with the
ingestion, digestion, and absorption of food and the discharge of residual
wastes and consisting of the digestive tract and accessory glands (such
as the salivary glands and the pancreas) that secrete digestive enzymes

THE MOUTH
The mouth is consist of many organs that are helpful in digestion:
i
...

iii
...


The lips
The mouth cavity
The teeth
The tongue

v
...
The salivary glands
vii
...
The lips
 Two fleshy folds that surround the oral orifice are known as lips
 They are covered by skin on the outside and by the mucous
membrane inside the mouth
 The substance of the lips is made up of orbicularis oris muscle
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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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2
...
The teeth
Deciduous:
There are 20 deciduous teeth:
 4 incisors
 2 canines
 4 molars
In each jaw
Permanent:
There are 32 permanent teeth
 4 incisors
 4 pre molar
 2 canines
 6 molars
In each jaw

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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4
...

the filiform papillae
ii
...
vallate papillae

Muscles of tongue:
The muscles of tongue are divided as
i
...


intrinsic muscles
extrinsic muscles

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Blood supply
 The lingual artery, the tonsillar branch of facial artery, and the
ascending pharyngeal artery supply blood to the tongue
 The veins drains into the internal jugular vein

5
...

 It has two parts: the hard palate in front and the soft palate
behind
...


i
...



ii
...


Hard palate:
 The hard palate is formed by palatine process of the
maxillae and the horizontal plates of the palatine bones
 It is continuous behind the soft palate

6
...


Saliva plays an important role in supporting your oral and overall
health
...

Moistens food so it’s easier to swallow
...

Keeps your mouth clean
...

Helps maintain the pH balance in your mouth
...

ii
...


And sublingual gland
...




It lies beneath the lower border of the body of the mandible and is
divided into superficial and deep parts by the mylohyoid muscle
...




The sublingual ducts (8 to 20 in number) open into the mouth on
the summit of the sublingual fold

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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7
...
The pharynx is funnel shaped; its upper, wider end lies
under the base of the skull; its lower, narrow end is
continuous with the esophagus opposite the sixth cervical
vertebra
...


TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Muscles of pharynx:
The muscles of pharynx are
Superior, middle and inferior constrictor muscles

Process of Swallowing (Deglutition)
Voluntary Action:
 Masticated food is formed into a ball or bolus on the dorsum of the
tongue and voluntarily pushed upward and backward against the
undersurface of the hard palate
...


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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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 The palatoglossus muscles then squeeze the bolus backward into
the pharynx
...

 The nasal part of the pharynx is now shut off from the oral part of
the pharynx by the elevation of the soft palate, the pulling forward
of the posterior wall of the pharynx by the upper fibers of the
superior constrictor muscle, and the contraction of the
palatopharyngeus muscles
...

 The larynx and the laryngeal part of the pharynx are pulled upward
by the contraction of the stylopharyngeus, salpingopharyngeus,
thyrohyoid, and palatopharyngeus muscles
...

 Some of the food slides down the groove on either side of the
entrance into the larynx, that is, down through the piriform fossae
...


ABDOMINAL PORTION
The abdominal part of gastrointestinal tract consists of
i
...
Stomach
iii
...
Large intestine
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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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i
...
5 in
...
25
cm) enters the stomach on its right side
...


Blood Supply
 The inferior thyroid arteries supply the esophagus in the neck
...


Lymph Drainage in the Neck
The lymph vessels drain into the deep cervical lymph nodes
...
Stomach
 The stomach is a dilated portion of the alimentary canal situated in
the upper part of the abdomen
...

 It occupies the left upper quadrant, epigastric, and umbilical
regions, and much of it lies under cover of the ribs

Relation with other organs:
Anterior: anterior abdominal wall, left pleura, left lung, diaphragm
Posterior: liver, pancreas, spleen, diaphragm, kidney

Blood supply:
 Left gastric artery from cephalic artery and right gastric artery
from hepatic artery
 Left and Right gastric veins

Functions
 It stores food (1500mL)
 Food is converted to small pieces by contraction and relaxation of
stomach
 It helps in mixing of bolus with secretion forming chyme
 It is helpful in the digestion of proteins
 It also is an important factor to control the rate of delivery of food
to other organs

Parts of stomach:
Fundus: This is dome-shaped and projects upward and to the left of the
cardiac orifice
...

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Body: This extends from the cardiac orifice to the incisura angularis (a
constant notch in the lower part of the lesser curvature)
...

The thick, muscular wall is called the pyloric sphincter, and the cavity of
the pylorus is called the pyloric canal
...
The stomach is made of these 5
layers:









Mucosa
...
It contains the
glands that release digestive juices
...
This is where most stomach cancers start
...
This second layer supports the mucosa
...

Muscularis
...
They help to mix
food with the digestive juices
...
This layer contains supporting tissues for the serosa
...
This is the last and outermost layer
...


iii
...


Parts of Small Intestine:
The small intestine is divided into three parts:
1
...
the jejunum,

3
...
Duodenum:
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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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 It is a C-shaped tube that is about 10 inch long and joins
stomach to the jejunum
 The bile duct as well as pancreatic duct opens into the
duodenum
 It curves around the head of pancreas

Parts of duodenum:
There are four parts of duodenum namely 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th part

1st part:
 Begins at the pylorus and runs upward and backward to the
transpyloric plane at the level of first lumber vertebrae

2nd part:
 Is vertically downward
 Front of the hilium of right kidney
 On the right side of lumber vertebrae

3rd part:
 Begins horizontally towards left on the subcostal plane passing in
front of vertebral column and following the left margin head of
pancreas

4th part:
 It is moved upwards

Blood supply:
Arteries: upper half is supplied by superior pancreatoduodenal artery and
lower half is supplied by inferior pancreatoduodenal artery
Veins: superior pancreatoduodenal veins falls into portal vein and inferior
pancreatoduodenal veins falls into superior mesenteric vein
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Relation with other organs:
1st part
Anterior: quadrate lobe of liver and gallbladder
Posterior: lesser sac, gastroduodenal artery, and bile duct
2nd part
Anterior: fundus of gallbladder, right lobe of liver, and coils of small
intestine
Posterior: hilium of right kidney and ureter
3rd part
Anterior: root of mesentery of small intestine, coils of jejunum
Posterior: right ureter, aorta, right psoas muscle
4th part
Anterior: beginning of root of mesentry, coils of jejunum
Posterior: left margin of aorta, and medial border of psoas muscle

2
...
Large Intestine
 It is divided into the cecum, appendix, ascending colon,
transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon,
rectum, and anal canal



The large intestine arches around and encloses the coils of
the small intestine and tends to be more fixed than the
small intestine
...
Caecum
The cecum is a blind-ended sac that projects downward in the right iliac
region below the ileocecal junction
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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It is separated from the ileum by the ileocecal valve (ICV) or Bauhin's
valve
...
5 inch (6cm)
Function:
It receives chyme from the ileum, and connects to the ascending colon of
the large intestine
...
Appendix
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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 The appendix is a worm-shaped tube that arises from its
medial side



It is a narrow muscular tube with the excess of lymphoid
tissues



Its length is 3-5 inch (8-13cm)

Location:
Is present in potseromedial surface of caecum below the ileocecal
junction, completely covered with peritoneum

Blood supply
Arteries: appendicular artery (branch of posteriocecal artery)
Veins: appendicular vein (branch of posteriocecal vein)

3
...

 On reaching the liver, it bends to the left, forming the right
colic (hepatic) flexure
...

 It forms a wide U-shaped curve
...

 The transverse colon, on reaching the region of the spleen,
bends downward, forming the left colic (splenic) flexure to
become the descending colon
...

 It occupies the left upper and lower quadrants
...

 It joins the rectum in front of the sacrum
...
It
continuous above with the sigmoid colon and descends in
front of the sacrum to leave the pelvis by piercing the pelvic
floor
...


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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Associated glands
of Alimentary Canal
(GIT)
The associated organs of GIT include
1
...
Gallbladder
3
...
Pancreas

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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1
...
It lies almost entirely
under the cover of the ribs and
costal cartilages and extends
across the epigastric region
...


Relation with other organs
Anterior: diaphragm, left and right costal margin, pleura, and lower
margin of both lungs
Posterior: diaphragm, right kidney, hepatic flexure of colon, duodenum,
gallbladder, esophagus

Functions:
The liver is your largest internal organ, it has a number of vital
functions, in fact the liver is said to have 500 functions:
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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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1
...

3
...


Production and secretion of bile
Involved in metabolic activities of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
Filtration of blood
Helpful in removing of bacteria and other foreign particles that
have gained entrance to the blood from the lumen of the intestine
5
...
Supporting blood clots
7
...
e
...
Left lobe
2
...

2
...

Within the porta hepatis are the right and left hepatic ducts; the
right and left branches of the hepatic artery; and the portal vein,
nerves, and lymph vessels
...
Falciform ligament
2
...
Posterior ligament
4
...
Ligamentum venosum
6
...
Falciform ligament:
The falciform ligament is a two layered fold of peritoneum that attaches
the liver to the diaphragm above and to the anterior abdominal wall
below
It has a sickle shaped free margin that contains the ligamentum terres

2
...
Coronary ligament:

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Coronary ligament attaches liver to the diaphragm made up of
peritoneal layer and forming a large widely separated base area of
peritoneal covering
4
...

It connects the posterior surface of the right lobe of the liver to the
diaphragm
...
Left Trafalgar ligament:
Refraction of peritoneum attaches to upper part of left lobe of liver
to diaphragm

BLOOD SUPPLY
 The hepatic artery, which is a branch of the celiac artery,
divides into right and left terminal branches that enter the
porta hepatis
...

 Three or more hepatic veins emerge from the posterior
surface of the liver and drain into the inferior vena cava
...

 Some lymph passes through the diaphragm to enter the
posterior mediastinal nodes
...
Hepatic duct
2
...
Gallbladder
4
...
Left and right hepatic
3
...
Gallbladder
2
...
Cystic duct

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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1
...
5 inch) long
 It descends within the free margin of lesser omentum
 Then joins on the right side of cystic duct from the
gallbladder to form the bile duct

2
...
Gallbladder
Introduction
 The gallbladder is a pear-shaped sac lying on the undersurface of the
liver
 It has a capacity of approximately 30 mL, and it both stores and
concentrates bile by absorbing water

Parts
It is divided into
 a fundus,
 a body,
 and a neck
...


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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Relation with other organs
Anterior: inferior of liver
Posterior: transverse colon and 1st and 2nd part of duodenum

Functions of gallbladder
 when digestion is not taking place, sphincter of oddi remains closed
and bile is stored
 absorbs bile salts
 concentrates bile
 store bile
 excrete cholesterol and mucus

Bile salts
Bile salt is important in emulsifying fats in intestine, assisting its
absorption and digestion

Blood supply
 Cystic artery (branch of hepatic artery)
↓
Supplies gallbladder
 Cystic vein drains into portal vein
 Several small arteries run between liver and gallbladder

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Nerve supply
Sympathetic and para-sympathetic vagal fibers form celiac plexus
Gallbladder contracts in order to produce hormone cholecystokinin (fatty
food in duodenum)

 Cystic duct

The cystic duct is an S-shaped duct approximately 1
...

The mucous membrane is raised to form a spiral fold (spiral valve) that
keeps the lumen constantly open

3
...


Relation with other organs
Anterior: stomach, tail of pancreas, left colic flexure
Posterior: diaphragm, left pleura, left lung, 9th, 10th, 11th rib

Shape
 The spleen is ovoid in shape, with a notched anterior border
...

 The gastrosplenic omentum contains the short gastric and the left
gastroepiploic vessels, and the splenicorenal ligament contains the
splenic vessels and the tail of the pancreas
...


Vein
The splenic vein joins the superior mesenteric vein to form the portal
vein
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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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4
...


Structure
It is an elongated structure

Secretions
 Exocrine portion of the gland produces a secretion that contains
enzymes capable of hydrolyzing protein fats and carbs
 Endocrine portion of gland islets of Langerhans produces
hormones like insulin and glucagon
...


Parts
 It may be divided into
I
...
a neck,
III
...
, and a tail head
 Is disc shaped and lies within the concavity of the C-shaped
duodenum
...

 The neck is narrow and connects the head to the body; it lies in
front of the beginning of the portal vein
...


PANCREATIC DUCTS
 The main pancreatic duct opens into the second part of the
duodenum with the bile duct on the major duodenal papilla
...

 The accessory duct (if present) drains the upper part of the head
and opens into the duodenum on the minor duodenal papilla
...
Your pancreas releases the pancreatic enzymes into small ducts
(tubes) that flow into the main pancreatic duct
...
Your main pancreatic duct connects with your bile duct
...

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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3
...

4
...


BLOOD SUPPLY
Arteries
The splenic artery and the superior and inferior pancreaticoduodenal
arteries supply the pancreas
...


LYMPH DRAINAGE
The lymph nodes are situated along the arteries and drain into the celiac
and the superior mesenteric nodes
...
Kidneys
2
...
bladder
4
...


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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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1
...

• With contraction of the diaphragm during respiration, both
kidneys move by as much as 1 in
...
5 cm) downward in a
vertical direction
...
Fibrous capsule:
This is closely applied to its outer surface
...
Perirenal fat:
This is fat that covers the fibrous capsule
...
Renal fascia:
This is a condensation of areolar tissue outside the perirenal fat
...

iv
...


RENAL STRUCTURE:
Cortex:
• The outer cortex is dark brown in color, and the inner medulla is
light brown
...


Medulla:
• The medulla is composed of approximately 12 renal pyramids,
each having its base oriented toward the cortex and its apex (the
renal papilla) projecting medially
...

Within the renal sinus, the upper expanded end of the ureter (the renal
pelvis) divides into two or three major calyces, each of which in turn
divides into two or three minor calyces
...


Hilus:
• On the medial concave border of each kidney is the holus,
which extends into a large cavity (the renal sinus)
...


Relation with other organs:
Right kidney
Anterior:
Suprarenal gland, liver, duodenum
Posterior:
Diaphragm, pleura, 12th rib, left kidney

Left kidney
Anterior:
Suprarenal gland, spleen, stomach, pancreas
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Posterior:
Diaphragm, pleura, 11th and 12th rib

BLOOD SUPPLY
Artery
The renal artery, which is a branch of the aorta, supplies the kidneys
...


LYMPH DRAINAGE
The lymph drains into the lateral aortic lymph nodes around the origin of
the renal artery
...


Route of Blood supply to kidneys:
Heart →abdominal aorta → renal artery
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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→segmented artery→ interlobar artery → arcurate artery → interlobular
artery → (inside nephron) → afferent arteriole → glomerulus → efferent
arteriole → peritubular cappilaries → interlobular vein → arcurate vein
→ interlobar vein → renal vein → inferior vena cava → heart

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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SUPRARENAL (ADRENAL) GLANDS
• The two suprarenal glands are located close to the upper poles
of the kidneys on the posterior abdominal wall
...

• Each gland has a yellow-colored cortex and a dark brown
medulla
...


VEINS
There is a single vein on each side
...


Lymph Drainage
The lymph drains into the lateral aortic nodes
...

The majority of these fibers end on cells in the suprarenal medulla
...
Ureter
The two ureters are muscular tubes that extend from the kidneys to
the posterior surface of the urinary bladder

Size:

...
(25 cm) in length and has an
upper expanded end called the renal pelvis
...


BLOOD SUPPLY
Arteries
• Upper end: The renal artery
...

• Inferior end: The superior vesical artery
...


LYMPH DRAINAGE
The lymph drains into the lateral aortic and iliac nodes
...
Urinary bladder
The urinary bladder is located immediately behind the pubic bones
within the pelvis

Capacity
The bladder has a maximum capacity of approximately 500 mL
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Properties:
• The empty bladder is pyramidal in shape and has an apex, a
base, and a superior as well as two inferolateral surfaces
• It also has a neck
...

• In young children, the empty bladder projects upward into the
abdomen; later, when the pelvis enlarges, the bladder sinks to
become a pelvic organ
...


Neck:
The neck of the bladder points inferiorly
...

• Here, the mucous membrane firmly adheres to the underlying
muscle and is always smooth
...

• The interureteric ridge runs from one ureteric orifice to the
other
...

• In males, the median lobe of the prostate bulges slightly upward
into the bladder, behind the urethral orifice, to form a swelling
(the uvula vesicae)
...


Ligaments
• The neck of the bladder is held in position by the puboprostatic
ligaments in males and by the pubovesical ligaments in females
...


Veins
Vesical veins drain into the internal iliac veins
...


Nerve Supply
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve fibers from the inferior
hypogastric plexuses supply the bladder
...

ii
...
Scrotum
i
...
Epididymides
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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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2
...
Male urethra

The internal genital organs are
1
...
Epididymis

3
...
Seminal vesicles
2
...
Bulbourethral glands

External genital organs
1
...

It contains the testes, the epididymides, and the lower ends of the
spermatic cords
...

 Superficial fascia, in which dartos muscle (smooth muscle)
replaces the fatty layer
...

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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 Cremasteric fascia from the internal oblique muscle
 The cremasteric muscle is supplied by the genital branch of the
genitofemoral nerve
...

 Tunica vaginalis (a closed sac that covers the anterior, medial,
and lateral surfaces of each testis)
...


TESTES

 The testes are paired, ovoid organs responsible for the production
of spermatozoa and testosterone
...

 The tunica albuginea is the outer, fibrous capsule of the testis
...
EPIDIDYMIDES
 The epididymis on each side lies posterior to the testis and as a
head, a body, and a tail
...
(6
m) in length
...

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Blood Supply of the Testis and Epididymis
Arteries:
The testicular artery is a branch of the abdominal aorta
...


Veins:
The right testicular vein drains into the inferior vena cava, and the
left vein joins the left renal vein
...


2
...


Penile root:
The root of the penis is made up of three masses of erectile
tissue:
 the bulb of the penis
 the right crura of the penis
 the left cruca of the penis

Bulb:
 The bulb is situated in the midline and is attached to the inferior
(superficial) surface of the perineal membrane
...

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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 The bulb continues forward into the body of the penis and forms
the corpus spongiosum

Crus:
 Each crus attaches to the side of the pubic arch, and the
ischiocavernosus muscle covers its outer surface
...


The two crura converge anteriorly and come to lie side by side in
the dorsal part of the body of the penis, forming the corpora
cavernosa

Penile body:

The essential components of the body of the penis are three cylinders
of erectile tissue enclosed in a tubular sheath of deep fascia (Buck’s
fascia)
...

 The pronounced posterior edge of the glans is the corona
...

Prepuce:
 The prepuce (foreskin) is a hoodlike fold of skin that covers the
glans
...


Suspensory ligament of the penis:
 Two condensations of deep fascia, the suspensory ligament of
the penis, extend downward from the linea alba and symphysis
pubis and attach to the fascia of the penis
...


BLOOD SUPPLY OF PENIS
Arteries
Deep arteries of the penis and branches of the dorsal arteries of the penis
supply the area
...


LYMPH DRAINAGE OF PENIS
The glans penis drains into the deep inguinal and the external iliac
nodes
...
The erectile tissue drains into the internal iliac node
...
Male Urethra
Tube that connects the urinary bladder to the external urethral orifice
The male urethra is divided into three parts:
i
...

iii
...


TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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i
...

 On the posterior wall, there is a longitudinal ridge called the
urethral crest and on each side of this ridge is a groove called the
prostatic sinus, into which the prostatic glands open
...


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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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ii
...


iii
...
The
part of the urethra within the glans penis is dilated to form the
fossa terminalis (navicular fossa)
...


Internal genital organs

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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1
...
(45 cm) long that
conveys mature sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct and
the urethra
...

 It emerges from the deep inguinal ring and passes around the
lateral margin of the inferior epigastric artery
...

 The vas deferens then runs medially and downward on the
posterior surface of the bladder
...


2
...
(5 cm)
long lying on the base of the bladder
 Each seminal vesicle consists of a much-coiled tube embedded in
connective tissue
...


TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
( 122 )

Blood Supply
Arteries:
The inferior vesicle and middle rectal arteries, each of which is a branch
of the internal iliac artery, supply the seminal vesicle
...

 The secretions nourish the spermatozoa
...


3
...
5cm) long and is formed by the union
of the vas deferens and the duct of the seminal vesicle

Location:
The ejaculatory duct pierces the posterior surface of the prostate and
opens into the prostatic part of the urethra, close to the margin of the
prostatic utricle
...


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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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4
...

 They pour their secretion into the urethra in response to
erotic stimulation

5
...
25 in
...

 The numerous glands of the prostate are embedded in a mixture of
smooth muscle and connective tissue, and their ducts open into the
prostatic urethra
 The prostate is incompletely divided into five lobes:
i
...
Median lobe
iii
...
Left lateral lobe
v
...
External genitals
2
...

ii
...

iv
...


Vulva
Labia minora
Labia majora
Clitoris
Female urethra

The internal genitals are
i
...

iii
...


Vagina

External genital organs

1
...


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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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2
...

They contain fat, and hair covers their outer surfaces
...


3
...

 Their posterior ends are united to form a sharp fold (the
fourchette)
...


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4
...

 The vestibule has the clitoris at its apex and the openings of the
urethra, the vagina, and the ducts of the greater vestibular glands in
its floor
...
Clitoris
The clitoris in females corresponds to the penis in males
...

 It is attached to the undersurface of the urogenital diaphragm and
is covered by the bulbospongiosus muscles
...


Crura:
 The crura of the clitoris correspond to the crura of the penis, and
they are covered by the ischiocavernosus muscles

Blood supply:
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 The blood supply, lymph drainage, and nerve supply follow
virtually identical patterns in both the clitoris and penis
...


6
...
5 in
...
8 cm) in length
 It extends from the bladder neck to the external meatus
...


Internal genitals
1
...

Pouch of Douglas (rectouterine pouch):

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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 The Pouch of Douglas is an area of the peritoneal cavity located
between the rectum and the uterus’ posterior wall
...

 Being open at its superior end and closed at its inferior, it functions
in draining the fluids from the cavity

Structure
Tunia albuginea:
 A thin fibrous capsule that surrounds the ovaries
 It has outer cortex and inner medulla
 The connective tissues of cortex are called OVAIRAN
FOLLICLES
 The capsule is covered by modified area of PERITONIUM called
germinal epithelium

Changes occur in ovaries:
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Before puberty, the ovary is smooth, but after puberty, it becomes
progressively scarred as successive corpora lutea degenerate
...


Functions:
These are responsible for the production of female germ calls called Ova
and female sex hormones called Estrogen and Progesterone in
sexually mature females
Blood supply:
Arteries:
The ovarian artery arises from the abdominal aorta at the level of the
first lumbar vertebra
...


 This is the same relationship as the testicular veins in males
...

Round Ligament
 The round ligament of the ovary is the remains of the upper part
of the gubernaculum
 It extends from the medial margin of the ovary to the lateral wall
of the uterus

2
...

Each tube lies in the upper border of the broad ligament and
connects the peritoneal cavity in the region of the ovary with the
cavity of the uterus
...

ii
...

iv
...


Infundibulum
Ampulla
Isthmus
Intamural part

Infundibulum:
The infundibulum is the funnel-shaped lateral end with
fingerlike processes (fimbrae) that are draped over the ovary
...


Ampulla:

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The ampulla is the widest part of the tube
...
Isthmus:
The isthmus is the narrowest part of the tube and lies just
lateral to the uterus
...
Intamural:
The intramural part is the segment that pierces the uterine
wall
...

 It provides nourishment for the fertilized ovum, and it
transports the ovum to the cavity
...

Veins
The veins drain to the uterine and ovarian veins
...


Nerve Supply
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves from the superior and the
inferior hypogastric plexuses supply the tubes
...
Uterus
The uterus is a hollow, pear-shaped organ with thick muscular walls

Parts:
The uterus is divided into
i
...

iii
...


Fundus:

The fundus lies above the entrance of the uterine tubes
...


Body:

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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The body lies beneath the entrance of the uterine tubes, and it narrows
below, where it becomes continuous with the cervix

iii
...


Nerve Supply
Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves from the inferior hypogastric
plexuses supply the uterus
...


Veins
The vaginal veins drain into the internal iliac veins
...

 The middle third drains into the internal iliac nodes, and the lower
third drains into superficial inguinal nodes
...


...

ii
...

iv
...


The pelvic diaphragm (levatores ani and the coccygeus muscles
and their fascia)
...

The transverse cervical (cardinal) ligaments, which attach the
cervix and upper end of the vagina to the lateral pelvic walls
...

The sacrocervical ligaments, which attach the cervix and upper
end of the vagina to the lower end of the sacrum
...

• The round ligaments of the ovary and of the uterus
...

The broad ligaments provide little support to the uterus
...

• It assists in keeping the uterus anteverted and anteflexed
...

Veins
The veins correspond to the uterine and ovarian arteries
...
Vagina
• The vagina is a muscular tube that extends upward and backward
from the vulva to the uterus
• It has anterior and posterior walls, which are normally in
apposition
...

• The area of the vaginal lumen that surrounds the cervix

Regions:
It is divided into four archlike regions, or fornices
1) Anterior
2) Posterior
3) Right lateral
4) Left lateral

Hymen:
• The vaginal orifice in a virgin possesses a thin mucosal fold called
the hymen, which is perforated at its center
...


Function:
The vagina not only is the female genital canal but it also serves as the
excretory duct for the menstrual flow and forms part of the birth canal
...

Veins:
The vaginal veins form a plexus around the vagina that drains into the
internal iliac vein
...


Nerve Supply
Branches of the inferior hypogastric plexuses innervate the vagina
...

• The urogenital diaphragm
supports the middle part of
the vagina

vagina, especially the
posterior wall

• The perineal body supports
the lower part of the
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Endocrine System


The endocrine system is a complex network of glands and organs
...


Hormones:



A hormone is defined as a biologic substance that acts on a specific
target cell
Hormones normally pass into the circulatory system to reach their
target cells at remote sites in the body

Classification of Hormones:
The hormones can be classified into four types
1
...

Protein hormones
3
...

Arachidonic acid
derivatives

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Hypophysis (Pituitary Gland)
It is the master endocrine gland that produce several hormones which
influence the activity of other endocrine glands

Location in Brain:
It is suspended from hypothalamus with the help of infundibulum

Classification of Hypophysis:
It is divided as
i
...


Adenohypophysis
Neurohypophysis

i
...

Pars distalis
2
...

Pars tuberalis

Pars Distalis






The thicker part develops from anterior wall of Rathke’s pouch and
lies anterior to the fissure
An extention to pars distalis is called PARS TUBERALIS that
surrounds the infundibulum
The pars distalis constitutes about 75% of hypophysis
It is surrounded by dense fibrous capsule
The endocrine cells of pars distalis are classified :

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

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1)
2)

On the basis of their staining properties
On the basis of their functional activities

1)

On the basis of staining properties:

They are classified as chromophils and chromophobes

Chromophils


i
...


Basophils:

They contains cytoplasmic granules having affinity for basic dyes and
these cells take bluish color in stained sections

Chromophobes




These cells have no affinity for dyes and are stained poorly
EM studies shows these cells are devoid of secretory granules
They are in temporary resting phase

2)

On the basis of functional activities:

They can be classified as

Somatrotrophs

Lactotrophs

Corticotrophs

Gonadotrophs

Thyrotrophs
TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Portion
covered
Cells

Secretory
granules
Secretion

Somatotrophs
50%
Central oval cells
with spherical
nucleus

300-400nm
Growth hormone
(somatotropin)
Acidophile

Stain

Lactotrophs
15-20%

Corticotrophs
15-20%

Gonadotropohs
10%

Thyotrophs
5%

Polygonal
cells
with
oval
nuclei
-

Polygonal cells
with round
nucleus

Oval cells with
round
nuclei

250-400nm

200-400nm

Large oval
cells
with
round
nuclei
150nm

Prolactin

ACTH and Blipoproteins

Acidophile

Basophile

FSH and LH

Thyrotropin
(TSH)

Basophile

Basophile

Pars Intermedia








It lies on the posterior side to the fissure
It is developed from the posterior side of Rathke’s pouch
Exists in the thin cellular partition between the pars distalis and
neurohypophysis
The layer of pars intermedia consists of cords of polygonal cells
known as Melanotrophs
Melanotrophs synthesize a major protein called proopiomelanocortin (POMC)
POMC generates by proteolytic cleavage of several hormones such
as ACTH, endorphins, and various subtypes of melanocyte –
stimulating hormone (MSH)
MSH include α-MSH, β-MSH, and γ-MSH

Pars Tuberalis
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 Also known as PARS INFUNDIBULUM, surrounds the
infundibulum in the form of collar
 It consists of mainly of groups or cords of faintly basophilic
cuboidal cells containing lipid droplets and glycogen
granules
 It contains sparse population of gonadotrophins which secrete
LH and FSH

ii
...
Oxytocin
2
...
Cortex
 This part is yellowish outer region that constitutes about 90%
of mass of gland
 The adrenal cortex is derived from mesoderm (embryonic
origin)

2
...
The Adrenal Cortex
The adrenal cortex synthesize and secrete Steroid hormone

Features:
i
...

iii
...

ii
...


Zona Glomerulosa
Zona Fasiculata
Zona reticulalris

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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i
...
Zona Fasciculata:
 is the thickest zone and covers 70-80% of cortical volume
 it consists of large polyhedral cells arranged in long straight
cords that are one of two cells thick and run at right angles to
the surface of the gland



the cells in this zone is larger than that of zona glomerulosa

Secretion:
The zona fasciculata produce glucocorticoids such as
CORTISOL

iii
...
The Adrenal Medulla
 The adrenal medulla contains anastomosing cords of large
polyhedral cells called MEDULLARY CELLS
 The cells are supported by the meshwork of reticular fibers
 Due to their affinity for chromium salt, the medullary cells are also
known as CHROMAFFIN CELLS
 These cells have neurons that lack axons and dendrites

Secretion:
The secretions consists of two catecholamine
i
...


Norepinephrine

Depending on the basis of secretory granules, the medullary cells can
be divided into two types
i
...


Norepinephrine producing cells
Epinephrine producing cells

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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Thyroid Gland
Location:
The thyroid gland is located in the anterior neck region

Composition:
 It consists of two lateral lobes connected by an isthmus
 It is covered by a thin capsule of dense irregular connective tissue
 From capsule, fine septa pass into gland and divide it into
indistinct lobules

Secretion:
The secretion of thyroid gland include three hormones
i
...

iii
...
2 to 1
...

Follicular cells
ii
...


Follicular cells
 These are also called thyrocytes or principal cells

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HEMAS MEHMOOD
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 They are cuboidal or columnar in shape depending upon
the activity of gland

Staining:
 In H&E stained section, the follicular cells shows lightly
basophilic cytoplasm and a centrally placed nucleus having one or
to nucleoli
 The follicular cells have features of both absorptive and secretory
cells
 Its contains a moderate number of small microvilli
 The cytoplasm have abundant RER and Golgi apparatus
 Mitochondria are also abundant and dispersed in cytoplasm

Thyroid hormones:
Synthesis:
There are main four steps for the formation of thyroid hormone
1
...
Trapping iodide and Iodination
3
...
Oxidation of MIT and DIT and formation of T3 and T4

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

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Storage:
The thyroxine and triiodothyronine remains attached to thyroglobulin
molecules and are then stored within the follicular cavity called
COLLOID
Re-absorption of the colloid into the follicular cells occur under
influence of the thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which is produced
by the thyrotrophs of the anterior pituitary gland

Secretion:
The secretion include 95% of thyroxine and 5% of triiodothyronine

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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ii
...
The calcitonin lowers plasma calcium level
ii
...
It acts as an antagonist to the parathyroid hormone

TOUSHIBA ARSHAD

HEMAS MEHMOOD
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REFERENCES
 Snell’s Clinical Anatomy by LAWRENCE E
...
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...
linkedin
...
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