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Abdul Hameed’s Academy

The Art of Learning

Human Endocrine System
A full guide to Human Endocrine System

Imran Afzal
QUALIFIED FROM ABDUL WALI KHAN UNIVERSITY MARDAN
BBA HONS (FINANCE)
PAKISTAN

Department of Biology

Abdul Hameed’s Academy

Agenda
Introduction
Glands and its locations
Glands and its functions
How the Glands Works
Disorders and its causes

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The Human Endocrine System
Introduction:
The human endocrine system is a network of glands and organs in the body that produce and
secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate a variety of physiological functions such as growth
and development, metabolism, mood, and reproductive processes
...
Pituitary gland - located at the base of the brain, Produces and secretes hormones that regulate other
endocrine glands and control growth, metabolism, reproduction, and water balance in the body
...
Hypothalamus - located in the brain, Produces hormones that stimulate or inhibit the release of
hormones from the pituitary gland and regulates hunger, thirst, body temperature, and sleep
...
Thyroid gland - located in the neck, below the larynx, Produces hormones that regulate the body's
metabolism, energy levels, growth, and development
...
Parathyroid glands - four small glands located behind the thyroid gland, produce hormones that
regulate the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood, which are important for bone health,
nerve and muscle function, and blood clotting
...
Thymus gland - located in the chest, behind the sternum, Produces hormones that stimulate the
development and maturation of T-cells, which are important for the immune system
...
Adrenal glands - two glands located on top of each kidney, produce hormones that regulate the body's
response to stress, control blood pressure, regulate salt and water balance, and regulate the
metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
...
Pancreas - located behind the stomach, Produces hormones that regulate blood sugar levels, including
insulin, which lowers blood sugar levels, and glucagon, which raises blood sugar levels
...
Ovaries - located in the pelvis (in females), Produce hormones that regulate the development of
female reproductive organs, menstrual cycle, and pregnancy
...
Testes - located in the scrotum (in males), Produce hormones that regulate the development of male
reproductive organs, sperm production, and sex drive
...
Pineal gland - Located in the brain, it produces melatonin, which regulates sleep and wake cycles
...
Placenta - Located in the uterus during pregnancy, it produces hormones such as estrogen,
progesterone, and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), which are important for fetal development
and maintaining pregnancy
...
Gastrointestinal tract - Produces hormones such as ghrelin, which regulates appetite, and peptide YY
(PYY), which regulates digestion and appetite
...
Here are some of them
1
...

2
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Renin regulates blood pressure, EPO
stimulates the production of red blood cells, and calcitriol regulates calcium and phosphorus
metabolism
...
Liver: Produces insulin-like growth factor (IGF), which is important for growth and development, and
angiotensinogen, which is involved in regulating blood pressure
...
Stomach and intestines: Produce hormones such as gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin (CCK),
which regulate digestion and appetite
...
Skin: Produces vitamin D, which is important for calcium and phosphorus metabolism
...
Adipose tissue: Produces leptin, which regulates appetite and energy balance
...
Bone: Produces osteocalcin, which regulates bone growth and metabolism
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These glands and hormones play important roles in
regulating various physiological functions in the body, such as sleep, pregnancy, appetite, stress response,
and metabolism
...

Here is an overview of how the pituitary gland works:


The hypothalamus in the brain detects changes in the body's internal environment and stimulates the
pituitary gland to release hormones
...




The anterior pituitary hormones include hormones such as growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating
hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and
prolactin
...




The release of these hormones is controlled by releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones produced
by the hypothalamus, which travel to the pituitary gland via the bloodstream
...
These
hormones regulate functions such as water balance, blood pressure, and uterine contractions during
childbirth
...


Disorders
Disorders of the pituitary gland can result in hormonal imbalances and lead to a variety of health
problems
...
Pituitary adenoma: This is a non-cancerous tumor that develops in the pituitary gland
...
The cause of pituitary adenoma is not always clear, but some risk
factors include genetics, age, and exposure to certain chemicals
...
Hypopituitarism: This is a condition in which the pituitary gland does not produce enough hormones,
leading to a variety of symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, and sexual dysfunction
...

3
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For example, an overproduction of growth hormone can
result in acromegaly, a condition characterized by excessive growth of bones and tissues
...

4
...
Causes of diabetes insipidus can
include head injury, brain tumors, and certain medications
...
Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH): This is a condition in which the
pituitary gland produces too much ADH, leading to water retention and dilutional hyponatremia
...

6
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Treatment options can include medications, surgery, radiation
therapy, and hormone replacement therapy
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Here is an overview of how the hypothalamus works:
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

The hypothalamus receives information from various parts of the body, such as the nervous system,
and detects changes in the body's internal environment
...




The hypothalamus produces and releases a variety of hormones called releasing hormones or
inhibiting hormones, which travel through the bloodstream to the pituitary gland and regulate the
release of pituitary hormones
...




The hypothalamus is also involved in the stress response, releasing hormones such as corticotropinreleasing hormone (CRH) and vasopressin, which activate the body's response to stress
...


Disorders:
Disorders of the hypothalamus can result in hormonal imbalances and lead to a variety of health
problems
...
Hypothalamic dysfunction: This is a general term that refers to any condition that affects the
hypothalamus and disrupts its normal functioning
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2
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Dysfunction of the HPA axis can result in conditions such
as Cushing's syndrome (caused by excess cortisol production), Addison's disease (caused by
insufficient cortisol production), and secondary adrenal insufficiency (caused by a lack of ACTH
production from the pituitary gland)
...
Hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis dysfunction: The HPT axis is a hormonal system that
regulates thyroid function
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4
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Causes of hypothalamic amenorrhea can include excessive exercise, low body weight, and chronic
stress
...
Obesity: The hypothalamus plays a crucial role in regulating appetite and body weight
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Treatment options can include medications, hormone replacement
therapy, and lifestyle modifications such as changes in diet and exercise
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Here is an overview of how the
thyroid gland works:


The hypothalamus in the brain detects changes in the body's internal environment and stimulates the
pituitary gland to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
...




T4 and T3 are responsible for regulating metabolism and are involved in many physiological functions,
such as growth and development, body temperature regulation, and energy production
...




Once T4 and T3 are released into the bloodstream, they bind to receptors on target cells throughout
the body and increase metabolic activity
...




Overall, the thyroid gland plays a crucial role in regulating metabolism and other important
physiological functions in the body through the production and release of T4, T3, and calcitonin
...
Here are some of the different disorders of the thyroid gland and their causes:
1
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Causes
of hypothyroidism can include autoimmune disorders (such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis), radiation
therapy, and certain medications
...
Hyperthyroidism: This is a condition in which the thyroid gland produces too much thyroid hormone,
leading to a variety of symptoms such as weight loss, rapid heartbeat, and nervousness
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Causes of goiter can include iodine deficiency, autoimmune disorders, and certain
medications
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Thyroid nodules: These are lumps that develop in the thyroid gland, which can be benign or cancerous
...

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Causes of thyroid cancer are not always clear, but some risk factors include exposure to radiation,
family history, and certain genetic mutations
...
Treatment for thyroid disorders can vary depending on the underlying cause and the specific
hormonal imbalances involved
...

Parathyroid glands:
The parathyroid glands are four small glands located on the back surface of the thyroid gland in the
neck
...
Here is an overview of how
the parathyroid glands work:


The parathyroid glands produce and release a hormone called parathyroid hormone (PTH), which
regulates the levels of calcium in the blood
...




PTH also stimulates the kidneys to retain calcium and excrete phosphorus, which helps maintain
calcium balance in the body
...




Overall, the parathyroid glands play a crucial role in regulating calcium levels in the body through the
production and release of PTH
...
Here are some of the different disorders of the parathyroid glands and their causes:
1
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Causes of
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hyperparathyroidism can include benign tumors on the parathyroid gland(s), hereditary conditions,
and chronic kidney disease
...
Hypoparathyroidism: This is a condition in which the parathyroid glands do not produce enough PTH,
leading to low levels of calcium in the blood (hypocalcemia)
...

3
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The exact cause of parathyroid adenomas is not clear, but some risk
factors include age, gender, and family history
...
Parathyroid carcinoma: This is a rare but aggressive cancer that develops on one of the parathyroid
glands
...

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Treatment options can include surgery to remove the affected
gland(s), medications to regulate calcium and phosphorus levels, and lifestyle modifications such as
changes in diet and exercise
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The thymus is
located in the upper chest, behind the sternum, and is most active during childhood and adolescence,
gradually decreasing in size and function as we age
...
T-cells start out in the bone marrow, where they are produced as immature
cells, but then migrate to the thymus gland to undergo a process of maturation and selection
...




The thymus gland consists of two main types of cells: thymic epithelial cells and lymphocytes
...
Lymphocytes are the immune cells that mature within the
thymus, developing their antigen recognition capabilities and undergoing a selection process that
allows only the most effective T-cells to leave the thymus and enter the bloodstream
...


Disorders:
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Disorders of the thymus gland can result in hormonal imbalances and lead to a variety of health
problems
...
Thymoma: This is a rare tumor that develops in the thymus gland
...
The exact cause of thymoma is not clear, but some risk factors include
age, gender, and family history
...
Myasthenia gravis: This is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system attacks the
neuromuscular junctions, causing muscle weakness and fatigue
...

The exact cause of myasthenia gravis is not clear, but it is thought to be related to genetic and
environmental factors
...
DiGeorge syndrome: This is a genetic disorder in which part of chromosome 22 is missing
...
The exact cause of DiGeorge syndrome is not clear, but it is thought to be related to
genetic mutations
...
Thymic hyperplasia: This is a condition in which the thymus gland becomes enlarged, often as a result
of an underlying medical condition such as myasthenia gravis or HIV/AIDS
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Treatment options can include surgery to remove the affected gland or tumors,
medications to manage symptoms and regulate the immune system, and lifestyle modifications such
as changes in diet and exercise
...
They
play an important role in regulating the body's response to stress and in maintaining a balance of certain
hormones
...




The adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones, including cortisol, aldosterone, and androgens
...
Aldosterone helps regulate the balance of sodium and potassium in the body,
which affects blood pressure and fluid balance
...




The adrenal medulla produces catecholamines, including adrenaline (epinephrine) and
noradrenaline (norepinephrine)
...

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

The adrenal glands are regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in the brain
...
ACTH then stimulates the
adrenal gland to produce cortisol
...


Disorders:
Adrenal disorders are conditions that affect the function of the adrenal glands
...
Adrenal insufficiency: Adrenal insufficiency is a condition in which the adrenal glands do not produce
enough hormones, including cortisol and aldosterone
...

2
...

This can be caused by a tumor in the adrenal gland or elsewhere in the body, or by prolonged use of
corticosteroid medications
...
Adrenal tumors: Adrenal tumors can be benign or cancerous
...

4
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CAH can cause a range of symptoms,
including early puberty, infertility, and adrenal crisis
...
Aldosteronism: Aldosteronism is a condition in which the adrenal gland produces too much
aldosterone, which can lead to high blood pressure and low potassium levels
...

6
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It can cause high blood pressure, heart palpitations, and
other symptoms
...
In some cases, the causes of adrenal disorders are not known
...
Treatment for adrenal
disorders depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or other therapies
...
It is located behind the
stomach and is roughly the size and shape of a pear
...
The exocrine function involves the
production of digestive enzymes, which are released into the small intestine to break down food
...




The pancreas contains clusters of cells called islets of Langerhans, which produce hormones involved
in regulating blood sugar
...




Insulin is produced by beta cells and helps regulate blood sugar levels by facilitating the absorption of
glucose (sugar) from the blood into cells, where it can be used for energy or stored for later use
...




Glucagon is produced by alpha cells and has the opposite effect of insulin
...




The production of insulin and glucagon is regulated by a feedback system involving blood sugar levels
...
When blood sugar levels are low,
glucagon is released to raise them
...
Dysfunction of the pancreas, such as in the case of diabetes or pancreatitis,
can have serious health consequences
...
Pancreatitis: Pancreatitis is inflammation of the pancreas, which can cause abdominal pain, nausea,
and vomiting
...

2
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Type 1 diabetes is caused by a lack of insulin production by the pancreas, while type 2 diabetes is
caused by a combination of insulin resistance and insufficient insulin production
...
Pancreatic cancer: Pancreatic cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the cells of the pancreas
...

Smoking, obesity, and a family history of pancreatic cancer are some of the risk factors for this disease
...
Cystic fibrosis: Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disorder that affects the lungs, digestive system, and other
organs
...


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It can be caused by chronic
pancreatitis, cystic fibrosis, or other conditions that damage the pancreas
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Pancreatic pseudocyst: A pancreatic pseudocyst is a fluid-filled sac that forms in the pancreas after an
episode of pancreatitis
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In other cases, they may be caused
by genetic factors, lifestyle factors such as diet and smoking, or other medical conditions
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Ovaries:
The ovaries are the female reproductive glands located on each side of the pelvis
...



The ovaries contain thousands of follicles, each containing an immature egg
...
Once released, the egg travels through the fallopian tube, where it may be fertilized by
sperm
...
Estrogen is responsible for the development of female
secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and widening of the hips
...
Progesterone helps to maintain the uterine
lining and prepares the body for pregnancy
...




The production of estrogen and progesterone is regulated by the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in
the brain
...
FSH
stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovary, while LH triggers ovulation and helps to maintain the
corpus luteum, a temporary structure that forms after ovulation and produces estrogen and
progesterone
...
Dysfunction
of the ovaries, such as in the case of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) or premature ovarian failure,
can have significant impacts on fertility and overall health
...
Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS): PCOS is a hormonal disorder in which the ovaries produce too
much androgen, a male hormone
...

The cause of PCOS is not fully understood, but it is thought to be related to insulin resistance, genetics,
and lifestyle factors
...
Ovarian cysts: Ovarian cysts are fluid-filled sacs that form on the ovaries
...
Ovarian
cysts can be caused by hormonal imbalances, endometriosis, or other conditions
...
Ovarian cancer: Ovarian cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the cells of the ovaries
...
Family history,
age, and hormonal factors may increase the risk of ovarian cancer
...
Premature ovarian failure: Premature ovarian failure is a condition in which the ovaries stop
functioning properly before the age of 40
...

The cause of premature ovarian failure is not fully understood, but it may be related to autoimmune
disorders, genetic factors, or chemotherapy or radiation therapy
...
Ovarian torsion: Ovarian torsion is a condition in which the ovary twists on its own blood supply,
causing severe pain and possible damage to the ovary
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6
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The cause of endometriosis is not fully
understood, but it may be related to hormonal factors, genetics, or immune system dysfunction
...
In some cases, the causes of ovarian disorders are not known
...
Treatment for
ovarian disorders depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or other
therapies
...
They are responsible for producing sperm and testosterone, the male sex hormone
...
Sperm production begins at puberty and continues throughout a man's life
...




In addition to producing sperm, the testes also produce testosterone, which is responsible for the
development of male secondary sexual characteristics, such as the growth of facial and body hair,
deepening of the voice, and development of muscle mass and bone density
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

The production of testosterone is regulated by a feedback system involving the hypothalamus and
pituitary gland in the brain
...
LH stimulates the Leydig cells in the testes to produce testosterone, while FSH stimulates the
production of sperm
...
Dysfunction of
the testes, such as in the case of testicular cancer or low testosterone levels, can have significant
impacts on fertility and overall health
...
Testicular cancer: Testicular cancer is a type of cancer that starts in the cells of the testes
...
The cause of testicular cancer is not fully
understood, but it may be related to genetics or abnormal development of the testes
...
Testicular torsion: Testicular torsion is a condition in which the testicle twists on its own blood supply,
causing severe pain and possible damage to the testicle
...

3
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It can interfere with sperm production and cause male infertility
...

4
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It can
cause pain, swelling, and fever
...
Hypogonadism: Hypogonadism is a condition in which the testes do not produce enough testosterone,
the hormone responsible for male sexual development and function
...

6
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It can be caused by a bacterial infection or other factors
...
In some cases, the causes of testicular disorders are not known
...
Treatment
for testicular disorders depends on the underlying cause and may include medications, surgery, or
other therapies
...
It produces the hormone melatonin, which helps regulate sleep and wake cycles
...
The SCN receives input from the eyes regarding
light and darkness, and sends signals to the pineal gland to either increase or decrease melatonin
production
...
The pineal gland also plays a role in regulating seasonal changes in the body, such as the
timing of puberty and reproduction
...
Pineal gland tumors: Pineal gland tumors are rare and can be either benign or malignant
...
The cause of pineal gland tumors is not fully
understood, but they may be related to genetic mutations or exposure to radiation
...
Pineal cysts: Pineal cysts are fluid-filled sacs that form on the pineal gland
...
The cause of pineal cysts is not fully understood, but they may be related to blockages in
the pineal gland's drainage system or other factors
...
Seasonal affective disorder (SAD): SAD is a type of depression that is related to changes in the seasons,
with symptoms occurring primarily during the fall and winter months
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4
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5
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It is a common condition that occurs with aging, and the
cause is not fully understood
...
In some cases, the causes of pineal gland disorders are not known
...
Treatment for pineal gland disorders depends on the underlying cause and
may include medications, surgery, or other therapies
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It plays a crucial role in supplying the fetus with nutrients and oxygen and
removing waste products
...
Some of the hormones produced by the placenta include:


Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): This hormone is produced by the placenta soon after
conception and helps maintain the pregnancy
...




Progesterone: This hormone is essential for maintaining the uterine lining and preventing premature
labor
...




Estrogen: The placenta produces estrogen, which helps regulate the menstrual cycle and prepares the
breasts for lactation
...




In addition to hormone production, the placenta also acts as a barrier between the maternal and fetal
circulations, preventing the mixing of blood and protecting the fetus from harmful substances
...
After birth, the placenta is expelled from the mother's body in a process called the afterbirth
...
Placenta previa: Placenta previa is a condition in which the placenta covers part or all of the cervix,
which can cause bleeding during pregnancy and complications during delivery
...

2
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The cause of
placental abruption is not fully understood, but it may be related to trauma, high blood pressure,
smoking, or other factors
...
Chorioamnionitis: Chorioamnionitis is an infection of the placenta and amniotic fluid, which can cause
premature delivery, fetal distress, and other complications
...

4
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It can be caused by various factors, such as chronic high blood pressure, diabetes,
smoking, and other conditions that affect blood flow to the placenta
...
Gestational trophoblastic disease: Gestational trophoblastic disease is a rare condition in which
abnormal cells grow in the placenta and can cause tumors
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In other cases, they may be related to
genetic factors, lifestyle factors such as diet and exercise, or other medical conditions
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Gastrointestinal tract:
The gastrointestinal (GI) tract is a long muscular tube that starts at the mouth and ends at the
anus, and is responsible for digestion and absorption of nutrients
...

The main GI tract glands include:


Salivary glands: These glands are located in the mouth and produce saliva, which contains enzymes
that help break down carbohydrates and lubricate food for easier swallowing
...




Pancreas: The pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which contains enzymes that break down
carbohydrates, proteins, and fats
...




Liver: The liver produces bile, which is stored in the gallbladder and released into the small intestine
when needed
...




Intestinal glands: These glands are located in the wall of the small intestine and produce enzymes and
mucus to aid in the digestion and absorption of nutrients
...
The mucus
secreted by these glands also helps to lubricate the GI tract and protect it from the acidic and
enzymatic contents of the digestive juices
...
Gastritis: Gastritis is an inflammation of the stomach lining, which can cause nausea, vomiting, and
stomach pain
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It can be caused by infection with H
...

3
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It can be caused by alcohol use, gallstones, or other factors
...
Celiac disease: Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder in which the body's immune system reacts
to gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley, and rye
...

5
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The cause of IBD is not fully
understood, but it is thought to be related to a combination of genetic and environmental factors
...
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): IBS is a functional disorder of the digestive system, which can cause
abdominal pain, bloating, and changes in bowel habits
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The causes of GI tumors can vary, but they may be related
to genetic mutations, lifestyle factors, or exposure to certain substances
...
In some cases, the causes of GI tract gland disorders are not known
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