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GENERAL ANATOMY
HANDBOOK

MAY 17, 2023
SELF PUBLISHED
P
...
DURGAPRASAD

INDEX
1
...
Anatomical Position & Planes (General Anatomy)
3
...
Terms of Relationship (General Anatomy)
5
...
Terms Of Movement Demo
...
Skin-I (General Anatomy)
8
...
Superficial Fascia (General Anatomy)
10
...
Skeletal System - Part II (General Anatomy)
12
...
Skeletal System - Part IV (General Anatomy)
14
...
Muscles Part-II (General Anatomy)
16
...
Blood Vascular System Part-I (General Anatomy)

18
...
Blood Vascular System Part-III (General Anatomy)
20
...
Nervous System Part-I (General Anatomy)
22
...
Nervous System Part-III (General Anatomy)
24
...
Joints 1
26
...
Joints 3
28
...
Cartilage
30
...
Lymphatic system II
32
...
Inversion eversion, pronation supination,
dorsiflexion plantar flexion
34
...
Ossification II
36
...
Ossification V Blood supply of developing bone
38
...
Hiltons Law
40
...
Precapillary arterial anastomosis
42
...
General Anat
...
General Anatomy Structure of Synovial joint
45
...
Upper and lower motor
47
...
General anat Lymphatic system
49
...
Introduction Of Human Anatomy (General
Anatomy)
Introduction lecture is meant for newly admitted student in medical colleges
...
Biochemistry and
biochemistry will deal with the functions of the human body that is very important to the body
...
To know whether any structure
of the body and organ is normal or not you have to learn anatomy
...
There are four branches of human anatomy which you are
supposed to learn in the first year of medical science
...
The categoric anatomy
is the most important will be the cadaver
...
The gross anatomy can be very well seen by the naked eye but at the
same time you will also learn living anatomy
...
Grass anatomy is defined as the study of the
structure that can be seen with the naked eye
...
Most of the dead bodies which we receive in the anatomy for the
dissections they are donated bodies and because of that now more and more people have
started donating their dead bodies
...

The second method is called as regional anatomy which means you study the human body
structure from region to region for example
...
The knowledge of anatomy when it is used in your clinical
practice on your patient that is called as the clinical or applied anatomy both living and clinical
anatomy will be taught to you along with the cadaveric anatomy
...

The general anatomy provides the basic concept of the gross anatomy without understanding
the general aspect of the grass anatomy which will be taught in this 10 to 12 Lectures in the
beginning
...
The embryology deals with the development of an individual from
conception to adult form that is up to the you become adult
...
When you learn the Embryology you can’t learn
many of the structure of the human body because you are learning it right from the beginning
how these structures are formed which are present in my credible okay in my dead body
...
In the next 10 to 12 Lectures you will learn the structure of human
body with the help of the microscope and embryology
...


2
...
The term means word and throughout the
world the medical professionals they use some special terms or words which is not used by the
general public
...
These terms are used for in the medical sciences when you become a clinician you
will be using these terms
...
language of medical science
...

There are some terms which are not used by the common people okay only the medical people
will use it for example arm or arm
...

anatomical position is an imaginary position in which body is considered to be always erect or
in static say for example in this diagram the person is standing in anatomical position
...
The third
condition is that upper limb should be hanging by the side
...
Both the
lower limbs should be parallel to each other and feet are directed anteriorly their feet should be
directed
...
anatomical position is accepted
worldwide to describe the anatomical relations or the patients okay in relations in categories or
as i have already described anatomical positions should always be imagined even if cadaver or
patient is lying down on table with face upward that means when a patient is on the table and if
his face is looking towards the roof that position is called as supine position and when if body or
dead body is on table that is when the face is
...
is looking
...
called as the prone position
...
These planes are passing through the body in different position as
There are four planes and these three planes pass at different levels at different positions in
body
...
The societal plane is not shown in

this diagram but I
will explain to you in
other so now you know that there are three planes
...
These planes are planes are exactly parallel to median so they are either on
right side or they are on the left side of the median plane okay so you can cut so many median
planes here okay just if I will put this here you can see that this may be and another elital plane
on the one side of this
...
These planes will divide the body into an upper and lower part
...
Oblique plane is easy to define that
because it has no rules any other plane
...
I think I should stop here and then in a
separate lecture i should come to the terms of relationships
...
Anatomical Terminology II (General Anatomy)

This is a lecture in the series of general anatomy and the title of this lecture is anatomical
terminology terms of position
...
The term anterior means towards the front side of the body and the opposite is
inferior
...
superior means
towards head or upper part of any structure is called as superior while the opposite meaning
will be inferior inferior means towards foot or feet
...
medial means anything which is nearer to
median plane
...

Anything which is towards the root of the limb is called as proximal and anything which is away
from the root is called distal
...
There are two terms
pair of terms one is superior and inferior another is medial and the lateral
...
It is superior but this point is not as compared to this point towards
the head so it is inferior
...
These relative terms define the position of two structure in relation to one another
...
The third
term is ipsilateral that means it is that where the two structures they are occurring only on one
side structure they occur on they do n't occur on the opposite side
...
The next video will be on the terms of movements movements
occurring in the body okay at the joints at various joints
...


4
...
I will demonstrate you those terms okay
which will show you the relationship with each other
...
The medical science is that of the
superior and inferior superior ways towards the head and inferior means towards the feet
...
the third
pair of the term, which is called as medial and lateral are opposite meaning of the meaning see
here
...
the relative terms which are
having opposite me let us come to an another pair of the term, what is called as proximal
...
proximal means one
which is towards the root of the lip
...
the other thing which is away
from this root is called called as the distance
...
It keeps on changing so these are the different points in this way
...
unilet unilateral means when some organ is a structure of the body is present only on
one side of the median plane
...

another term sometime will be used and it is called as ipsy lateral ipsilateral means where these
two structures they are on the same side
...
They are together only on the one side
...
So learn these terms by
heart thank you thank you very much
...
Anatomical Terminology III (General Anatomy)
This is the third in the series of anatomical terminology
...
the various movement which takes place at various joint in human body are
recognized in medical science by specific names by the people who are working in the health
professions
...
the angle between the forearm and arm is reduced here
...
The movements are called as the abduction and adduction, abduction
and addiction
...
the terms are little different than flexion
and extension, but it help us to remember that darcy means two dorsal surfaces
...

Adduction adduction means add a double D and you know what is add
...
The part moves towards the median plane here, the part is moving that
limb, upper limb or lower limb
...

anatomical position that is called as addiction
...
This is called as ever sun okay
...
When you will draw this diagram, you
will understand it okay just draw a rub diagram and try to understand the direction of the
movement
...
is
inversion
...
the
supination is will be called when the palm faces anciently
...
While your elbow is flat, so make your elbow flex at right angle will be there with
the arm so flex your elbow
...
when the movement takes
place at the shoulder joint in circular facian okay as during the balling of cricket ball you hold
the cricket ball in your hand and then while running you are moving your arm
...
when body part of the body moves backward towards the back
...
next video will be on skin because the skin you met first in during the dissection
...
Terms Of Movement Demo
...
the terms are movements are actually defined by the words and they are called
as the terms of women
...
when you move your upper limb away from the median plane
...
This takes place through a fin axis which is passing through the middle finger and
if I perform the abduction the fingers will be moving away
...
The medial rotation will be defined as say this is the
flexor surface of the upper limb of the arm
...
when you stand like this in
anatomical position and then you turn your I will say hand
...
the opposite of it will be the latter starting from the needed
...

Because two tips are opposing each other okay, then there is a movement which is called as
literature and protraction
...
if I protrude in
anteriorly, this will be something like this
...
This movement is called retracts opposite of protection
...
Then this is
...
Inhibition and depression is the movement
...
Skin-I (General Anatomy)
In the general anatomy the lecture after this introductory classes is the first lecture on to the
scheme and why do we take this lecture onto the screen first before going to any other lecture
...
the reason is that when you will go to the dissection Hall and will start
dissecting a limb say, for example, you will have to give the skin incision with the help of your
knife into the skin
...

the skin is made up of two layers, epidermis and dermis
...
When I say it is the system of the body, what does it mean it means it is a system like any
other system
...
and dermis
...

If you see the structures of I mean various layers of the skin, which I 'm sure you must have
already learned in your lower classes
...
The basal structure or
this layer of the deepest layer is called as the stratum pascal, which is resting onto the dermis
...
by the skin in the way
of protection of the body right coming to the second function of the skin
...
skin form a barrier that no fluid can go inside the skin that
means skin does n't absorb the water
...
thermoregulation
maintains the constant body temperature 37 degree Celsius
...
You
must have felt the pain in the tip of the fingers and the toes
...

The largest sense organ of the body is the skin
...

The bilayer phospholipid cell membrane, which has the hydrophobic and hydrophilic ions are
hidden, and they are arranged in two layers
...
The medicine then gradually is absorbed by the cell membrane
...


8
...
This is stratified squamous epithelium and beneath this is
the dermis
...
The skin is
made up of the dense connective tissue, mostly the collision fiber, but then there are the
presence of elastic and reticular fibers too
...
This line are arranged
into the derbies
...
surgeons give incision always parallel to the direction of the language line
...
in infants and children's
...
is will applicable only in the adults okay right not but if you are calculating for
infants, you have to make some adjustment okay
...
the surface area is also calculated very quickly by an another method,
what is called as the hand area rule that means the surface of the hand of the patient who has
suffered from burn is equal to one percent
...
Second degree one and the
third degree burn depending on how much thickness of the skin is one irrespective of the
percentage of the surface area
...
part of the dermis is taken from the body and now and it is grafted onto the site where the
skin is totally burned
...
depth of the skin bond is taken into consideration for the calculation
of a major burn
...


9
...
Both superficial
and dephasia are situated deep to the skin
...
The D face is in the form of the dense, irregular connectives tissue and is inelastic
In nature
...
Now This superficial fascia contains the
cutaneous blood vessels
...
the
distribution of fate as I said is in certain places in body okay within the superficial fascia is different
different different for male and different
...

The superficial fatigue fascia is the bad conductor of heat okay
...
It does n't allow the cold okay to come inside the body so
it act as a layer which is protecting us from the heat
...
They dilates during the summer so that the heat of our body
is lost
...
the superficial fascia is full of the fat in our body
so this act as a storage of the energy okay so fatigue storage means the fate is in the form of the
inner shade contain lot of energy
...


10
...
the bones and joint
...
without learning the bones
...
The skeletal
system forms a very important another skeleton another system of the body, what is called as
the musculoskeletal system or the locomotory system
...
The fourth function of the skeletal system is the storage of minerals
...
There is
a small bone in the neck called is the height bone and then in front of chest
...
which is called as the sternum and to the Uh
...
Many ribs
...
Upper limb are the lower limb including the girdles
...
If you see the clavicle and scapula, they form shoulder or pectoral girdle
...
limb are humerus radius ulna, the carpal bones, the
...
The bones
...
finger
...
limb the g
...
This is upper end, which
is called as proximal Ep 5-cis epiphysis
...
lower end epiphyses are
the ends they are the ant
...
A living long bone
...
What
are those following part
...
in the center of this bone, which is tubular
in structure
...
we will
learn the structure of periosteum
...
the bone is a living tissue because it is forming and
...
Also
...
There is a bone
marrow now coming to the last slide
...

Bone is not just a simple structure okay which is forming the framework or having the
locomatary structure okay helping in movements, but it is also similar to an organ
...


11
...
These bones can also be classified based on location of these bones in body
and this is the axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton
...
So if you cut a longitudinal section of any wound
...
the spongy bone at the ends of the long bones
...
Spaces in here
...
In this next slide we see the classification based on the embryological
development of bones
...
In the limbs are cartilaginous, membranous, cartilage
and cartilage
...
Skeletal System - Part III (General Anatomy)
I 'm going to tell you some of the important questions which must be arising in your mind and
these questions are usually asked as hard
...
the primary
center of ossification in long bones of limbs usually appears at the eighth week of intrauterine
life and then it forms the diaphysial part of the bone bone
...
The length of the bone grows at
the upper end of the long bone, as well as the lower end
...
the diameter of a developing bone grows by the formation of the new bone, deep to
the periosteum and
...
there is a fixed time for every
bone to seize the ossification or the growth that is between 16 to 20 years of age
...
epiphysal plate, which was responsible for the growth in the length of the bone will
ultimately will be replaced by the bone itself
...
They will also fuse with the primary center
...
the one which appear first will have to unite last so that means
there is an extra time is given to this end and at this end
...
the nutrient foramina in the shaft of the long bone,
which is in diaphysis is always directed opposite to the growing end of a long bone
...
the epiphyseal plate, which
is present here is
...
of the nutrient foramina
...
An exception to this observation that it is always directed opposite to growing end is only
one bone in the body long grown fibula
...

Epiphysis are the ends of the bone in the case of a long bone, or they are at the at various places
in the other types of the bones
...
They will lead to the formation of the epiphysis
...
the pressure epiphysis transmit the load or the pressure, but at the
same time they also protect the cartilage, which cartilage epiphyseal cartilage
...
Scapula they were two separate
bones, but later when the evolution has progressed, these bones came close to each other and
they have united with each other
...


13
...
the different
sets are not the same arteries
...
Okay are for the epiphysis
...
For the supply of the blood
...
the periasteal artery is the nutrient
artery which is supplying from the marrow cavity side of the bone
...
or the expanded
portion of the diafysis
...

There is no anastomosis between the epiphyseal and that of the metaphysial artery
...
which is an avascular structure Okay
...

the nutrient foramina direction depends on the growing end of the bone, as we have learned in
the last
...
Now it is always to the opposite that that means the nutrient for
amino is directed always opposite to the growing and if suppose in this long bone
...
This completes
the blood supply of a developing bone and an adult lung bone
...
Muscles Part-I (General Anatomy)
The skeletal muscle is responsible for the production of movements in body
...
There are three types of
the muscles out of which skeletal muscles are most abundant
...
The skeletal muscles are also known as the striated muscle
...
The skeletal muscle is also called as the voluntary muscle
...
Some skeletal muscles are also attached on to the viscera at
least
...
we will learn about the smooth and
cardiac muscle now in the histology classics only
...
The upper end that is called as the proximal
end, which is more towards the root of the limb and then the distal end
...
that a skeletal muscle will cross one joint
...

the reason is that muscle is a contractile structure and when it will contract through the tendon,
it will pull the distal bone on which it is at age and then will move at a joint
...
Now after
this daily or the completion of the general feature or general anatomy of skeletal muscle belly
We come to skeletal muscle tent okay now skeletal muscle tendon
...

Tendon is not like a rope, but it is in the form of a flattened sea and this is called as aponeurosis
...
It
can change its direction
...
bursa is also a lubricating mechanism as we have seen in
the case of the synovial membrane and it also reduces the friction between bone and skin
...


15
...
Okay
...
The fingers work, which are there muscles which are moving the eyeball do n't need any
power
...
the diameter increases because of the repeated exercise in gym then his
muscles they get more uh thicker that means thicker means okay
...
The force of action of a muscle depends
upon the sight of its attachments that means site of the proximal
...
the muscle length
fibers length was are short very short, but when we have read the muscles which were arranged
where fibers were arranged
...

When this forces which are acting on the ulna in the middle of ulna, they can be resolved into
two different components
...
They are at right angle to each other
...
expert muscles are called as expert muscle spu rt
spurt muscle
...

They are attached close to the proximal end of the distal bone
...
there are two different types of muscle
spurt muscles and the sun to muscle and what is the function of the sun
...
the muscles
provide the great stability or a strength to the joint
...

Experts
...

multiple net muscle
...
Then the muscles are elongated
...
like the parallel running ribbon muscles
...


16
...
a desire movement in at a particular joint is not only produced by a single
muscle as for flex and biceps and extension for extension
...
There are many
more muscle involved in production of a movement
...
For this movement of flexion and extension at
elbow
...
Other muscles involved in this simple
act of drinking water are called antagonist muscles
...
at elbow joint is also assisted by the movement called as the extensor muscles
...

So indirectly
...
At the same time it is helped by the
triceps, which is a extensor muscle
...
This is how the wiring of the brain through the spinal cord ultimately control the
two muscles which are required for a particular particular muscle
...
movements are taking place
at distal end of the humerus and which is forming a joint that is albujoid with alna
...
there
are many more muscles involved in producing just a simple movement of the flexion and
extension right
...
Now I am moving to the next slide and
will tell you
...

The movement is due to contraction of the muscles which are going and getting attachment to
the digits and they are crossing in front of the finger
...
The first movement which will takes place is the flexion of the disease
...
many more muscles are involved in the producing a desire
movement which are those muscle beside the prime mover
...
They are
fixators and the synergist thus remember that everything is controlled by our brain
...
movements are much more
complicated as we think thank you very much
...
Blood Vascular System Part-I (General Anatomy)
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...


18
...
capillary
...

capills are absent in epithelium, cornea and the lens of the eye
...
capillary is a plexus, a network of the blood vessels and
if you see the network
...
This
is around six to eight micron
...
The function of the capillaries is a lot of exchange which takes place gaseous
exchange and that of the exchange of substances that takes place through these capillary
...

Continuous capillaries are found at certain places in our body like muscles skeletal muscle
smooth muscle okay they are found in brain
...
endothelial
transport is there so this is called as the transendothelial transport and this is the continuous
type of capillary
...
They are not classified as capillaries, but they are also
connecting at one end to the arterial and venous system
...
membrane was covering to the poor opening of the pore
...
The basal lamina is also not covering to this pores
...

Capillary plays a very important role in the blood vascular system
...
This exchange can’t
takes place through the arterials
...
takes place
...
Only the place
where the gaseous exchange and the exchange of substance, which can takes place is only
capillarie

19
...
I will tell students what are portal veins and where they are found in our body
...
this portal veins are found at the following
site
...
the first
capillary plexus lies in the intestine in the villi and the second capillary is present in the liver
itself
...
the last
...
millions of fluxes will be there in the because your
intestine is very large okay, many feet okay now this portal vein ultimately then will enter into
the liver okay from intestine
...
bring the nutrients and
water from the intestine and these nutrients are at present
...
Where this
carbohydrate protein and fat will get metabolized
...
this portal vein ultimately drains the blood into the vein okay within
to the wind
...

You must have learned that there is the ultra filtrate takes place through the capillaries
...
Then this comes into the
anterior pituitary gland where it breaks up the into another set second set of the capillary
plexus
...
these hormones stimulate
the secretion or the inhibition of the secretion from those acidophil and basophils
...
cells which are present in the cortex
...

There are some factors which are responsible for this venous return against the end degravity
direction in the antigravity direction and we will learn those factors now So let us see what are
those factors which helps the venus return Number one is venus verb
...
It
is climbing up to the heart, which must be around three to four feet at least from the heart
...
It is called as musculo venous pump mechanism
...
when air is inhaled inside the lung
...
negative pressure in
...
This will also create the suction that means what will create suction no
heart, not the heart
...

the deep arteries when they are running inside the deep facial also okay sometime in superficial
fascia Also right
...
Here I have shown the three
veins which are surrounding and these veins
...
There may be four veins also okay so this kind of the arrangement of the vein
surrounding to an artery is called as many commitments
...
We are not like
quadrupeds are not reptilians okay where venus drainage must be very efficient
...
the blood is start pulling inside the veins, which are mostly present in the leg
...


20
...

when one artery communicates with a neighboring vein
...
there may occur the union of the branches from two or more
arteries supplying same organ
...
most of the arterial Anastomosis are microscopic that means they are
at the level of arteriole
...
I told you in last lecture that they are very narrow okay
...
1 millimeter that is hundred micron
...
at that
level
...
communication is in relation to the arterials okay which can’t be
...
arterial anastomosis are present in our body profusely at the label of arterioles, which
can’t be seen by the naked eye
...

capillaries are present within the organs and the blood vessels which are forming these capillaries
...
They are the terminal arterioles
...
The most important function of this
pre-capillary arterial arterial anastoosis is that the part of this organ will survive
...
This kind of arterioles are called as the end
of trees
...
coronary arteries are the arteries which supply
blood to the heart
...
The blocked area of that arteriole
will not survive okay it will not serve
...
it is hunting the blood
between artery and the vein by passing the capillary plexus
...
the heart needs more oxygen and nutrition in the fibers
cardiac muscle fibers to supply this
...
they regulate also the temperature of the body that means in case of the i mean to say when
we want to lose the body temperature outside is more and our body temperature should be at a
lower level than the atmospheric, then body should lose the heat at that time
...
heat is preserved in
summer sun's is closed that means capillary are open
...
?
Instead of these capillary fluxes within the capillary, one channel gets dilated okay can balance so
whenever you need the blood to go to the capillaries
...


21
...
The nervous system is made up of a complex and highly organized network of billions of
neurons in Neroglia
...
neuroglia cells only support the neuron
...
or heat outside that is also sensed by the
neurons
...
Research okay then the the fact I mean it 's a very important
function of the human brain is thinking
...
I
have shown you exon and dendrite
...

There is a nucleus which is centrally placed and it is euchromatic nucleus
...

There is a unidirectional flow of the neurons
...
If we classify
the neurons they're three types
...
the classification is multipolar, unipolar, unipolar, pseudo-unipolar, like that okay or
fusiform
...
Neuron
...
interneuron is responsible
for the motor function and is called as interneuron
...
central nervous system means brain and the spinal cord
...
the neuroglia of central nervous system that is central nervous
...
which are called as cranial
...
ependyma appendage, lining of
ventricles and ventricle are nothing but the large cavities within the brain
...
the
neuroglia
...
these are of two different types okay
...
They are too swan cell
...
It was here
...
consists of three component
...
second is the neuroglia, and
third is the blood vessel okay, So we are not going the blood vessels of general anatomy we have
already covered
...


22
...
The central system consists of the brain, which is located in the
cranial cavity of the skull or brain box
...
what is grammatical
...
beneath this cerebral cortex or gray matter layer
...
collection of nerve
fibers and these know fibers are nothing but the collection
...
In the last lecture that axon and dendrite or both are present in the
white matter
...
is spinal cord that is
a central canal and the white matter is surrounding to this collection of the gramata, which is
arranged in safe fashion
...
There's the bundle of the fibers either
they are ascending ascending or descending
...
the human brain is highly capable of thinking and analyzing okay
...
Okay now we are also able to learn so it is due to our
brain our brain help us to learn the new things and then this is stored in the form of the
memory
...
PNs
...
Okay and what was CnS brain and spinal cord
...
The impulses they go
from fingers to the brain through the spinal cord, which are part of the central
...
The peripheral nervous system is of three types
...
nervous system
...

The autonomic nervous system is not under the control of us Okay
...
This nervous system also
supply the glands not only endocrine glands, but other glands say, for example salivary gland
...
This nervous system is present within the git in the wall of the
intestine that's why it is called as enteric nervous system, and it consists of about 100 millions
neuron in git
...
the
motor neurons also controls the secretion of the gastrointestinal glands
...
The central nervous system
...
That is the somatic
nervous system, the autonomic nervous system and lastly the enteric nervous system
...
Nervous System Part-III (General Anatomy)
This is the fourth lecture on the nervous system under the series of General anatomy
...
There are two division of the autonomic
...
Sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division that you already know now
...
both the
sympathetic and parasympathetic division
...
they conduct the
impulse from the central nervous system to effector organ
...
there are two neurons
...
Most of the second order neuron or second motor neurons are
located in ganglia
...
and will supply to the target organ
and target organ may be the viscera blood vessels or heart
...
These fibers then will go for a long distance in case of sympathetic and they
will supply the smooth muscle of the viscera or blood vessel or to the exocrine and endocrine glands
...
One is preganglionic and another is the post-ganglionic
...
This is as I said
...
the sensation from these areas okay that is from
misra smooth muscle
...
the sensation of the autonomic does system are transmitted from visra to
the central nervous system through the somatic sensory fibers
...
The severe pain originates from the heart
...


24
...
In this
last lecture we will learn specifically about the sympathetic and the parasympathetic division of
the autonomic nervous system
...
post-ganglionic or post-synaptic neurons are organized in
two different way where they are located
...
the two groups of the neurons are there in a cross section of the spinal cord where
these are the
...
spinal cord
...
some fibers
...
This was the
simplest explanation I gave you in last lecture
...

There are hundreds and thousands of fiber at each segment of the spinal cord, which are arising
out of which many of the fibers are arising from the lower thoracic region
...
all organs of the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity are
...
they are modified from the form of the postganglionic neurons, so they will
go and supply here I 'm not going into the more detail because you will get confused
...
In this diagram
...
and
enters the ventral rami of the spinal now
...
rami to the sympathetic
ganglion and then they enter the sympathetic trend to form a synaptic contact with the postganglionic
...
Now there may be three conditions which are already described when they
are approaching the sympathetic chain
...
they will supply the blood vessel to the sweat gland to the smooth muscles of the hair
follicle which I said in the last slide
...
In the formation of a spinal they
will run along with those fibers okay in the ventral ramus and the dorsal ramus of the spinal
...

They supply the distant places mostly head and neck region, but the vegas now will supply also
to the abdominal viscera okay upper abdominal let us come to the second outflow okay that is
the sacral see this pointer In the diagram
...
the The preganglionic and postganglioni neurons are called
postsynaptic neurons and their exon is represented here in red line, but with the dotted line and
then they are going and supplying to the viscera
...


25
...
There may be multiple bones forming a single
joint
...
These are the vertebrae of our vertebral
column
...
Joints may be either between
the two walls or it may be between a cartilage and that of the bone
...
A joint absolutely does not move, so this is an example of the immovable
joint or synard process
...
Second category in the functional
classification where there is a slight movable joint
...
This
kind of joint is called as mp arthrosis
...
The connecting media
between the bones may be a cartilage or the synovial membrane
...
The synovial joint is based upon the sutures of
the skull, coronal sagittal and lambda suture
...
There are two different types of cartilaginous joint that are the
primary joint, which has no movement, called as synchondrosis, and the secondary joint, which is
connected by the cartilage high line but is connected by fibro cartilage
...
This kind of joints are also
known as diarthroses
...


Functional Classification of Joints
Joints can be classified based on their function, including:
•

Synarthrosis: immovable joints, such as sutures in the skull

•

Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable joints, such as joints between cartilage and bone

•

Diarthrosis: freely movable joints, such as synovial joints

Structural Classification of Joints

Joints can also be classified based on their anatomical structure, including:
•

Fibrous: joints held together by fibrous tissue, such as sutures in the skull

•

Cartilaginous: joints held together by cartilage, such as joints between vertebrae

•

Synovial: joints with a cavity between articulating bones, allowing for free movement,
such as the knee joint

Classification of Joints
There are three connecting media between two bones forming a joint:
•

Fibrous tissue

•

Cartilage tissue

•

Synovial membrane

Fibrous Joint
This joint is formed by fibrous tissue connecting adjacent bones
...
Sutures: Found in the skull bones, these are immovable joints joined by fibrous
connective tissue
...

2
...
Example: distal tibiofibular joint and sacroiliac joint
...
Gomphoses: Immovable joints formed by the fitting of tooth roots into the socket of the
jaw or lower jaw
...
There are two types of
cartilaginous joints:
4
...
Example: joint between the head and neck of the femur
...
Secondary cartilaginous joint (symphysis): Permanent joint joined by permanent
fibrocartilage
...


Synovial Joint
This joint is formed by the synovial membrane connecting two articulating bones
...
Characteristics of the
synovial joint include:
•

Presence of a synovial cavity

•

Ends of articulating bones covered by articulate cartilage

•

Joint surrounded by articular capsule

•

Presence of strong bands of fibrous tissue (ligaments)

26
...
Most of the joint in our body
is a synovial joint
...
The ends of these bones which are forming the joint
are covered by the articular cartilage which is high line in nature
...
Synovials joints permit free
movement, hence called as diathrosis
...
There will be an articular cartilage which I said that the ends of the bones which are
forming the joint are covered by the articular cartilage
...
There will be strong fibrous ligament
which is shown here to the outside where it is written as articular capsule
...
The
articular capsule is a capsule which are connecting the two bones surrounding the two ends of
the bone which are forming the joint
...
This should attach the ends of two bone very firmly and
white the joint is bending movements are taking place if this membrane would have been
elastic
...
It is also covering the ends of
the long bones, which are forming the joint
...
It has
three dimensions, and it doesn't cover the highline cartilage, because it comes in contact with it
...
It is also
called the articular membrane
...

Articular disks are surveying within a joint, and another incomplete articular disk is also seen in
the knee joint
...
Female and the
tibia below are examples of these disks
...
The
most common joint affected by osteoarthritis is the knee
...
In knee replacement, a metallic and
plastic material is fitted onto the articular surface
...
Yesterday, we
covered the classification of joints, and today we will be discussing the structure of
synovial joints
...


•

The ends of the bones are covered by articular cartilage
...


•

The articular capsule is lined by the synovial membrane
...
Let's move on to
discussing the structure of synovial joints in more detail
...


•

The fibrous capsule surrounding the joint
...


•

Strong fibrous ligaments, also known as the true ligaments
...


Articular Cartilage

The articular cartilage is a hyaline cartilage covering the ends of the bones forming the
joint
...
The
cartilage also acts as a shock absorber, cushioning the bones during impact
...
It is inelastic, providing stability and firmness to the joint during
movement
...


The Synovial Membrane

The synovial membrane lines the fibrous capsule and is made up of two layers
...

The synovial membrane is also richly supplied with blood vessels
...
The synovial membrane lines the inner surface of the articular
capsule and the ends of the long bones forming the joint
...

The synovial membrane secretes lubricating fluid to provide smoothness to the joint and
avoid friction between the two bones
...
The
articular disc, made up of fibro cartilage, divides the joint cavity into two compartments
and acts as a shock absorber
...
Osteoarthritis is a disease that destroys the cartilage
layer, resulting in bone-on-bone contact and pain
...

To alleviate this pain, people opt for knee joint replacement where metallic and plastic
material is fitted onto the articular surface, which is not sensitive to pain as it is not
supplied by nerves
...


Effects of Ligament and Articular Capsule Injuries

The ligament and articular capsule do not have a nerve supply, except for cartilage
...
In cases where
the ligament is ruptured, it may lead to inability to walk properly, especially in the ankle
or knee joint
...
Joints 3
Classification of Joints
This is the third video in the series on general anatomy, focusing on joints
...
In this video, we will focus on the
classification of synovial joints
...


•

Compound joint: More than two bones form the joint, such as the radius, ulna, and
humerus bones in the elbow joint
...


Classification Based on Axis of Movement

Synovial joints can also be classified based on the axis of movement:
•

Uniaxial joint: Movement occurs along only one axis, such as in the elbow joint or ankle
joint
...


•

Multiaxial joint: Movement occurs along many axes, such as in the shoulder joint
...


Synovial Joint Classification Based on Movement
Synovial joints can be classified based on the number of bones forming a joint and the
movements that occur in the joint
...


Uniaxial Joint

Similar to the elbow joint, the knee joint is a biaxial joint that allows for flexion, extension,
and slight rotation
...

An example of the condylar joint is the temporo-mandibular joint in the lower jaw
...

Examples of the ellipsoid joint are the wrist joint and metacarpophalangeal joint, which
allow for circular movement of the fingers
...
An example of the saddle joint is the joint between the trapezoid and the first
metacarpal bone in the thumb
...
Examples of the ball and socket joint are the shoulder and hip joints, which can
move the bones in any direction
...
Examples of the nonaxial joint are the
intercarpal and intermetacarpal joints in the wrist and torso, which allow for minimal
movement in any direction
...
Joint 4
The Blood Supply and Nerve Supply of a Synovial
Joint
In this video, we will be discussing the nerve supply and blood supply of a synovial joint
...


•

The second type is also sensory, but it conveys proprioceptive sensation to the brain,
giving information about the movement and position of the joint
...

The sensory nerve supplies the synovial membrane, fibrous capsule, and ligaments
...
The proprioceptive fibers supply the capsule and ligament, conveying the sensation
of stretch and degree of movement
...


Hilton's Law

Hilton's Law states that the nerve supplying the sensory fibers to the articular capsule and
ligament of a joint will also supply the same nerve to the muscle acting on the same joint
...


Hilton's Law and Blood Supply of Joints
According to Hilton's Law, pain in the joint due to injury to the articular capsule will also
be felt on the skin
...
The
blood supply of the joint involves multiple arteries that form an anastomosis around the
joint and penetrate the capsule to supply the synovial membrane, ligaments, and nearby
tendons
...

Inside the joint, there is a rich arterial plexus that connects to the synovial membrane and
supplies the joint extensively
...
Cartilage
Types of Cartilage in the Human Body
Cartilage is a specialized connective tissue that has three main components: cells, fibers,
and ground substance
...


Hyaline Cartilage

Hyaline cartilage is the most common type of cartilage in the body
...
Hyaline cartilage is characterized by its fine collagen fibers
embedded in the ground substance
...
Hyaline cartilage is covered by the perichondrium, a fibrous membrane
that provides nutrients to the cartilage
...
Elastic cartilage has elastic fibers embedded in the ground
substance, which allows it to bend and return to its normal shape
...
Elastic cartilage is covered by the perichondrium
...
Fibrocartilage is made up of collagen fibers that are bundled
together
...


Summary of Cartilage Types
•

Hyaline cartilage: fine collagen fibers, spaced chondrocytes, covered by perichondrium

•

Elastic cartilage: elastic fibers, numerous chondrocytes, covered by perichondrium

•

Fibrocartilage: collagen fiber bundles, few chondrocytes, not covered by perichondrium

30
...
It absorbs the tissue
fluid not absorbed by the capillaries, which is then drained into the venous system
...
The intercellular space is filled with tissue fluid, which is formed by the
filtration of blood through the capillaries
...
The lymphatic
system consists of lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymph
...
The lymph capillary is blind-ended and begins within the tissue fluid
...
The lymph node filters the lymph and identifies any foreign
tissues or pathogens
...
After passing through two or three sets of lymph nodes, the lymph forms
a large lymph vessel called the lymph trunk, which ultimately drains into the great veins at the
root of the neck
...
Here are the components of the lymphatic system:
•

Lymph: This is the fluid that circulates in the lymphatic system
...


•

Lymph capillaries: These are blind-ended vessels that absorb lymph and tissue fluid from
interstitial spaces
...


•

Lymph nodes: These are small bean-shaped structures that filter lymph before it is returned
to the blood circulation
...
They are
encapsulated organs that contain lymphoid tissue
...


Overall, the lymphatic system plays a crucial role in maintaining fluid balance in the body and
immune function
...
Lymphatic system II
Lymphatic System Components
In this video, we will discuss the various components of the lymphatic system, which includes:
•

Lymph: a clear, watery fluid that consists of tissue fluid, large molecules of protein, fat
droplets, and particulate matter
...


•

Lymph capillaries: blind-ended structures that absorb interstitial fluid from the tissue space
...


•

Lymphatic organs: such as lymph nodes, thymus, and spleen
...


Lymph
Lymph is a clear, watery fluid that consists of tissue fluid absorbed by lymph capillaries
...
Lymph also contains lymphocytes, white blood cells that help fight
infection
...


Lymph Capillaries
Lymph capillaries are blind-ended structures that absorb interstitial fluid from the tissue
space
...
The endothelial cells
that line the lymph capillaries overlap each other, creating gaps through which fluid can be
absorbed
...


Lymph Vessels
Lymph vessels are thin-walled vessels that unite to form lymph trunks
...
Lymph vessels pass through lymph nodes and transport
lymph throughout the body
...


Lymphatic System: Lymph Nodes and Other Lymphatic
Tissues
In the lymphatic system, lymph capillaries unite to form large lymph vessels, which converge
on the lymph nodes
...
Lymph nodes are bean-shaped structures that
lie along the lymph vessels and are organized into superficial and deep groups
...


Lymph Vessels and Lymph Trunks

The lymph vessels are similar to small veins and are very thin-walled and small in diameter
...
The lymph
vessels pass through the lymph node and form another lymph vessel, which finally unite with
other lymph vessels to form the lymph trunk
...
The lymph trunk on the left side forms the thoracic duct, which drains into the
left subclavian vein
...
They drain the lymph from the body and are present in superficial
and deep groups
...


Lymphatic Organs
Besides lymph nodes, the lymphatic system also includes lymphatic organs like thymus and
spleen
...
It gets atrophied or disintegrated by the age of 12 or 13 years
when its purpose is over
...


Lymphatic Tissues
Lymphatic tissues are present inside other organs like Peyer's patches in the intestine and
tonsils in the throat
...


The Functions of the Lymphatic System
The human body has only one spleen located on the left upper abdomen
...
The spleen is also the site for the production of lymphocytes
...

In addition to the spleen, other lymphatic tissues include the tonsils, Peyer's patches, and
lymphatic tissue found in the small intestine
...

The lymphatic system assists the venous system by draining the interstitial fluid, which cannot
be absorbed by the veins
...
They identify the foreign bodies that are not suitable for our
body and destroy them
...
Lymphatic vessels provide the root for the spread of
cancer cells and infection
...
If a group of lymph nodes is
enlarged, it indicates that there may be something wrong in the area of drainage, and the
physician will concentrate on that area
...
Unilateral, Bilateral etc
Understanding the Terms: Unilateral, Bilateral,
Ipsilateral, and Contralateral
In this short video, we will review the terms that explain the position of organs or structures in
relation to each other
...


Unilateral

Unilateral refers to any structure that occurs on only one side of the body
...
The liver is
mostly on the right side, but we do not consider it as a unilateral organ
...
Examples of bilateral organs include the lungs, kidneys, ovaries, and testes
...
For
example, the spleen and descending colon are ipsilateral organs because they both occur on the
left side of the body
...


Contralateral

Contralateral structures occur on opposite sides of the body
...

Here we can see the spleen and the inferior vena cava in blue color
...
Comparing these two structures, the spleen and inferior vena cava are
contralateral as they are on opposite sides of the median plane
...
These structures are called contralateral organs because they are on opposite sides of each
other
...


33
...
In this video, we will
discuss Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion, Pronation and Supination, and Inversion and
Eversion
...
These
movements occur mainly at the ankle joint
...
Supination is the
opposite movement, where the thumb rotates towards the lateral side and the anterior
surface of the forearm faces anteriorly
...


Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion

Dorsiflexion is the movement of the dorsum of the foot towards the anterior surface of the
leg, while plantarflexion is the opposite movement
...


Ankle Joint Movements
The ankle joint allows two types of movements: dorsiflexion and plantar flexion
...
This means that the foot is bent towards the shin
...
This means that the foot is bent towards the ground
...
Try
performing dorsiflexion and plantar flexion two or three times with one leg
...
Ossification I
Formation of Long Bones: Endochondral
Ossification
In this topic, we will discuss the formation of long bones, also known as endochondral
ossification
...
Let's explore this in a simplified
manner
...
The first
eight weeks of intrauterine life is called the embryo, after which it becomes a fetus until
birth
...


Mesenchymal Condensation

The first step in bone formation is the concentration or condensation of mesenchymal
tissue, responsible for the formation of muscles, connective tissue, bones, cartilage, blood
vessels, and other structures
...
The cartilaginous model is then replaced by bone
...
The
bone formed in the middle is compact and called the periosteal or periosteal collar
...
Once
the periosteal bone collar has formed, some cells present in the middle of the cartilaginous
model, known as chondroblasts or chondrocytes, will enlarge
...
Large cavities will form due to the death of these chondrocytes, leading
to the deposition of calcium in the surrounding intracellular matrix
...
These blood vessels will bring osteoblast cells, which are

bone-forming cells, along with some cells from the center of the cartilage
...
This bone will be in the form of spongy bone and will be
called the primary center of ossification
...
Ossification II
Formation of Humerus Bone
The formation of the humerus bone begins with the appearance of the primary center in the
middle of the cartilaginous model
...

•

The periosteal collar forms a compact bone deep to the periosteum
...

Once the bone has started forming, the periosteum covers the compact bone deep to the
perichondrium
...
The length of the
developing bone increases, and the circumference of the bone also increases
...
This center forms a spongy bone at the end of the
bone
...


•

The epiphyseal plate lies between the diaphysis and the epiphysis
...

The bone will keep on growing until the birth, and after that, the growth will continue in the
proximal and distal direction, as well as in circumference
...

As the bone continues to grow, the length will increase due to the epiphyseal plate
...
This area is called the metaphysis, and it takes place in
both ends
...
A little part of the cartilage at the end will still remain cartilage, called the
articular cartilage, which forms the joint at the ends of the bones
...
The diaphysis has two types of
ossification, and it forms the compact bone that surrounds and is deep to the periosteum
...

The epiphyseal cartilage is responsible for the growth in the proximal and distal directions
...

The bone will continue to grow until a certain age (about 16 to 20 years for a long bone), and
then the growth will stop
...


36
...


Parts of a developing bone in a child
•

Epiphysis: the ends of the bone that develop from secondary centers of ossification,
covered by a thin layer of articular cartilage

•

Epiphyseal plate: a cartilaginous plate at both ends of the bone that is still growing and
where bone formation occurs

•

Diaphysis: the central part of the bone that develops from the primary center of
ossification and contains a marrow cavity

•

Metaphysis: the active site for bone formation adjacent to the diaphysis side of the
epiphyseal plate

•

Periosteum: a membrane covering the bone that contains osteoblasts for bone formation

•

Bone marrow: fills the marrow cavity in the living condition

How a developing bone increases in length and diameter
The length of a bone in a child increases at both ends through the continuous formation of
cartilage on the epiphyseal plate and its replacement by bone in the metaphysis
...
This process continues until a certain age,
after which the size of the bone stabilizes
...


Growth Stoppage in Bones
The growth in bones stops near the age of 20 years and varies among different
populations and races
...

The growth stops for humorous bones by this age, and the cartilage in the physical plate
stops growing
...
This fusion is indicated by a zigzag line called the epiphyseal line, which is
visible when a section of a long bone is cut
...

•

Growth in bones stops near age 20 and varies among populations and races

•

Cartilage in physical plate stops growing

•

Remaining epiphyseal cartilage is replaced by bone from the metaphysical side

•

Union between epiphysis and diaphysis bones at metaphysis indicated by a zigzag line
called epiphyseal line

•

No further growth in length of bone after fusion

37
...
We will learn about the blood supply in two steps: first, we will
examine the blood supply of a developing long bone, and then we will move on to the
blood supply of an adult long bone
...
The diaphysis is supplied by the nutrient artery, which passes through
the nutrient foramina and divides into ascending and descending branches that supply the
compact bone of the diaphysis
...

The periosteal artery supplies the fibrous membrane surrounding the shaft of the bone
and penetrates the compact bone of the diaphysis for a short distance
...


Blood Supply of Bones
In the metaphysis, hairpin bands in the form of dilated space are formed by the arteries,
which are called as end arteries
...
The metaphysical artery does not penetrate
the epiphyseal cartilage, which is an avascular structure
...
The epiphyseal
arteries supply the ends of the spongy bone of the epiphysis, while the metaphysical and
perichondrial arteries supply the part of the diaphysis
...
In an adult bone, the epiphyseal
cartilage disappears, and the blood vessel can penetrate from the metaphysical side
towards the epiphyseal side and from the epiphyseal side towards the metaphysical side
...


Blood Supply in Developing Bone
•

End arteries form hairpin bands in the metaphysis

•

Epiphyseal arteries supply the ends of the spongy bone of the epiphysis

•

Metaphysical and perichondrial arteries supply the part of the diaphysis

•

No anastomosis between epiphyseal and diaphysical or metaphysical artery

Blood Supply in Adult Bone
•

Epiphyseal cartilage disappears allowing blood vessel penetration

•

Anastomosis freely occurs between epiphyseal and metaphysical artery

•

No hairpin band present

38
...


Structure of Capillaries

Capillaries are the network of blood vessels that connect an arteriole and a venule
...
Capillaries have a diameter of
about 6-8 microns and are responsible for supplying oxygen and nutrition to the
surrounding tissue cells
...

The lumen or diameter of the capillary is formed by only two cells
...


Types of Capillaries

There are three types of capillaries:
•

Continuous Capillary: The most abundant type of capillary found in the body
...
Diffusion of nutrients and gases occurs through the cytoplasm of the
endothelial cells
...


•

Fenestrated Capillary: The plasma membrane of the endothelial cell shows small
circular pores of 17-100 nanometers guarded by a thin layer of the diaphragm
...
This type of capillary is
found in tissues where fast transport is needed
...
The lining endothelial cells can also contain phagocytic cells that engulf foreign
particles
...

There are capillaries that have different pores compared to fenestrated capillaries
...
These capillaries are found in tissues where transport is
quick, such as in the liver sinusoids, bone marrow sinusoidal capillary, spleen, anterior
pituitary, and adrenal gland
...


39
...
This nerve also sends sensory fibers to the skin
over the joint
...
Hilton's Law helps in keeping the joint in a comfortable position
to minimize pain during joint injury or disease
...
The nerve supplying the joint also sends motor fibers to the muscle and sensory fibers
to the skin covering the joint
...
This nerve also sends sensory fibers to the skin over the joint
...
It is an important concept in clinical conditions and is often asked as a short
note in exams
...
Portal veins
General Anatomy: Understanding Portal Veins
In this video, we will be discussing portal veins and their importance in our body,
particularly in four different sites: the intestine, kidney, hypothalamus, and suprarenal
gland
...


Sites of Portal Veins in Our Body
•

Hepatic Portal System: located in the intestine, where the first capillary network is
present
...


•

Renal Portal System: present in the kidney, where the first site of the capillary is the
renal glomeruli
...


•

Hypothalamo-Hypophysial Portal System: located between the hypothalamus (part of
the brain) and the hypophysis cerebri or pituitary gland
...


Importance of Portal Veins

Portal veins play a significant role in the metabolic process by facilitating the contact of
absorbed nutrients with liver cells
...


Understanding the Portal System in the Human
Body
The portal system is a vein system that lies between two capillary fluxes and serves a very
important purpose in the human body
...


Hypothalamic Hypophyseal Portal System

The hypothalamic hypophyseal portal system is present in the anterior pituitary or
adenohypophysis
...
These hormones are carried through the portal
vein and act on the cells of the antiepituitary gland, stimulating or inhibiting the secretion
of anterior pituitary hormones
...


Suprarenal Portal System

The Suprarenal Portal System is present in the suprarenal gland or adrenal gland
...
Here, the veins break up into one more set of capillary fluxes, and
the chemicals released in the cortex are brought from the cortex to the medulla through
this portal system of veins
...

In conclusion, the portal system is a vein system that serves a crucial function in the
human body
...


41
...
This type of communication is between
adjacent arteries and is called arterial anastomosis
...

This type of anastomosis provides an alternate route for blood to reach tissues in case of
blockages or compression in an artery, thus preventing tissue death
...
There are three types of vascular
anastomosis:
•

Arterial Anastomosis: Communication or joining of one arteriole with another artery
...


•

Arteriovenous Anastomosis: Communication or joining of an artery and a vein at a
microscopic level, between an arteriole and venule
...
Two adjacent arterioles join with each other before they form capillary
plexuses, providing an alternate route for blood to reach tissues in case of blockages or
compression in an artery
...
It allows for collateral circulation, which is the
circulation of blood through the anastomosis in case of blockages or compression,
preventing tissue death
...
It is present in
many tissues of the body and is especially important in organs such as the brain, intestine,
and limbs, where blockages can be life-threatening
...
General anatomy- venous return
The Venus Return is due to the following factors: -The presence of valves in veins is very important
...
There is a mechanism in the lower limb especially in our calf muscle that helps with venous return
towards the heart
...
-Okay in between you should get up and move your legs or walk for
short distance to help with contraction of muscles and achieve venus return
...
Vena commitment is found in most of the deeper arteries
in the limbs, and is also common in the upper limb
...
Once it has gone above the multiple wells which are present, it can
not come back
...
General Anat
...
This is a very basic
lecture for the grass structure of an adult living long bone that is from an adult
...
This is the
site where the epiphyseal cartilage is constantly replaced by the bone
...
This bone marrow is a tissue which is
helpful or whose main function is to produce the blood cells
...
The inner layer
is the endosteum, which is mostly made up of the epithelial layer
...
A living long bone differs from a dry bone, which you
must have started handling in osteology classes or demonstration classes
...
A bone has no blood
supply and does not have any special function or protection of the blood cell formation
...


44
...
The articular cartilage is
high line in nature and this cartilage which covers the end of the bones which will come in contact
with each other is called as the articular cartilage
...
The articular capsule is made up of the collagen fibrous tissue
and that is collagen
...
The synovial membrane is very vascular that means it is richly supplied
and it is supplied by the blood vessels which were piercing to this articular capsule
...
The membrane is a
lubricating fluid which is helpful in the just to minimize the friction between the two articular
surfaces
...
A fibrous capsule is binding the two ends of long bone
which is a thin inelastic collision
...


45
...
The
motor unit is defined as the number of muscle fiber supplied by a single motor neuron
...
A muscle may contain thousands of fibers and so hundreds of
motor neurons will be needed to sub apply a single muscle say for example your biceps muscle
of the arm is supplied by the musculocutaneous noun which you will learn soon if you have not
learned
...
A single motor neuron supplied a small
number of muscle fibers
...
The muscles which move our fingers are the muscles of eye
which moves our eyeball
...


46
...
Upper and lower motor neuron are two
different neurons
...
There are two
different types of paralysis- upper motor neuron and lower motor neuron
...
Lower motor neuron can be damaged by several reasons such as
stroke, ALS, or ALS-dementia
...
The axon is not conveying any impulse right up to the muscle, and muscle
will not contract because no impulse are coming no acetylcholine is liberating at the
neuromuscular junction so muscle will become paralyzed
...

This is a test to determine if a person has lower motor neuron paralysis
...
If the person has
lower motor neuron paralysis, the paralysis will be different than if the person has upper motor
neuron paralysis
...
How Muscles Produce a Desired Movement?
Each and every movement at any specific joint is not produced by a single muscle but it is produced
by many many muscles
...
Prime movers
are the muscles responsible for production of a movement at a joint and can be called as prime
movers
...
The role of the primer and antagonist muscle keeps on changing with the opposite
movement thus the prime mover for a movement may also act as antagonist for opposite
movement
...

In one muscle primavera it is contracts in the opposite muscle that is antagonist
...
Third group of muscle are
also helping inflection at the elbow join and these are the fixator muscle which are attached at the
other end of the bone when in keeping this joint fixed which is a shoulder joint
...
Four group of muscles responsible for production of a desired movement at a
particular joint are called a synergist muscle
...
If you want to contract the if you want the flexion of the fingers then these
muscles are active but they are coming from from forearm so they will be having the action at many
other joint
...
The synergists at the joints of the fingers and wrists are antagonists,
which means they help to flex the finger and extend the wrist at the same time
...


48
...
About 80 to 90
percent of the tissue fluids get reabsorbed at the venous sand and then it forms the venules and
when you join to form a small vein, thus the large veins are formed which drain into the blood
...
The
tissue now these capillaries they have the blind ants and they absorb the tissue fluid and this tissue
fluid consists of
...
The tissue fluid which is drained by the
lymph vessel is called
...
The
lymph is a clear watery tissue fluid that is not absorbed by the venous end of the capillary
...
Thus, the lymph which is being
drained by the intestinal wall it looks white
...
The
lymphipit comes into the vessel and can't go back
...
The lymph node is the structure where the lymph has to pass through many times
...
The fourth
component of the lymphatic system is the bean sabbath
...
The last component of the lymphatic system is the other tissues which
are organ
...
This
system is also known as 'circulatory lymphatics'
...
The system works by removing toxins and waste from your bloodstream
and delivering them to your cells
...


49
...
The author explains that
there are three types of arteries- those that don't anastomose with the neighboring arteries at
precapillary level, those that are called "end arteries", and those that are found at various places in
our body
...
Finally, the author discusses the role of coronary artery
blockages in heart attacks, and how they typically don't occur with this type of artery blockage

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