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Historic Environment Site: London in Edward’s Reign Notes

London became the base of the King’s government, the legal system and the powerhouse of the
English economy
...
London spread beyond its 6 Gate Roman Wall
...


London’s defences and military
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Throughout Henry III and Edward I’s reign, there was the development of the formidable
concentric fortress, the tower of London
...

Between 1275 and 1285, Edward boosted the reinforcements with a second wall, new moat,
new gatehouse tower and entrance
...


Edward did all this as he realised the importance to have prepared the highest quality defences in
the largest city in the country
...
In this, Edwards's mother, Eleanor, struggled to
reach Windsor, the stronghold, and she met a mob along the way, causing her to take shelter at St
...

Living accommodations in the tower were also improved
...


Coinage
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During Henry IIIs reign, there was an issue of clipping ends off coins and melting them
...

The Tower of London contained the Royal Mint, and in 1279, Edward began a major recoinage and re organised the royal mint
...

The new silver penny was designed in a way that clipped coins were much easier to detect
and so were much more trusted by traders
...


The trust and value of the new coins produced, strengthened England’s economy and trade
...
The King
and his council governed England, and the King’s household travelled with him everywhere
...
Both offices saw over changes in Edward’s London, greatly
affecting London’s government
...
Edward kept needing more and more
money to fund his wars, needing new sources of revenue
...
The
Riccardi made great sums of loans to the King, in return for managing and receiving custom duties
...

The Chancery produced all paperwork for the government, recording, sealing and sending out all
decisions made by the King in the forms of writs, proclamations, charters and letters, all dealing with
affairs dealing with justice, home and foreign affairs
...
While Chancellor Robert Burnell
oversaw the chancery, it travelled with the household, but with citizens not knowing where to reach
the Chancery for petitions, and then Burnell’s death in 1292, the Chancery began to separate from
the household and by Edward III’s reign, it became permanently based at Westminster
...


Controlling London
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London’s development depended on the relationship between its people and the king
The king needed a strong relationship as he could get more money, and the Londoners
needed one to acquire their special rights from the Norman times and the ability to rule
themselves
...

The aldermen were the 25 most influential and wealthy men from the city, all from wealthy
families that intermarried and saw themselves as London’s nobility
...

The Aldermen elected the mayor between their own members
...

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Guilds were craft and trade associations, chartered by the King
...

They controlled the working and trade practices within their guild, making sure only their
men were working within that trade
...
They did this in return for
recognition
...


Later, Edward realised guilds could be useful to him
...
With this internal disputing, the King
could bypass the mayor and his aldermen and appeal directly to the city's inhabitants
...
Edward gave responsibility of city organisation to the guilds
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London and the King’s need for money
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In the second half of the 13th century, the monarchy played negatively on the wealth of
traditional London ruling families
...

Many London merchants depended on the crown business as the household was a highly
valued customer
...

An example is that 1/3 of Aldermen associated with wine trading had their business
damaged when Edward began to favour traders from Gascony and Italy, an area of France
controlled by England at the time
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The king's involvement in the wool trade also negatively impacted families involved
...

Despite London's privileges, it was still part of the Royal Estate, giving the king a right to
collect a tax called Tallage
...

A new source of revenue was needed, so the Crown began to tax all goods entering and
leaving the English ports, beginning with wool
...

London handled 36% of English trade in the 1300’s, the country’s busiest port, clearly
impacting greatly merchants with the custom duties
...
He encouraged foreign merchants to trade and live in London, seen as
a problem by native citizens, who enjoyed their political rights and freedoms for themselves, and
resented the outsiders
...

The foreigners were wanted to be gone by Londoners, but this wasn’t likely to happen as the
foreigners paid for their right to stay and trade
...
Merchants known as the
Hanse from Northernly areas of Europe were very important for the economy as they brought with
them fish, timber, furs, wax, wood and grain, while also exporting cloth
...
Londoners hated that
they didn’t have similar privileges when they went to trade in Hanse towns
...

Celebrations for the King’s coronation in 1274 were flamboyant with wine flowing
through watercourses for all to drink, Edwards's victory over the Scots in 1298 called for
a similar procession
...

In 1274, butcher and fishmonger stalls were removed from the route of processions by
the mayor, arresting anyone who objected
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The royal
judge sentenced 30 to imprisonment with some being hanged, warning citizens over
authority and keeping peace
...

With many complaints from citizens over miscarriages of justice by city authorities,
Edward appointed Sir Ralph de Sandwich as Royal Warden
...

The king regularly sent royal judges to London to check on sheriffs and mayors while
examining miscarriages of justice and make sure legal processes were being carried out
correctly
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After paying a massive fine in 1298, Londoners regained their privileges
...
Edward kept lawyers watching and, in the
end, the ability of Londoners to make money and rule their own affairs was depended on the
goodwill of the crown, establishing authority
...
Major
towns linked as well as minor towns, with London being the centre for most routes
...
The rate of
industrialisation and urbanisation could not be maintained if restricted in the city walls
...
Built amidst other grand
buildings in a respectable area
...

Land around majorly populated cities is called Hinterland, demands for goods can be fulfilled
by the vast amount of supply markets nearby
...
London’s grain supplies built near
rivers for easy transport to mills for swift production
...
Relating sectors all lined up with
each other for convenience and hygiene
...
Craftworkers were placed on the other side of the
London bridge
...

London Bridge was the only way to cross the Thames, 28ft wide, 19 arches
...
Stalls set up into the middle of the bridge with
great amounts of foot traffic, could feel claustrophobic
...
Safe way of crossing the Thames,
accessible for all
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Children begging on the streets, people walking
barefoot, open sewers gushing along paths
...
Initial tax was 6 Shillings and 8 Pence
...

Areas of wool merchantry were clean, organised and wealthy
...
Built near docks for easy transportation
...
Done in a civil manner
...

Brewers had organised spaces to do their work, quality assurance led to trust in trade
meaning an increase in demand for products
...
Fitter
measures sizes for cloth adjustment, cloth then knitted/sewn for the final product to be
sold, Skilled Trade
...
Vast number of tools, very skilled
trade, specialisations for chest plates, jewellery, gold, ceremonial items
...
Lack of sewage system meant
human waste and animal dung/waste lied all on the floor
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Continuously increasing issues with more and more people coming over to London
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Medicines and physicians were available in London more than anywhere else in
London
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Also a running water supply for all Londoners to use
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Water
sometimes replaced by wine in these channels on special occasions
...
Was taxed at
between 2 and 4 shillings a barrel
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1280, they were encouraged to come as their staying period was increased from 40 days to 3
months
...


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They were given even more rights when in 1285, London’s privileges were removed
...

This led to London wine merchants to make their own Vinters Guild, but this didn’t stop
Edward giving a charter to the Gascons in 1302
...
The Londoners of course resented this, but the Gascons were protected by law,
this was applied by Edward II in 1309 when 17 Londoners were arrested due to persistent
attacks on the Gascons
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From 1290-1350, the % of wine ships entering the ports at London had risen from 50 to 63%
...

There were about 30 Spanish Merchants trading in London at the start of Edward’s reign
...

The trade relations suffered a blow when there were poor Anglo-Spanish relations in 1290’s,
but improved in the early 1300’s
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Henry III had granted them a charter allowing them to operate in England
...

Hanse merchants were constantly in conflict with the authorities over what was requested
from them in return of their privileges
...
In return they were meant to pay
Bishopgate tax to pay for the watchmen there
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Their business was done mostly with the Royal Household, not with London merchants
...

They were desperate for English wool, an export dominated by the Flemish, but tis changed
by 1270
...
They also brought
in alum, important for dying cloth
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Londoners disliked how valuable the Italian traders were to the Royal Finance
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The Flemish cloth industry was
dependent on English wool
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This meant the English traded the raw wool, not finished cloth
...
When there was a rivalry between
the kings of England and France, Flanders found itself warring between the 2 states
...

In 1275, London sheriffs seized 28 ships from Holland in retaliation for their ships seized
abroad
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England was described as a passive goose laying golden eggs for the benefit of others
...
England's exports were mainly wool and
grain while others imported luxury goods like wine and spice
...
Freeze Thaw Weathering
Water enters fractures within rocks and over time, continuously freezes and expands over a period
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The rock eventually breaks off and shatters, forming an angular pieces of rock
that form a scree
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Insolation Weathering
In a desert, a rock is exposed to high temperatures approx
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However, during the night, the temperature drops, and all tension is
lost
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Chemical Weathering of Rocks
1
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As rain goes through the air
and into the ground, it grabs carbon dioxide, creating carbonic acid
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Chemical Weathering of Granite
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Feldspar in Granite: Decomposes to form Clays
Quartz in Granite: Remains the same as it is inert and not prone to chemical weathering
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Erosion
Process where material is removed from a site of weathering
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1
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Abrasion
Rock Fragments erode the bedrock, and in doing this, they become smaller and smoother themselves

Transportation Types
1
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Suspension
Where the sediment/load is carried in the main body
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3
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Traction
Larger, heavier boulders and rocks being rolled along the riverbed
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This
makes grains more granular, an overall reduction in size, the roundness of grains is more, and sorting
is increased
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All grains being of a similar size each
mean the sediment sample is very well sorted
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Anything in-between is moderately sorted
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Greater than 2mm means the grain size is large
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004(1/16) mm is medium grained, and anything below 0
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Sphericity- How close the grains are to resembling the shape of a perfect sphere
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When answering a question as to why certain minerals survive different types of erosion better,
attrition links with cleavage, abrasion links with hardness
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If a wind blows fast
enough, it carries grains across the desert
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Lighter sediments are deposited further from their source as they are lighter so take
less energy to be transported, however, heavier sediments are deposited closer to their source as
they require a higher amount of energy to be transported
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Finer clasts are much easier compacted
than coarser clasts
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Can be scratched by a finger nail, white/clear colour
Halite: Clear, Crystalline, 2
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Sedimentary Structures:
1
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In parralel
lamination, sediments are set at similar angles to each other, creating a layered effect

2
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In any form, the layering is clear and obvious
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Digging into modern sediments
like dunes or ripples, you can see cross bedding
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Graded Bedding
Formed in fluid depositional environments
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As lighter, smaller
sediments are deposited last, they end up on top of the coarser grains
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4
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Asymmetric ripples have a gentler slope gradient to the left
of the ripple, and a much steeper gradient to the right
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5
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These date way back over 1B years old
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Shallow Marine (WARM)
Agent: Sea
Rocks Present: Chalk, Calcite and Limestone
Fossils Present: Abundant in fossils, Trilobite, Ammonite, Coral, Oolites, Bivalves, Brachiopods
Sedimentary Structures Present: Symmetric Ripple Marks
Features that distinguish and single out the environment: Chalk, Calcite, Limestone, Coral, Oolites

2
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3
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Fluvial
Agent: River
Rocks Present: Coal, Black Shale, Conglomerate and Sandstone
Fossils Present: Plants Fossils
Sedimentary Structures Present: Asymmetric Ripple Marks, Cross Bedding and Graded Bedding
Features that distinguish and single out the environment: Coal and Plant Fossils

5
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Glacial
Agent: Ice
Rocks Present: Extremely poorly sorted sediments
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Fossils Present: None
Sedimentary Structures Present: None
Features that distinguish and single out the environment: None

Geology Quick Notes

Plate Tectonics
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3 Chemical Layers- Crust, Mantle Core
5 Mechanical Layers – Lithosphere, Asthenosphere, Mesosphere, Outer and Inner Core
Lithosphere is Solid and is rigid, cool and strong
Asthenosphere is Fluid/Partially Molten and is hot, ductile and weak
*We only need to know the lithosphere and asthenosphere to gain an understanding of
plate tectonics
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 Continental Crust – Granite + Andesite (less dense than oceanic) (Thicker than
Oceanic 15km to 70km) (0 to 3
...

The theory was that continents have gradually moved across the Earth’s surface
A gap in the theory was that no mechanism for plate motion had been discovered yet, so
how would the plates move?

Evidence:
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All the continents could fit together like jigsaws, approx
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Ages of rocks match over different continents
Mountain chains of different continents match
Fossils of species similar at coastline areas of matching continents

Hess and Tharps evidence (1960):
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Hess brought about the concept of Seafloor Spreading
Earth’s crust laterally moved away from volcanically active oceanic ridges
Occurs at mid-oceanic ridges
New oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity

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When Oceanic plates diverge, tensional stress causes cracks to emerge in the lithosphere
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The confirmation of the age of the ocean sea floor later confirmed this
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Tuzo Wilson’s evolved another theory to show that seafloor-spreading actually occurs
His area of study was in the middle of the Pacific Ocean, but similar processes can be seen to
occur in other oceans too
Underneath the Hawaii Islands, a plume of hot rising mantle lies
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The point at where the plate is subducted is marked at a deep ocean trench
Deep ocean trench can be the site at where poorly sorted turbidites and shales are
deposited
During the subduction, friction is created, causing earthquakes, and so a Benioff zone is
formed
At a certain point, a depth will be reached where the temperature is high enough for the
oceanic plate to partially melt, forming buoyant magma
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These are called volcanic island arcs
An excellent example would be in the Caribbean, the Islands of the lesser Antilles
At a divergent plate boundary, the volcano is wide and shield shaped, wide base
At a convergent plate boundary, the volcano is tall and steep, narrow base
At a divergent plate boundary, the eruptive style is passive
At a convergent plate boundary, the eruptive style is explosive
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This plate boundary has similarities to an O-O plate boundary in the sense it has ocean
trenches and a Benioff Zone and explosive andesitic volcanism because of dehydrational
partial melting of the oceanic lithosphere
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Continental-Continental: Mountain Belt Systems
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Has O-C features like continental mountain belts, folding, faulting, regional and contact
metamorphism and granite plutons
However there is absence of oceanic plates
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So the magma
solidifies as granite plutons underground
E
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, the Himalayas, India moved upwards colliding with the rest of Asia, causing the
mountain range
Earth Hazards

Lava flows:
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Most Hazardous if erupting rapidly
Path of most lava flows can be easily predicted as they follow valleys like rivers so don’t
result in widespread deaths
Thick lava flow can blanket farmland for many years causing famine

Ash:
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Rarely kills although can lead to roof collapses due to weight of the ash so can kill small
numbers of people
Majority of deaths result from ash may be a blanket to destroy crops or even contaminate
water supplies
Fine ash may be ejected high into the atmosphere, presenting a hazard to aircraft
Ashfall may contain toxic chemicals
Hot Ashfall may start fires

Pyroclastic Flows:
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Form when gas bubbles expand and burst explosively from the vent of a volcano
Travel Very Fast
Associated with explosive eruptions
Cause the most deaths in an eruption

Mud Flows:
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Large quantities of water mix with unconsolidated volcano ash and fragments on steep
volcano slopes
The path of mud flows is predictable, they follow river valleys

Earthquake Hazards:
Ground Shaking
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Built up elastic potential energy is suddenly released as rocks fracture along a fault
Releases seismic energy in the form of seismic waves
These waves cause the ground to shake
Buildings are weak when it comes to horizontal shaking
This causes building and other structures to collapse, causing deaths
Fires can be caused with bringing down of electric pylons

Landslides
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Ground shaking destabilises cliffs and steep slopes, causing landslides and rockfalls
Heavy rain and unconsolidated fractured rock are increasing factors
Common on composite cone volcanoes
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The sides of these volcanoes gradually steepen until it gets to a point when the slope
becomes too great and there is mass movement of fragments

Tsunamis
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Plates with water above it are squeezed until they break along the boundary, the jolt sends
water upward and seaward, causing immense waves
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The
longer the gap in time is when an earthquake wont occur in a certain area, the more likely it
is to snap and in a large proportion
Ground Deformation (tiltmeters)- Identify changes of the horizontal level of the ground
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Groundwater Changes- Changes of position in a water table
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On many occasions, sulphur dioxide emissions dropped before an eruption

Reducing the risk of Hazards:
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Building designs- incorporate shear walls, cross bracing, base isolation, pendula
Preparedness – organise communication systems, make schools do drills, inform the public,
emergency provisions, plans of evacuation
Magma and Lava

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Intermediate Magma- includes andesitic rocks, diorite and plutonic rocks
Silicic Magma- Rich in silica, includes granite and rhyolite
Mafic Magma – igneous rock, rich in magnesium and iron, dark in colour, contain common
rock-forming mafic minerals like olivine and biotite
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Depending
on where the magma cools, the texture of the rock will vary, with crystals being of different
sizes

Metamorphic Recrystallisation (calcite, garnet):
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When rocks are changed by an increase in temperature and or pressure, metamorphism
occurs
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New
minerals are formed this way and some, like garnet and calcite, are only found in
metamorphic rocks
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This leads to minerals
precipitating out of the saline water to form layered sedimentary rocks called evaporites

Crystallisation as a cement from flowing pore waters (quartz, calcite):
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After a sediment is deposited, it will only become a sedimentary rock if its grains are
cemented by minerals
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These minerals normally
form from the heated waters released from the magma as it cools
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The deposits of metallic
minerals are called ores
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These times see lower temperature, more
ice-caps and glaciers
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We currently live in icehouse conditions, though there have
been 3 times in the past where the earth has been in deep freeze- ice sheets extended from the
poles to the tropics
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There is a lack of ice coverage and so
global temperatures increase
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Tillite Deposition- Very poorly sorted, angular grains
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These depositions are found close to the
tropics, meaning glaciers were once present near the tropics (Icehouse Earth)
Chalk- A form of limestone, formed in warm conditions
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If major ice sheets of Antartica and Greenland were to melt, the earths
sea levels would rise by 75m
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10% of the earths land but contains
about 87% of its fresh water
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Though when ice
sheets grow, sea level falls
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Over the last 20th century, the Antarctic Peninsula has got 2
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Global Temp Increase ---> Ice Caps and Glaciers Melt ---> Global Sea Levels Rise or
Global Temp Decrease ---> Ice Caps and Glaciers grow ---> Global Sea Levels Decrease

Evidence for Sea Level Changes
Submerged Forests- Ancient forests that were covered by the sea and the sediments deposited
within the water after a rise in sea level
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Trees lived on land ---> Sea Levels Rose ---> Trees Eroded ---> Only deep-rooted tree stumps
remained (hard to erode) ---> These tree stumps can now be seen as submerged forests

Greenhouse gases
Carbon Dioxide and Methane are the main greenhouse gases on the earth
...
We can measure CO2 levels directly from the atmosphere, and indirectly from Ice
Cores
...

There is usually a clear pattern, that as CO2 levels rise, so does the global temperature, but some say
that as temperature increase, more evaporation is seen from water bodies and so more CO2 is
released
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Albedo Effect
White surfaces of snow and ice at the poles and on high mountains reflect a lot of sunlight, cooling
the earth
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Positive feedback controls the INCREASE of CO2 levels in the atmosphere
Negative feedback controls the DECREASE of CO2 levels in the atmosphere
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CO2 Dissolves in Water
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Rocks like limestone are formed and they store carbon
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Organic Carbon and carbonate are stored in the form of marine
sediments
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These sediments undergo
metamorphism
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Igneous Processes- Increase CO2 levels, release CO2, H2O and Methane etc + Volcanism
Metamorphic Processes- Produces CO2, increases CO2 Levels
Sedimentary Processes- Decrease CO2 Levels
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Though, stored carbon like in limestones can be subducted, then metamorphosed, and
the CO2 produced can be released back into the atmosphere
...
g
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Porous and permeable sedimentary rocks to pump the CO2 into and for it to be stored in
between gaps (e
...
, Sandstones and Limestones) Known as a Reservoir Rock (A) or an
Aquifer (B)
2
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g
...
The only issues are COST
and where to store all of the gas
...


Geological Structures

Geological structures are a product of the processes of geological deformation
...
Brittle/Elastic Deformation
Occurs at shallow depths of the crust, where pressures are low and temperatures are low
...

2
...
These forces act at
a much slower rate

Folding and faulting are the 2 structural forms in the geological world on the specification
...


Dip: The amount a surface has tipped from its horizontal placement
...
The maximum value of dip is called TRUE DIP
...


Strike: The direction of a level line on a surface, always perpendicular to the value of dip
...


Faults
There are 2 types of faults, DIP-SLIP FAULTS and STRIKE-SLIP FAULTS
...
They are fractures in the upper part of the crust, where movement has
occurred
...
Dip-Slip Faults

Footwall: One block of the dip-slip fault that you'd be able to stand on, no matter how steep it may
seem
...


In Dip-Slip Faults, a rock is either upthrown or downthrown
...
The younger rock is ALWAYS downthrown
...
The
HEAVE of a fault is the amount of horizontal displacement along the fault plane
...
Footwall
Upthrown Normal (FUN) Fault
...




Reverse Dip Slip Faults (Convergent)

Where the FOOTWALL is DOWNTHROWN and the HANGING WALL is UPTHROWN
...
These faults are formed as a result of compressional stress where the
blocks move towards each other
...


2
...
HORIZONTAL
DISPLACEMENT
...
This is a CONSERVATIVE
fault type
...


1
...
If you look across and see that block is moving
towards the LEFT, and if you were able to see the same motion if you stood on the other block and
looked across to see the motion of the opposite block is going LEFT as well, the fault type is a
SINISTRAL Strike-Slip Fault
...
Right-Handed (Dextral) Strike Slip Fault
If you were to stand on one side of the fault plane and look across to the block opposite, you would
be able to state which direction that block was moving
...
Note: FOLDS CAN ONLY HAPPEN IN COMPRESSIONAL SITUATIONS!

MARKER HORIZONS are geological features that mark the magnitude of displacements, e
...
, Dykes
and Bedding Planes
...
Crust is bent and buckled by compression
...

Antiform: Where the limbs of the fold dip away from the centre of the fold
...

Axial Plane: Imaginary surface bisecting through the limbs at the very centre of the fold
...




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