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Title: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ETHICS IN NURSING.
Description: The Fundamentals of Ethics in Nursing Perfect for Nursing Students This comprehensive Study notes dives into the core ethical principles that guide nursing practice. It covers a wide range of topics, from exploring the nature of happiness and morality to examining various ethical theories and their implications.
Description: The Fundamentals of Ethics in Nursing Perfect for Nursing Students This comprehensive Study notes dives into the core ethical principles that guide nursing practice. It covers a wide range of topics, from exploring the nature of happiness and morality to examining various ethical theories and their implications.
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THE FUNDAMENTALS OF
ETHICS STUDY NOTES
...
Explores how to improve one's well-being and the nature of happiness
...
Example: Evaluating whether happiness is the ultimate goal of a good life or if other
factors contribute to well-being
...
Normative Ethics
•
Examines fundamental moral duties and virtues
...
Explores the role of virtues, self-interest, and justice in moral decision-making
...
Case Study: Analyzing the ethical implications of breaking a promise to prevent
harm
...
Explores the truth value of ethical theories and principles
...
Considers the nature of moral wisdom and reasons for fulfilling moral duties
...
Doubts and Controversies in Ethics
Ethical Skepticism
•
•
•
Many doubt the objectivity of morality due to disagreements among individuals and
societies
...
Considers the limitations of science in determining ethical truths
...
Example: Exploring the concept of moral relativism in different cultural contexts
...
The presence of exceptions suggests that moral rules are human constructs
...
Progress in Moral Thinking
•
•
•
Moral philosophy aids in making progress in moral thinking by challenging existing
ideas
...
Engaging with diverse perspectives and challenging ideas is essential for ethical
growth and understanding
...
•
Errors in moral reflections can have disastrous consequences, emphasizing the
need for rigorous ethical analysis
...
•
Ethical Starting Points
Plausible Ethical Assumptions
•
•
Criticism of moral thinking often questions the existence of proper starting points,
but there are reasonable constraints to guide ethical reflection
...
•
The value of friendship, moral fallibility, and the importance of justice are
foundational ethical principles
...
Justice is crucial
Any moral theory that disregards justice is questionable;
fairness and just treatment are vital
...
Equals should be
treated equally
Fair treatment requires treating similar individuals similarly;
discrimination is unethical
...
Agony and extreme
suffering require strong
justification
Causing severe pain demands significant reasons; inflicting
agony must be justified
...
Moral standards should respect human limitations and not demand the impossible
...
Conclusion: Defining Morality
Distinguishing Ethics and Morality
•
•
While some differentiate between ethics and morality, treating them as synonyms is
common practice
...
Importance of Ethical Foundations
•
•
•
Establishing ethical foundations is essential for guiding moral thinking and
decision-making
...
Balancing conflicting moral values and determining their relative importance is a
key aspect of ethical philosophy
...
Examples of ethical lapses in corporations or politicians can be described as moral
failings, showcasing the interchangeable use of the terms
...
The distinction between ethics and morality lies in the philosophical approach,
where ethics is considered a branch of philosophical study focusing on morality
...
Morality Contrasted with Other Systems of Guidance
•
Morality differs from the law, etiquette, self-interest, and tradition in guiding
behavior
...
Etiquette and good manners do not equate to morally good conduct, as morality
may require actions that etiquette does not
...
Tradition does not automatically make a practice moral, as moral progress often
involves breaking away from long-standing traditions
...
Conventional Morality
"When I talk about morality from this point on, I will be referring to moral standards that are
not rooted in widespread endorsement, but rather are independent of conventional
morality and can be used to critically evaluate its merits
...
Independent morality is not bound by societal norms and can serve as a critical
standard to evaluate conventional morality
...
The nature of morality is examined to determine when conventional morality is
correct and when it may be flawed
...
The focus of moral philosophy extends beyond specific cases to uncover general
principles that apply to numerous situations
...
The process of moral theorizing is a natural inclination to seek unified explanations
and organize thinking about ethical principles
...
Ethical Theories and Moral Principles
Search for General Moral Principles
•
•
•
•
•
Ethical discussions often aim to uncover increasingly general moral principles to
explain various cases
...
Justifying moral beliefs often involves referencing fundamental principles like not
imposing unnecessary harm or telling the truth
...
The pursuit of a single, overarching principle is common in various fields like
physics, psychology, and philosophy
...
Moral philosophy involves tracing the connections between basic moral views and
more complex theories
...
Exploring general ethical theories is crucial for understanding and justifying
personal moral views
...
Role of Moral Reasoning
•
•
•
•
•
Moral reasoning, akin to other forms of reasoning, involves presenting reasons to
support a conclusion
...
Good moral reasoning requires avoiding false beliefs and ensuring logical rigor
...
Effective moral reasoning involves both arriving at the truth and providing sound
justifications for one's views
...
Arguments aim to logically justify moral positions rather than engage in mere
disagreement
...
Not all moral arguments are equally valid; some may contain false beliefs or lack
logical coherence
...
Testing Moral Arguments
•
•
•
•
•
Validity in moral arguments is determined by the logical relationship between
premises and conclusions
...
Testing for validity involves assuming the truth of all premises and assessing if the
conclusion logically follows
...
Ensuring logical validity helps in constructing robust and convincing moral
arguments
...
Valid arguments guarantee that the truth of premises leads to the truth of the
conclusion
...
False premises or conclusions can exist in valid arguments, highlighting the
importance of logical structure
...
Understanding Logical Arguments
Validity vs
...
• Sound arguments are both valid and have all true premises, setting the gold
standard for good reasoning
...
"
Importance of Truth and Logic
•
Truth and logic are essential in constructing strong arguments in philosophy and
other fields
...
• The combination of logic and truth leads to sound arguments, ensuring the validity
of the conclusion
...
"
Flaws in Moral Arguments
•
•
Some moral arguments rely on false premises, invalid reasoning, or both
...
• The presence of a false premise or invalid logic can render an argument unsound,
even if the conclusion is true
...
"
Evaluating Moral Arguments
Analysis of an Argument for Meat Eating
•
The argument justifying meat eating based on animal behavior is reconstructed and
evaluated
...
• A modified version with an underlying assumption is presented to create a logically
perfect argument
...
"
Critique of the Meat Eating Argument
•
The modified argument is still unsound due to a false premise, highlighting flaws in
the reasoning
...
• The analysis does not disprove the conclusion but shows the argument's
unsoundness in justifying meat eating
...
"
CHAPTER 1
...
Well-being is determined by a standard that helps evaluate our level of welfare
...
Intrinsically valuable things are worth pursuing for their own sake, independent of
being a means to something else
...
Happiness is intrinsically good, while unhappiness is intrinsically bad
...
Hedonism, derived from the Greek word 'hédoné' meaning pleasure, defines
happiness as a combination of pleasure and the absence of pain
...
g
...
Attitudinal pleasure, or enjoyment, is considered the key to a good life by hedonists
...
Hedonism values enjoyment for its own sake, making it intrinsically valuable
...
The hedonistic view challenges the common perception of sensual pleasureseeking
...
•
•
Hedonism's focus on sustained enjoyment and minimal misery sets it apart from
mere instrumental goods
...
The Historical and Philosophical Roots of Hedonism
Epicurean Origins of Hedonism
•
•
•
•
•
Hedonism traces back to ancient Greek philosophy, notably to Epicurus (341–270
BCE)
...
The ideal state of tranquility, according to Epicurus, arises from understanding what
is truly important
...
Hedonism, as advocated by Epicurus, prioritizes mental tranquility over mere
pursuit of physical pleasures
...
John Stuart Mill's View: Mill emphasized the quality of pleasures, prioritizing
intellectual and artistic pursuits over physical ones
...
Historical Evolution of Hedonism
•
Plato and Aristotle's Views: They emphasized philosophical contemplation for a
good life, contrasting with modern democratic perspectives
...
•
Competitors' Approaches: Hedonism rejects one-size-fits-all models, advocating
for individualized pursuits of happiness
...
Personal Choice and Happiness: Individuals have input into their well-being based
on personal preferences
...
Core Tenets and Principles of Hedonism
Misery vs
...
Well-Being Assessment: Evaluating well-being based on happiness levels rather
than external achievements
...
Intrinsic Value of Happiness
•
•
•
Fundamental Belief: Happiness is considered intrinsically beneficial in hedonistic
philosophy
...
Importance of Happiness: Happiness is a fundamental aspect of well-being,
influencing decision-making and value assessment
...
Intrinsic Goods: Hedonism distinguishes between happiness as
an end in itself and as a means to other ends
...
•
Desirability of Happiness: Pursuits like studying, dieting, or honesty are justified by
their contribution to happiness
...
It explains why certain aspects improve the quality of life by reducing misery
...
Hedonism acknowledges that common sense rules for a good life have exceptions
...
Exceptions to Hedonistic Rules
•
•
•
•
•
Hedonism can explain why there are exceptions to common rules for a good life
...
For example, certain masochists find physical pain enjoyable, which contrasts with
the general population's perception
...
Hedonism recognizes both standard and uncommon sources of happiness
...
Philippa Foot's critique challenges the sole emphasis on happiness as the ultimate
good
...
Parents may prioritize their children's personal development and pursuit of
worthwhile activities over mere happiness
...
Philosophical Considerations
Intrinsic vs
...
Hedonists distinguish between physical pleasure and attitudinal pleasure
...
This distinction allows hedonists to focus on pleasure that enhances well-being
rather than all forms of pleasure
...
The ability to influence one's well-being through experiences that promote
happiness is a key aspect of hedonism
...
Hedonism's emphasis on happiness as a determinant of well-being allows for
personal preferences to guide life choices
...
Discussion Questions
Exploring Philosophical Concepts
•
•
•
•
•
Distinguish between intrinsic and instrumental value in philosophical contexts
...
Analyze how hedonism influences personal views on the components of a good life
...
Evaluate the implications of individuals sacrificing personal happiness for the
benefit of others on hedonistic principles
...
Assess how hedonists might counter Foot's challenge and defend the centrality of
happiness
...
Discuss the complexities of defining a good life solely based on happiness
...
QUICK REFERENCE
...
John Stuart Mill (1806–1873): English philosopher and famous hedonist who
believed in different levels of quality of pleasures, with intellectual and artistic
pleasures being superior
...
Physical vs
...
Hedonists claim attitudinal pleasure is always intrinsically
valuable
...
Important Quotes
•
Philippa Foot: "The cares of those who love you are not always a reliable indicator of
where your self-interest lies
...
•
John Stuart Mill's Hedonism: Emphasizes intellectual and artistic pleasures over
physical pleasures
...
Happiness, according to hedonists, is attitudinal pleasure, not just physical pleasure
...
Hedonism explains that there are many paths to happiness, allowing for flexibility in
defining a good life
...
The philosophy of hedonism has evolved over time, with different thinkers like
Epicurus and John Stuart Mill contributing to its development
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
•
Hedonism: The ethical theory that pleasure (or happiness) is the ultimate good and the
proper aim of action
...
Instrumental Goods: Things that are valuable because of the good things they bring
about
...
CHAPTER 2
...
The pursuit of happiness is central to hedonism, but it faces criticism due to the
Paradox of Hedonism
...
The paradox suggests that the direct pursuit of happiness often leads to
disappointment, as illustrated by the butterfly analogy
...
Critique of Hedonism
•
•
•
•
•
Directly pursuing happiness may not be the most effective way to achieve it
...
The argument questions the rationality of solely focusing on happiness as the
ultimate goal
...
Premises of the argument are evaluated to determine the validity of hedonism
...
Pursuing activities that bring joy indirectly often leads to greater happiness
...
Instances like a struggling golfer or an overly eager student showcase the
limitations of directly aiming for happiness
...
Evil Pleasures
Understanding Evil Pleasures
•
Some individuals derive pleasure from immoral actions that harm others
...
Enjoyment from evil deeds is contrasted with happiness from virtuous actions
...
Hedonists argue that the amount of happiness, regardless of its source, contributes
equally to well-being
...
The argument clarifies the distinction between moral equivalence and the
beneficial nature of happiness
...
The argument's failure is attributed to a misunderstanding of hedonism's
perspective on the source of happiness
...
False Happiness
Deception in Happiness
•
•
•
•
•
The concept of false happiness is explored through a scenario where individuals are
equally happy but based on different beliefs
...
Happiness derived from false beliefs is compared to happiness based on truth to
evaluate well-being
...
Hedonists counter this argument by asserting that the source of happiness does not
diminish its beneficial impact
...
•
•
•
•
Hedonism's perspective on the correlation between happiness and well-being is
scrutinized
...
Hedonists defend their stance by emphasizing the intrinsic value of happiness
regardless of its origin
...
Critique of Hedonism
Happiness and Well-being
•
•
•
•
•
Happiness based on false beliefs is inferior to happiness based on true beliefs
...
Nozick's argument challenges the notion that happiness is the sole element of wellbeing
...
Nozick's discussion can be found in his book 'Anarchy, State, and Utopia' (1974)
...
Aldous Huxley's 'Brave New World' exemplifies a society devoid of autonomy
...
Examples of autonomy's significance include medical ethics and Soviet psychiatric
abuses
...
Argument from Autonomy
•
•
Autonomy contributes to a good life beyond its impact on happiness
...
•
•
•
Autonomy is considered important in its own right, not just for its impact on
happiness
...
Autonomy is a vital component of a good life, alongside happiness
...
Challenges arise when considering happiness based on false beliefs or the intrinsic
value of autonomy
...
Unhappiness as a symptom of losing intrinsic values questions the completeness
of hedonism
...
Life's Trajectory
Equivalence of Happiness
•
•
Hedonism posits that equal happiness equates to equal well-being
...
Hedonism and Well-being
Trajectory Argument
•
•
•
•
Hedonism posits that the quality of life depends solely on the balance of happiness
and unhappiness
...
Case studies like Delmore Schwartz and Oprah Winfrey illustrate how different life
trajectories can influence well-being
...
•
This argument implies that factors beyond happiness and misery contribute to the
assessment of a good life
...
The destruction of talents or missed opportunities can lead to unhappiness,
indicating harm
...
The Argument from Multiple Harms challenges hedonism by highlighting that harm
can manifest in ways other than sadness
...
Discussion Questions
Key Questions on Hedonism
•
•
What is the paradox of hedonism and its implications for rejecting hedonism?
How does the 'experience machine' challenge hedonism's view on well-being?
•
•
•
•
•
Exploring the concept of 'evil pleasures' and its conflict with hedonism
...
Analyzing the significance of the 'shape of a life' in determining life quality
...
QUICK REFERENCE
...
Evil Pleasures
Pleasures derived from immoral actions that challenge the idea
of happiness as the ultimate good
...
Importance of
Autonomy
The significance of making one's own choices in life, even if it
doesn't always lead to happiness
...
Unhappiness as a
Symptom of Harm
Exploring how unhappiness can be a symptom of losing
something valuable beyond just happiness
...
Paradox of Hedonism: Directly pursuing happiness may not lead to actual happiness
...
Evil Pleasures: Pleasures derived from immoral actions that challenge the idea of
happiness as the ultimate good
...
Life's Trajectory: Comparing lives with different trajectories to determine the overall
quality, beyond just happiness
...
Paradox of Hedonism: The idea that directly pursuing happiness may not lead to
achieving it
...
Evil Pleasures: Enjoyment derived from immoral or harmful actions
...
CHAPTER 3
...
It distinguishes between intrinsically good (satisfying desires) and instrumentally
good (helping fulfill desires) aspects of life
...
•
Satisfaction is not limited to emotional fulfillment but rather the realization of
desired outcomes
...
What constitutes a good life varies among people as their deepest desires dictate
what brings improvement or failure
...
Examples like religious devotion, philosophy, or hobbies illustrate the range of
paths to a fulfilling life
...
The theory rejects a singular pursuit for a good life, allowing for diverse preferences
and pursuits
...
The key requirement is the satisfaction of desires, leaving the choice of desires
entirely to the individual
...
Objective theories assert that certain elements like knowledge, virtue, or happiness
are inherently valuable regardless of personal desires
...
The theory questions how something can improve life if one does not desire it or its
outcomes, challenging the basis of objective theories
...
It suggests that genuine improvement in well-being occurs when individuals are
motivated to pursue what is considered good for them
...
The theory avoids the need to justify the value of pursuits that individuals are not
motivated to engage in
...
• Argument extends to virtues, religious observance, fame, and health
...
"Regardless of which good you put forward, there will always be some intelligent people
who don’t care about it
...
Desires motivate action; if desires are satisfied, motivation follows
...
• Critics view this as a significant critique against objective theories of well-being
...
"
Justification of Self-Interest
Argument for Self-Interest
•
•
•
Desire satisfaction theory asserts that if something improves well-being, it satisfies
desires
...
Justification for prioritizing self-interest based on desire satisfaction
...
"If there is always a reason to get what you want, and getting what you want makes you
better off, then pursuing self-interest is always justified
...
• Challenges in practice: Difficulty in determining methods to fulfill desires, resolving
conflicting desires
...
"If you want to make yourself better off, clarify your desires and pursue them effectively
...
Key People
•
Russ Shafer-Landau: Philosopher from the University of Wisconsin-Madison who
discusses the Desire Satisfaction Theory in relation to human welfare
...
Key Events
•
Publication of Desire Satisfaction Theory: The development and discussion of the
Desire Satisfaction Theory in the context of human welfare and the good life
...
Important Quotes
"The desire satisfaction theory of human welfare takes this sort of criticism very seriously
...
At the other end of the spectrum, your life goes badly just when your desires are
frustrated
...
"The desire satisfaction theory easily accounts for this: your life goes well to the extent that
your desires are satisfied
...
"
Explanation: This quote emphasizes the diversity of what constitutes a good life according
to the desire satisfaction theory
...
It emphasizes the importance of getting what you want for a good life
...
Instrumentally Good: Something that is good for an individual if it helps them fulfill
their desires
...
Hedonism: The belief that happiness is the key to a good life, often associated with the
pursuit of pleasure and avoidance of pain
...
Challenges to Desire Satisfaction Theory
Central Claims of Desire Satisfaction Theory
•
•
Intrinsic good is fulfilled by desires; instrumental good helps fulfill desires
...
Critiques of Desire Satisfaction Theory
•
•
Getting What You Want May Not Be Necessary for Promoting Your Good
o Examples like pleasant surprises, benefiting children, and suicide prevention
challenge the necessity of desire satisfaction for improvement
...
o Informed desires, not those based on false beliefs, are crucial for enhancing
welfare
...
o The theory's focus on desire satisfaction may overlook the intrinsic value of
pleasure
...
o Fulfilling desires may not always result in the expected positive emotions
...
Example of John McEnroe feeling hollow despite winning a tennis match
...
Discussion on the challenge of desire satisfaction theory when desires lead to
misery
...
Ignorance of Desire Satisfaction
•
•
•
Case studies of individuals whose informed desires are fulfilled but remain
unaware
...
Illustration of a man becoming a father without knowing
...
Challenges posed to the desire satisfaction theory by cases of ignorance
...
Examples of individuals raised to believe they are unworthy or limited in their
aspirations
...
Questioning the theory's validity in cases where desires are influenced by external
factors
...
Critiques of Desire Satisfaction Theory
Paradox of Self-Harm and Self-Sacrifice
•
Exploration of scenarios where individuals desire self-harm or self-sacrifice
...
Examples of individuals wanting to harm themselves or sacrifice their well-being for
others
...
Critique of the theory's implications in cases of self-destructive desires
...
Examination of suicide as a desire that contradicts traditional views of well-being
...
Critique of desire satisfaction theory in cases of suicide and conflicting desires
...
Understanding Desire Satisfaction Theory
Core Concepts of Desire Satisfaction Theory
•
•
•
•
•
Desire satisfaction theorists argue that well-being is achieved through the
fulfillment of informed desires
...
It raises questions about the impact of false beliefs on desires and well-being
...
Criticism arises from cases where desires, even when fulfilled, lead to outcomes
that are not considered desirable
...
Unusual Desires: Examples include an exhibitionist seeking exposure, a
kleptomaniac collecting items without purpose, and a man shoplifting women's
brassieres despite anxiety and lack of enjoyment
...
Comparison of Lives: Contrasting a fulfilled life with diverse experiences and fewer
satisfied desires to a life with limited cognitive abilities but easily fulfilled desires
...
Critique and Alternative Views
•
•
•
Objective Values: The discussion questions the theory's dismissal of objective
standards in evaluating desires and well-being
...
Philosophical Inquiry: The pursuit of a comprehensive understanding of the good
life requires philosophical exploration beyond desire satisfaction
...
Key to the Good Life: Emphasizing the importance of objective values and the
complexity of factors contributing to a fulfilling life
...
Subjectivity vs
...
Ethical Considerations: Reflecting on the ethical implications of valuing desires
over objective well-being
...
Philosophical Implications: Considering the broader philosophical implications of
desire satisfaction as a metric for a good life
...
Subjective Values: Exploring the balance between objective values
and individual desires in determining well-being
...
Criticism and Debate: Engaging with critiques of desire satisfaction theory and the
need for a more nuanced understanding of well-being
...
Ethical Dilemmas: Delving into the ethical dilemmas posed by desire satisfaction
theory and its implications for moral philosophy
...
Facts to Memorize
•
•
Desire satisfaction theory: A theory that states that if something fulfills our desires, it is
intrinsically good for us
...
Concept Comparisons
Desire Satisfaction Theory
Objective Theory of Human Welfare
States that fulfilling desires make us
better off
...
Focuses on subjective desires
...
Suggests that getting what we want is
essential for a good life
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
Desire Satisfaction Theory: A theory that posits that something is good for an
individual if it fulfills their desires, and bad if it frustrates their desires
...
CHAPTER 5
...
•
•
Religious belief is often seen as a source of moral guidance and motivation
...
Conscientiousness in religious individuals may stem from the fear of divine
punishment or hope for rewards
...
Religious principles must be morally sound to lead to ethical behavior
...
•
•
•
•
Some theists believe there is never a conflict between self-interest and morality
...
The assumption that moral conduct is rational only if God exists is questioned
...
Morality and Self-Interest
Conflicts Between Morality and Self-Interest
•
•
•
•
•
Without an all-powerful being like God, conflicts can arise between morality and
self-interest
...
The argument suggests that without God, individuals may prioritize enhancing their
quality of life over moral actions
...
Example: Individuals may face dilemmas were acting morally involves personal
sacrifice without immediate benefits, challenging the rationality of moral actions in
the absence of God
...
Moral reasons can stem from considerations of the well-being of others, not just
self-interest
...
The assumption that self-interested reasons are the only valid motivation for action
is critiqued for disregarding the importance of altruism and the well-being of others
...
God as the Creator of Morality
The Concept of Morality Without God
•
•
•
•
•
The absence of God is sometimes associated with the belief that 'everything is
permitted,' suggesting a lack of moral constraints in atheistic worldviews
...
The credibility of a moral code derived from human imperfections is questioned,
leading to the argument that a moral code crafted by a perfect being like God would
hold more authority
...
The necessity of a moral lawgiver is emphasized to establish moral obligations and
duties in the absence of inherent moral guidelines
...
Plato's Euthyphro dialogue questions the relationship between actions and piety in
the context of divine commands, highlighting the foundation of moral values in
theological beliefs
...
Critique: The divine command theory faces challenges when God's existence or
involvement in human affairs is questioned, potentially undermining the basis of
moral obligations
...
Divine Command Theory and Moral Objectivity
Understanding Divine Command Theory
•
Divine Command Theory posits that God's commands determine morality
...
A perfect God must have excellent reasons for laying down moral laws
...
The Euthyphro Argument challenges the divine command theory by highlighting the
importance of reasons behind God's commands
...
Critique of Divine Command Theory
•
•
•
•
•
The Divine Perfection Argument questions the validity of the divine command
theory
...
Rejecting the divine command theory does not diminish God's perfection; it allows
for a more nuanced understanding of morality
...
Rejecting the divine command theory preserves God's omniscience and integrity
...
Even if God is not the author of the moral law, His commands are morally decisive
...
Religious believers can accept that God's commands are morally binding without
attributing morality to His commands
...
God's Role in Morality
Rejecting Divine Command Theory
•
•
God plays a role in morality by revealing the moral law without creating it
...
•
•
•
The existence of God and the reliability of His moral advice are key considerations
...
Illustration: Popular Argument from Religious Authority regarding abortion
...
Interpreting religious texts poses difficulties due to diverse perspectives
...
Balancing tradition with textual interpretations is a crucial aspect
...
Conditions for Seeking Divine Guidance
•
•
•
•
•
God's existence and provision of moral advice are prerequisites
...
Resolving conflicts between interpretations and traditions is a significant challenge
...
Summary: Meeting conditions for seeking divine guidance is a complex endeavor
...
Fear of God or desire for reward do not replace intrinsic moral motivation
...
God's role is to understand morality and provide commands based on perfect
knowledge
...
Secular Foundations for Morality
•
•
•
Religious claims are not utilized to explore moral theories
...
Consideration of secular foundations by religious individuals for moral theories
...
Discussion Questions
Exploring Morality and Religion
How might religion motivate people to behave morally? Why is this kind of motivation
sometimes thought to be morally problematic?
Does the existence of a law imply the existence of a lawmaker? Defend your answer
...
Therefore,
the divine command theory is true
...
Which do you find more compelling and why?
Is there a reliable method for determining the correctness of conflicting moral advice from
different religious texts?
Do you believe religion serves as a reliable source of moral guidance? Explain your stance
...
Natural Law Theory
The Concept of Natural Law
•
•
•
•
•
Natural law theory posits that good human beings fulfill their true nature, while bad
human beings do not
...
The theory asserts that actions are deemed right when they are natural and wrong
when they are unnatural
...
Prominent natural law theorist, St
...
Objectivity and Morality
•
•
•
•
Natural law theory offers an objective basis for morality by asserting that moral
standards are grounded in human nature
...
The theory does not necessarily require a divine origin for human nature to serve as
a moral standard
...
Morality and Human Uniqueness
•
•
•
•
Natural law theory elucidates why morality is uniquely suited for human beings due
to their advanced reasoning capabilities
...
Moral agents, capable of moral responsibility, are those who can control their
actions through reasoning
...
Origins and Knowledge of Morality
•
•
•
•
Natural law theory asserts that morality is as old as humanity itself, rooted in
human nature rather than human opinion
...
The theory provides a methodical approach to determining the morality of actions
by aligning them with human nature
...
Exploring Human Nature
Human Essence and Traits
•
•
•
•
Natural law theorists believe in the existence of a human essence comprising
essential traits that define humanity
...
Losing these defining features would result in a loss of humanity
...
Conceptions of Human Nature
•
Human nature is often equated with animal nature, suggesting that behaving in
accordance with our nature is akin to typical animal behavior
...
Justifying human actions based on animal behavior is critiqued for its
oversimplification and lack of moral depth
...
•
•
The Relationship Between Human Nature and Morality
Innate Human Nature
•
•
•
•
•
Innate traits are those we possess from birth, distinct from learned or acquired
traits
...
The debate on innate traits versus acquired traits influences our understanding of
morality
...
The origins of our impulses, whether innate or acquired, do not determine the
morality of our actions
...
Challenges arise as exceptions can be found for almost any trait considered
universal
...
The moral relevance of traits shared by most humans is questioned
...
Natural Purposes
•
•
•
•
Human nature is viewed as what humans are designed to be and do
...
Many natural law theorists link human nature to a divine purpose set by an
Intelligent Designer
...
The Concept of Human Nature and Natural Law Theory
Religious Perspective on Human Nature
•
•
•
•
•
Natural law theorists, influenced by Thomas Aquinas, often attribute human
purposes to an Intelligent Designer, typically God
...
Acting against these natural purposes is considered immoral as it goes against
God's intentions
...
The idea of acting naturally is emphasized to honor God's design for humans
...
Evolution and natural selection are proposed as sources of natural purposes,
replacing the need for an Intelligent Designer
...
While nature can define the purposes of organs, translating this concept to human
life poses challenges
...
The Efficiency Model and the Fitness Model
•
•
•
•
The Efficiency Model suggests that human functions or purposes are based on
efficiency in performing certain tasks
...
The Fitness Model proposes that organs in the body serve purposes that enhance
fitness, primarily focused on survival and reproduction
...
•
This model explains why natural law theorists historically viewed suicide, birth
control, and certain sexual behaviors as immoral
...
The Fitness Model challenges this by highlighting those natural actions, focused on
survival and reproduction, can lead to immoral behaviors like rape for genetic
propagation
...
The limitations of the Efficiency and Fitness Models cast doubt on the natural law
view that acting naturally is always moral and acting unnaturally is always immoral
...
Criticism of the Natural Law Argument
•
•
The Natural Law Argument posits that unnatural acts are immoral, citing examples
like suicide, contraception, and homosexual sex
...
The Argument from Humanity
Ambiguity of the Term 'Humanity'
•
•
•
•
The Argument from Humanity is a key aspect of the natural law tradition,
particularly in debates on abortion
...
The term 'human being' is ambiguous and can have multiple meanings, leading to
differing interpretations in moral debates
...
•
•
Humanity can be defined biologically or morally, each leading to different
implications for moral arguments
...
Biological vs
...
g
...
Moral definition: Humanity is defined by moral status and entitlement to rights,
such as the right to life
...
The moral definition may support premise 1 of the Argument from Humanity, but
premise 2 still requires substantial defense
...
The Limitations of Definitions in Moral Debates
•
•
•
•
•
Definitions alone cannot resolve complex moral issues like abortion or same-sex
marriage
...
Definitions serve to clarify discussions but do not provide definitive answers to
moral dilemmas
...
The essence of terms like 'marriage' or 'humanity' is central to moral debates but
does not offer a shortcut to moral conclusions
...
Moral laws are viewed as akin to natural laws, regulating human behavior based on
natural principles
...
Reading moral imperatives from natural operations requires careful consideration
and analysis
...
Introduction to Natural Law Theory
Role of Definitions in Moral Clarity
•
Definitions serve as tools for clear thinking and focus discussions
...
However, definitions alone cannot solve moral dilemmas
...
Historical Context: Definitions are fundamental in philosophical discourse to
establish a common understanding
...
Moral laws are distinct from natural laws as they set ideals for human behavior
...
Example: Difficulty in deriving moral recommendations from natural descriptions
...
Discussion on Moral Laws vs
...
They guide human behavior towards ethical ideals
...
Example: Contrasting predictability of natural laws with the variability of moral
laws
...
absolutism influences
interpretations of moral laws
...
Implications of shared human characteristics on moral standards
...
•
Historical Context: The concept of human nature has been central to ethical
debates throughout history
...
Considering the evolutionary perspective on psychopathy and morality
...
Historical Context: Studies on psychopathy have raised questions about moral
agency and responsibility
...
Evaluating the ethical justifications for terror-bombing in World War II
...
Historical Context: Ethical debates on war conduct have evolved over centuries
...
Jack Kevorkian and Euthanasia
•
•
Examining the ethical considerations of physician-assisted death
...
•
•
Example: Discussing the moral permissibility of euthanasia in different contexts
...
Critical Reflection on Moral Dilemmas
•
Analyzing controversial cases to understand moral complexities
...
Example: Evaluating the implications of moral decisions in challenging situations
...
QUICK REFERENCE
...
Jack Kevorkian: Nicknamed 'Dr
...
Thomas Aquinas: Influential exponent of natural law theory, merging Aristotelian and
Christian views to argue for morality based on human nature
...
Dr
...
Kevorkian in the 1990s, sparking debates on euthanasia and the role of physicians in
end-of-life decisions
...
Ethical Dilemmas in War: Examination of wartime decisions like terror-bombing,
highlighting the complexities of ethical decision-making in times of conflict
...
Kevorkian's assisted suicides, exploring the moral implications of end-of-life care
...
Facts to Memorize
•
Psychopathic behaviors can be advantageous in certain professions
...
Euthanasia is a controversial topic with ethical implications for doctors and patients
...
Identify the Ethical Issue: Determine the moral dilemma at hand, such as the decision
to assist in euthanasia
...
Consider Different Perspectives: Evaluate various viewpoints, like the arguments for
and against psychopathic behaviors in certain professions
...
Apply Ethical Theories: Utilize ethical frameworks like natural law theory to analyze
the situation
...
Evaluate Consequences: Assess the potential outcomes of different courses of action,
such as the impact of terror-bombing on civilian populations
...
Make a Decision: Based on ethical reasoning and considerations, make a decision on
how to proceed in the given scenario
...
Psychopathy: A personality disorder characterized by traits such as lack of empathy,
superficial charm, and narcissism, often associated with antisocial behavior
...
Euthanasia: The act of intentionally ending a patient's life to relieve suffering, often a
subject of ethical and moral debate
...
CHAPTER 7
...
SelfInterest
...
It suggests that all actions, even seemingly altruistic ones, are driven by a desire for
personal gain
...
Plato's Tale of Gyges the Shepherd
•
•
•
In Plato's Republic, the story of Gyges illustrates the idea that individuals, given the
opportunity, would prioritize their own interests
...
The narrative symbolizes the belief that humans, like Gyges, are inherently selfserving when unrestrained
...
McGinnis sacrificed himself to save his comrades from a grenade, displaying
selfless courage
...
Critique and Analysis of Psychological Egoism
Debunking Altruism
•
•
•
Psychological egoism questions the existence of true altruism, suggesting that all
acts are fundamentally self-serving
...
The theory challenges conventional notions of altruism by asserting that all actions
are rooted in self-interest
...
It focuses on explaining human behavior based on self-interest rather than
prescribing moral standards
...
Refuting Psychological Egoism
•
•
•
Critics of psychological egoism seek to challenge the theory's pessimistic view of
human nature
...
Psychological egoism remains a contentious topic, with ongoing debates about the
true motivations behind human behavior
...
• This desire for personal benefit can be in the short term or long term
...
'They are moved by a desire for pleasure, even if it lasts only the three or four minutes that
their cigarette does
...
'
Refuting Psychological Egoism
•
Psychological egoism focuses on the motivations behind actions, not the
outcomes
...
• Actions not motivated by self-interest, like sneezing or snoring, can still be
explained by egoists
...
'An action can be done with the thought that it will gain you millions, even if it leaves you
penniless
...
The argument suggests that if altruism is impossible, it cannot be a moral duty
...
• The fate of morality hinges on whether psychological egoism is valid
...
'
The Argument for Psychological Egoism
The Argument from Our Strongest Desires
•
This argument asserts that every action is driven by one's strongest desire, which
ultimately serves self-interest
...
• Egoists argue that even conscientious actions are driven by the strongest desire,
which may be fulfilling one's duty
...
'
'They would have to say that our deepest desire is not always to benefit ourselves
...
• Premise 2 of the argument, stating that strongest desires are always for personal
gain, is questioned
...
'It is not a neutral thesis that can appeal to both fans and opponents of psychological
egoism
...
The assumption that all desires are inherently self-interested is challenged by the
possibility of desires aimed at the welfare of others
...
Merely deriving pleasure from actions does not necessarily indicate self-interest as
the ultimate motive
...
The argument's second premise is criticized for assuming that expecting personal
benefit implies aiming solely for self-interest
...
It suggests that expecting personal benefit implies a constant aim to promote selfinterest
...
The argument faces criticism for overlooking cases where individuals act without
expecting personal gain
...
The argument is further questioned for assuming that personal benefit is always the
underlying motive for actions
...
One strategy involves appealing to individuals' guilty conscience as a driving force
for actions
...
The strategy aims to show that moral obligations and values can motivate actions
beyond self-interest
...
The strategy seeks to emphasize the internal conflict individuals face when
choosing between self-interest and moral duty
...
Altruism
Appealing to the Guilty Conscience
•
•
•
•
•
•
People who oppose oppressive regimes often claim that their conscience drives
them to act against injustice, as giving in to evil would tarnish themselves
...
True altruism is characterized by genuine concern for others, where individuals feel
guilt for causing harm or not helping, indicating altruistic motives
...
Egoists fail to appreciate that those experiencing guilt must have altruistic
inclinations, as evidenced by their distress over harming others
...
Expanding the Realm of Self-Interest
•
•
•
•
•
Altruistic actions, such as a mother sacrificing for her child, are sometimes
interpreted by egoists as self-interested, aiming to avoid personal loss
...
Parents' well-being often hinges on their children's welfare, but this
interdependence does not diminish the altruistic motives behind their actions
...
Egoists' arguments falter when faced with examples of individuals prioritizing honor
or the well-being of others over personal gain, highlighting the limitations of egoism
in explaining altruistic behavior
...
Research by C
...
•
•
•
•
Experimental Structure: Test subjects were divided into groups with varying levels
of empathy induced, and their willingness to help someone in need was observed
...
Results: The group instructed to empathize showed significantly more willingness
to help, indicating a correlation between empathy and altruistic behavior
...
Critique of Psychological Egoism
•
•
•
•
•
Article of Faith: Discrediting experimental evidence on altruism renders
psychological egoism untestable and reliant on faith rather than empirical
confirmation
...
Role of Testimony and Behavior: Testimony and behavior are imperfect but crucial
sources of evidence that challenge the validity of psychological egoism
...
Conclusion: Psychological egoism, if true, would undermine the basis of morality
by negating altruism and virtues like benevolence and compassion
...
Egoists dismiss reports of altruistic motives as misleading, attributing them to selfdeception or deception of others
...
•
•
Refusal to acknowledge contrary evidence and clinging to a belief, akin to irrational
convictions like belief in invisible elves, weakens the argument for psychological
egoism
...
Implications and Criticisms
Implications for Ethics
•
•
Ethical Ramifications: The truth of psychological egoism would challenge ethical
principles that advocate self-sacrifice and altruism
...
Rebuttal of Egoistic Views
•
Human Nature Complexity: While individuals may not be purely altruistic, they
also exhibit behaviors that go beyond self-interest, suggesting a nuanced view of
human nature
...
• Skepticism towards Egoism: Lack of compelling arguments and strategies from
egoists warrants suspicion towards psychological egoism
...
QUICK REFERENCE
...
Seminal Studies
•
Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis: Proposed by C
...
Key Arguments
•
Argument from Expected Benefit: Claims that people always expect their actions to
benefit them, therefore aiming to promote self-interest
...
' This principle advises trusting that
things are as they seem until there is excellent reason to doubt
...
Believes in the direct desire to benefit others
for their own sake, without any ulterior
motive
...
Acknowledges that motivations can be
purely focused on benefiting others without
self-interest
...
Recognizes the existence of true altruism
where individuals act solely for the benefit of
others
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
Psychological Egoism: The theory that all human actions are ultimately motivated by
self-interest, suggesting that altruism does not exist
...
Ethical Egoism and Altruistic Acts
Psychological Egoism
Overview of Psychological Egoism
•
•
Theory about human motivation stating that all actions are motivated exclusively by
self-interest
...
•
Implies that morality should not demand self-sacrifice if true
...
Contrasts psychological egoism by providing moral guidelines on what one is
required or forbidden to do
...
Critique of Psychological Egoism
"If psychological egoism were true, then all morality could possibly do is to ask that we
look out for ourselves
...
Raises questions about the necessity of morality if psychological egoism is
accurate
...
Failure to prioritize self-improvement is considered immoral within this framework
...
Conflict Resolution in Ethical Egoism
•
•
•
Actions are deemed morally right in ethical egoism if they promote self-interest
...
Raises ethical dilemmas when immoral actions promise significant personal gains
...
"
•
•
Ethical egoism faces criticism for potentially justifying immoral actions in pursuit of
self-interest
...
Defense and Rebuttal in Ethical Egoism
•
•
•
Ethical egoists can reject the argument by refuting its premises or providing
alternative justifications
...
The debate on whether immoral actions truly benefit individuals remains
unresolved, impacting the validity of ethical egoism
...
It asserts that one's own interests are of intrinsic moral importance, while the
interests of others count for nothing
...
Ethical egoism completely disregards the moral importance of other individuals or
entities, except when they can benefit oneself
...
Criticisms and Challenges
•
•
•
•
•
Ethical egoism implies that individuals have a moral duty to maximize self-interest,
even at the expense of harming others
...
The theory contradicts core moral beliefs and requires compelling arguments to
justify abandoning traditional moral values
...
Raises questions about the intrinsic value of others' interests and the balance
between self-interest and altruism
...
Utilitarianism
•
•
•
•
•
Ethical egoism focuses on maximizing self-interest as the primary moral duty
...
Utilitarians acknowledge the value of self-interest but emphasize the equal
importance of all individuals' interests
...
Comparing these two theories highlights the importance of balancing self-interest
with the well-being of others
...
It asserts that there are two ultimate sources of moral duty: consent and reparation
...
Egoists only fulfill voluntary agreements or repair damage when it benefits them
...
Conflict between Egoism and Libertarianism
•
•
•
•
•
Egoists believe that fulfilling agreements or promises is only necessary if it benefits
them
...
The clash between egoism and libertarianism highlights the differing views on moral
duty and self-interest
...
The Libertarian Argument stresses the importance of honoring commitments,
regardless of personal benefit
...
Her philosophical views are explicitly presented in 'The Virtue of Selfishness' (1964)
...
She advocates for rational self-interest and individualism, aligning with libertarian
principles
...
Best Argument for Ethical Egoism
Rationale Behind Ethical Egoism
•
•
Ethical egoism provides a strong answer to the perennial question: why be moral?
It asserts that morality always serves self-interest, providing a compelling reason to
act morally
...
The argument is logically valid, with widely accepted premises that link moral duty
to personal benefit
...
•
•
Evaluation of the Best Argument
•
•
•
•
•
The first premise of the Best Argument is widely accepted, indicating a reason to
fulfill moral duties
...
Counterexamples, such as cases of easy rescue, challenge the notion that selfinterest is the sole good reason for action
...
Doubts about the universality of self-interest as the sole motivator raise concerns
about the soundness of ethical egoism
...
It struggles to accommodate the concept of moral rights within its framework
...
The arbitrary assignment of complete priority to self-interest raises ethical concerns
about the implications of egoism
...
Criticisms of Ethical Egoism
Violation of Core Moral Beliefs
•
Ethical egoism contradicts common moral beliefs by prioritizing self-interest over
all else
...
• The theory allows individuals to disregard the well-being of others, even when it
doesn't benefit oneself
...
"Egoism imposes a moral duty to kill, rape, torture, or humiliate whenever doing so best
serves self-interest
...
• Individuals with moral rights can expect certain freedoms, even if it's not in others'
self-interest to respect these rights
...
• The theory fails to provide protection against personal violations, as it prioritizes
self-interest over respecting others' rights
...
"
Priority of Self-Interest
•
•
•
•
Ethical egoism advocates for prioritizing one's interests above all others, without
sufficient justification for this differential treatment
...
Common sense allows for some degree of self-preference in certain situations,
even when others are equally deserving
...
"Ethical egoism suggests giving complete priority to one's interests over others, without
clear justification for this preference
...
Kidney donors, including altruistic donors, raise questions about motivations
beyond self-interest
...
Donors like Kimberly Brown-Whale advocate for altruism and emphasize the impact
of saving lives through donation
...
Cannibalism in Extreme Circumstances
•
•
•
•
•
The case of the Uruguayan Air Force Flight 571 survivors resorting to cannibalism in
the Andes Mountains
...
Cannibalism, considered taboo, has historical and cultural contexts where it was
practiced for various reasons
...
Raises questions about the morality of cannibalism, self-interest, and cultural
perspectives on taboo practices
...
Consequentialism and Slippery Slope
Arguments
Overview of Consequentialism
Philosophy of Doing Good
•
John Wesley's philosophy emphasizes doing good in all possible ways and at all
times
...
• G
...
Moore supported the idea that actions are morally right if they maximize
goodness in the world
...
" - G
...
Moore
Morality of Capital Punishment
•
•
•
Consequentialists evaluate capital punishment based on its future benefits and
drawbacks
...
Others focus on whether criminals deserve to be executed, prioritizing justice over
future outcomes
...
Five-step process to determine optimific actions: identify intrinsic goods and bads,
consider available options, evaluate results, and choose the action with the
greatest net balance of good over bad
...
Act Utilitarianism
•
•
•
Act utilitarianism states that actions are morally required if they maximize overall
well-being
...
Different interpretations exist within utilitarianism, such as hedonism and desire
satisfaction theories
...
John Stuart Mill summarized utilitarianism as creating the greatest good for the
greatest number
...
•
John Stuart Mill, a prominent utilitarian, emphasized the importance of creating a
balance of happiness over misery
...
Utilitarianism combined with hedonism results in the principle of producing the
greatest overall balance of happiness over misery
...
•
•
•
Correct Interpretation of Utilitarianism
•
•
Utilitarians advocate choosing actions that result in the greatest net balance of
happiness over unhappiness
...
•
•
•
Example: Choosing to combat poverty over offering entertainment that may create
more happiness but also significant misery
...
Rejects the notion of always favoring actions that maximize happiness without
considering the balance with potential misery
...
There is no time limit on considering the outcomes of actions in utilitarian ethics
...
Debate within utilitarianism on whether moral judgments should be based on
actual or expected results
...
Actual Versus Expected Results
•
•
•
•
•
Utilitarian perspectives differ on evaluating actions based on actual versus
expected results
...
Some utilitarians argue for evaluating actions based on their expected results for
easier moral knowledge acquisition
...
Criticisms of the expected results approach due to potential disastrous outcomes
despite good intentions
...
Good intentions leading to bad outcomes and vice versa pose challenges for
utilitarian judgment
...
Actions are judged based on their actual results, while intentions are assessed
based on their expected outcomes
...
Example: Confronting a bully with the intention of stopping harassment, which
unexpectedly leads to a positive outcome
...
Utilitarians emphasize maximizing well-being as a key aspect of moral decisionmaking
...
Good intentions may earn praise but are considered irrelevant to the morality of an
action
...
Example: Jealousy leading to an attempt to harm someone, which unexpectedly
results in self-improvement and reconciliation
...
Early utilitarians like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill challenged conventional
moral norms
...
Example: Gladiator example illustrating the equal moral value of everyone's wellbeing
...
Utilitarianism condemns acts like slavery and rape that cause more harm than
good
...
Utilitarianism provides explanations for virtues like compassion and kindness,
which promote flourishing
...
Example: Explanation of virtues and vices based on their impact on promoting wellbeing
...
The theory's single ultimate rule of maximizing well-being provides concrete advice
in moral dilemmas
...
Utilitarianism: Resolving Moral Conflicts
Clear Guidance on Moral Dilemmas
•
•
•
Utilitarianism advises maximizing well-being as the ultimate rule for resolving
conflicts
...
The principle of utility guides decision-making in difficult cases
...
Discussion on just taxation methods to maximize overall well-being
...
Moral Flexibility in Utilitarianism
Absence of Absolute Moral Rules
•
•
•
Utilitarians believe no moral rule, except maximizing well-being, is absolute
...
Moral flexibility allows for exceptions to traditional moral rules for the greater good
...
Criteria for moral community entry: ability to suffer, not reasoning or
communication
...
Utilitarian Argument from Marginal Cases
Moral Equality of Marginal Humans and Animals
•
•
•
•
•
The Argument from Marginal Cases asserts that if it is immoral to harm 'marginal'
human beings, it is also immoral to harm animals
...
The argument challenges the moral distinction between harming humans and
animals based on mental capacity
...
Utilitarians argue that everyone, including animals, should be considered morally
equal and their interests equally valued
...
Utilitarians prioritize the capacity to suffer as the key test for moral inclusion in the
community
...
The argument challenges the notion that species membership alone determines
moral status
...
Criticisms and Counterarguments
•
•
•
•
•
Some argue that humans are inherently more important due to religious beliefs or
species membership
...
It questions the validity of using species membership as the sole determinant of
moral importance
...
Utilitarianism emphasizes the inclusion of infants, mentally disabled individuals,
and animals in the moral community, advocating for their respect and ethical
treatment
...
The metaphor likens the situation to standing at the top of a hill where any step can
lead to disastrous outcomes
...
•
•
The argument combines predictions of harm with utilitarian principles of minimizing
harm or maximizing happiness
...
Application and Critique
•
•
•
•
•
Slippery slope arguments are commonly used in debates on controversial practices
to caution against potential long-term harms
...
The argument emphasizes the importance of choosing options that minimize harm
and maximize overall well-being
...
Critics of slippery slope arguments question the validity of predicting long-term
outcomes and the moral conservatism inherent in preserving the status quo
...
Key People
•
•
•
John Wesley: English religious thinker and founder of the Methodist Church, known for
promoting a philosophy of doing good and altruism
...
E
...
Jeremy Bentham: Philosopher who introduced utilitarianism and emphasized the
importance of maximizing overall well-being
...
Principle of Utility: The ultimate moral standard in utilitarianism, focusing on creating
the greatest overall balance of happiness over misery
...
Key Themes
•
•
•
Impartiality: Utilitarianism emphasizes impartial concern for the well-being of all
individuals, regardless of social status, background, or identity
...
Scope of the Moral Community: Utilitarianism extends moral consideration to all
beings capable of suffering, including animals, infants, and the mentally disabled
...
Concept Comparisons
Consequentialism
Deontology
Focuses on the outcomes of actions and
aims to maximize overall well-being
...
Considers the consequences of actions
as the primary factor in determining
morality
...
Allows for moral flexibility and
exceptions to rules based on maximizing
well-being
...
Facts to Memorize
•
•
•
•
Consequentialism focuses on maximizing overall well-being through actions
...
The Argument from Marginal Cases challenges the treatment of animals compared to
marginal humans
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
•
•
•
Consequentialism: A moral theory that states an action is morally required if it
produces the best overall results, focusing on the consequences of actions rather than
intentions or rules
...
Intrinsic Goodness: Values that are inherently good and worth having for their own
sake, such as happiness, autonomy, knowledge, and virtue
...
Optimific: Refers to actions that produce the greatest net balance of good over bad,
considered the morally right choice in utilitarianism
...
Consequentialism
...
To determine if an action is morally required according to utilitarianism, one must:
(1) calculate all benefits produced, (2) assess all harm caused, (3) find the balance,
and (4) compare this balance with that of other available actions
...
•
•
•
The measurement of well-being poses a significant challenge for utilitarianism, as
quantifying well-being based on desire satisfaction, or a pluralistic view raises
complexities
...
Pluralism in well-being, which includes factors like knowledge, virtue, love,
happiness, and friendship, complicates the measurement of personal welfare, as
combining these diverse elements into an overall measure proves difficult
...
The example of a patient being kept unaware of a terminal illness to prevent
depression illustrates the clash between respecting autonomy and ensuring
happiness
...
The Argument from Value Measurement questions utilitarianism's validity by
highlighting the absence of a precise unit of measurement to determine the value of
actions' outcomes
...
Critiques of Utilitarianism
Lack of Precise Measurement
•
•
•
•
Utilitarianism relies on maximizing well-being but lacks a precise unit of
measurement for happiness or well-being
...
Despite the lack of precise measurement, clear cases exist where some actions
clearly produce more overall benefit than others
...
•
The presence of clear cases suggests that benefits can be measured, even if not
with precision
...
The difficulty lies in comparing the inherently different nature of benefits and harms
...
In complex situations where multiple actions promise benefits at the cost of harm,
determining the optimific action becomes ambiguous
...
Demands of Utilitarianism
Deliberation
•
Utilitarianism demands extensive information and calculation skills for determining
the optimific outcome of actions
...
Exceptional circumstances may require careful consideration, but excessive
deliberation can hinder effective decision-making
...
•
•
Motivation
•
•
•
•
Utilitarianism may seem demanding in requiring constant benevolence and
strategizing for the greater good
...
The theory does not mandate constant benevolence, acknowledging that relentless
pursuit of the greatest good may not always lead to optimal results
...
Criticisms and Considerations
Decision Procedure vs
...
Standard of Rightness: Distinguishing between a decision
procedure and a standard of rightness is crucial in understanding utilitarianism
...
Standard of Rightness Definition: Defines the necessary and sufficient conditions
for actions to be morally right
...
Utility Principle as a Decision Procedure: Most consequentialists acknowledge
that the principle of utility may not serve well as a decision procedure due to
potential drawbacks
...
Demands on Action
•
•
•
•
•
•
Moral Obligations on Action: Utilitarianism places significant emphasis on
achieving optimific results through actions
...
Example of Dr
...
Personal Sacrifice: Utilitarianism may require individuals to prioritize the wellbeing of others over personal comforts and desires
...
Implications of Sacrifice: Views on sacrifice in morality are influenced by
upbringing and societal norms, shaping individuals' perceptions of moral
obligations
...
Rejection of Partiality: Challenges the notion of favoring specific individuals based
on personal relationships or proximity
...
Partiality vs
...
Critique of Partiality: Utilitarianism questions the preferential treatment of
individuals based on personal connections or closeness
...
Ethical Considerations in Utilitarianism
Impartiality and Partiality
•
•
•
•
•
Utilitarianism rejects favoritism towards family, friends, or fellow citizens solely
based on personal relationships
...
Considering long-term consequences is crucial, as sacrificing short-term gains for
loved ones may lead to greater harm in the future
...
Utilitarianism emphasizes the importance of considering all consequences, even if
it means prioritizing strangers over loved ones in certain situations
...
•
In extreme cases, utilitarianism may justify actions like slavery if it maximizes
overall well-being
...
Utilitarianism's focus on maximizing overall benefit can conflict with traditional
moral values and lead to controversial conclusions
...
Moral Flexibility in Utilitarianism
Rejection of Intrinsic Wrongness
•
•
•
•
•
Utilitarianism challenges the concept of actions being intrinsically wrong, asserting
that morality is contingent on outcomes
...
The theory's moral flexibility allows for morally justifying actions that cause
suffering if they prevent greater harm
...
Killing innocents or committing harmful acts may be permissible in utilitarianism if
they prevent more significant suffering
...
•
Political leaders and regimes have used utilitarian reasoning to defend
controversial actions like torture or oppression
...
Collaborating with morally questionable entities may be justified in utilitarianism if
it prevents greater harm
...
•
•
•
The Problem of Injustice in Utilitarianism
Moral Dilemma: Maximizing Well-being vs
...
Examples like vicarious punishment and exemplary punishment in wartime
highlight the conflict between maximizing well-being and respecting rights
...
Exemplary punishment, making an example of someone, can lead to benefits but at
the expense of individual rights
...
Instances like changing grades for benefits or allowing Nazi scientists to escape
punishment challenge the balance between justice and well-being
...
Balancing justice and well-being, utilitarianism may justify actions that violate rights
for overall societal benefit
...
Utilitarianism's focus on minimizing harm may conflict with principles of justice,
raising questions about the theory's adequacy
...
Utilitarianism's approach to justice may not always align with common moral
intuitions, leading to ethical uncertainties
...
•
•
•
•
•
Proposing to maximize both well-being and justice can address criticisms of
utilitarianism's neglect of justice
...
Balancing the importance of justice and well-being without clear guidelines
challenges the coherence of moral decision-making
...
Lack of a principled approach to resolving conflicts between justice and well-being
undermines the effectiveness of moral theories
...
Assessing the long-term consequences of unfair actions, like vicarious punishment,
may reveal that they do not maximize overall well-being
...
Optimism about the outcomes of unjust actions may not always align with reality,
leading to ethical uncertainties
...
The conflict between short-term gains and long-term consequences highlights the
ethical complexities of utilitarian decision-making
...
Justice is considered a part, not the entirety, of morality, leading to situations where
prioritizing well-being over justice is deemed necessary
...
The ethical dilemma of sacrificing justice for greater societal benefits raises
questions about the moral foundations of utilitarianism
...
•
The theory's stance on sacrificing justice for societal welfare highlights the ethical
tensions inherent in utilitarian approaches to moral dilemmas
...
Key People
•
Russ Shafer-Landau: Philosopher from the University of Wisconsin-Madison who
discusses the difficulties of measuring well-being in consequentialism
...
It involves calculating the balance of benefits and harms to
determine the morally required action
...
Seminal Studies
•
Little Albert Experiment (1920): Conducted by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner,
demonstrating classical conditioning in humans
...
Injustice Is Never Optimific: Others claim that injustice is never truly beneficial in the
long run
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
Consequentialism: A moral theory that states the rightness or wrongness of an action
is determined by its consequences, with the goal of maximizing overall well-being or
happiness
...
CHAPTER 11
...
Kant believed that actions like cheating, breaking rules, and taking advantage of
others are inherently wrong because they are unfair and unjust
...
Kant's philosophy highlights the importance of consistency and fairness in moral
decision-making
...
Consistency and Fairness in Moral Actions
•
•
People often make exceptions for themselves by violating rules that others follow,
leading to inconsistency
...
Actions that rely on exceptions or special treatment are considered immoral due to
their inconsistency with general rules
...
Limitations of Moral Tests
•
•
•
•
•
The test 'What if everyone did that?' can be flawed as it sometimes yields incorrect
moral judgments based on how actions are described
...
The golden rule, 'How would you like it if I did that to you?' is a classic test of
morality but has limitations
...
The golden rule fails to provide guidance on self-regarding actions and can permit
extremism in the name of personal beliefs
...
•
He aimed to address the shortcomings of common moral tests by introducing the
principle of universalizability
...
Kant's principle emphasizes the importance of moral rules that can be universally
accepted and applied
...
•
•
•
Understanding Kant's Principle of Universalizability
Definition of Maxims
•
•
•
•
•
Maxims are the principles of action individuals give themselves before performing
an action
...
Maxims serve as the rules individuals live by and are cited to explain one's actions
to others
...
Actions without a maxim, such as reflex movements, are not considered genuine
actions
...
This contrasts with consequentialism, as Kant emphasized intentions and reasons
for actions
...
Kant highlighted those immoral actions can result in good outcomes, but morality is
based on the maxim
...
Universalizability Test
•
•
•
•
•
Kant proposed the principle of universalizability to distinguish morally acceptable
maxims
...
If the maxim can be universalized and the action's goal achieved in a universalized
world, it is morally acceptable
...
Immoral actions, like lying to exploit trust, are deemed so when the maxim is not
universalizable
...
Inconsistency arises when individuals assume actions are acceptable while
acknowledging they would fail if universally adopted
...
Kant's emphasis on universalizability ensures actions are not self-serving
exceptions but principles others could endorse
...
Understanding Immorality and Irrationality
Immorality and Inconsistency
•
Acting immorally involves making exceptions for oneself, assuming superiority over
others, and disregarding universal rules
...
Kant believed immoral behavior is rooted in irrational reasoning and contradictory
thinking
...
Kant's assertion challenges the notion that immoral actions are always irrational
...
People may lack reasons to fulfill their moral duties if it doesn't align with their
goals
...
•
•
Kant's philosophy emphasizes that moral reasons should always supersede
personal desires
...
Kant's Concept of Rationality
•
•
•
•
•
Kant posited that acting contrary to one's strongest reasons is irrational
...
Moral duties, as categorical imperatives, apply universally to rational beings
...
Kant's defense of morality as categorical imperatives aims to establish universal
moral obligations
...
Consistency is linked to obeying the principle of universalizability in Kant's moral
framework
...
Kant's argument asserts that rational individuals inherently act morally
...
Assessing the Principle of Universalizability
•
•
•
•
•
The principle of universalizability is a key element in Kant's moral philosophy
...
Universalizability as a test for morality fails as it doesn't guarantee the rightness of
actions
...
Kant's principle highlights how fairness and consistency are essential in moral
reasoning
...
Example: Thief robbing a bank vs
...
Universalizability fails to condemn certain immoral acts that could achieve the
actor's goal if universalized
...
The principle's limitations in providing a comprehensive test for fairness and
morality
...
The challenge posed by consistent Nazis and discriminatory treatment
...
The need for additional moral virtues beyond consistency
...
Integrity and Moral Virtue
Concept of Integrity
•
•
•
•
•
Kant values integrity as living in harmony with one's principles
...
Example: The homeowner with a picture-perfect lawn and the mail carrier
...
The balance between integrity and morally flawed principles
...
The importance of flexibility in principles, especially in flawed contexts
...
Admiration for integrity is linked to morally sound principles
...
Absolute Moral Duties and Kant's Views
Kant's Stance on Absolute Duties
•
•
•
Kant believed certain actions, like lying, are never permitted
...
Kant's emphasis on moral considerations outweighs other demands
...
The challenge of defending absolute moral duties in Kant's philosophy
...
The importance of universalizable maxims in Kantian ethics
...
Critique of Kant's assumption on universalizable maxims
...
CHAPTER 12
...
Principle of Universalizability: The idea that an action is morally acceptable if its
maxim could be applied universally
...
Autonomy and Free Will: Kant emphasizes the importance of rationality and
autonomy in moral decision-making
...
Amoralist: Someone who believes in the absence of moral principles
...
"
•
Richard Hare's utilitarian defense of slavery based on overall benefits vs
...
•
•
•
•
Kantian objection to slavery: it violates human autonomy and dignity
...
Explanation of why slavery is inherently disrespectful and morally wrong
...
The Principle of Humanity
•
Kant's principle: Always treat a human being as an end, never merely as a means
...
Treating someone as an end involves respecting their intrinsic value
...
Kant's distinction between treating individuals as ends vs
...
Justification for the special moral status of human beings based on rationality and
autonomy
...
Explanation of why everyone deserves respect due to these traits
...
Illustration of the infinite value of a human life compared to material possessions
...
Kant's belief in the ultimate responsibility individuals have over their choices and
behaviors
...
Kant's argument on rationality and autonomy supports the idea that every individual
deserves respect
...
'
'No matter how valuable the object, the value of a human life exceeds it by an infinite
amount
...
These traits explain deeply held moral beliefs and support the principle of
universalizability
...
•
Autonomy justifies why slavery, rape, and paternalism are immoral, as they deny
autonomy and treat individuals as mere means
...
'The principle of humanity forbids treating autonomous individuals as children
...
• Unlike animals, humans are morally responsible for their choices and actions
...
'Humans deserve to be punished for choosing to act badly instead of well
...
Free will should control one's actions to be considered autonomous
...
'Autonomy is compromised when choices are unfree, raising concerns about the validity of
Kant's ethical system
...
If choices are necessitated, we lack control and therefore free will
...
Choices being necessitated implies that we lack autonomy, as external factors
influence our decisions
...
The Kantian basis of dignity and duty to respect others is undermined if autonomy is
lacking
...
Lack of autonomy questions the basis of dignity and respect for others
...
The issues of freedom and determinism have become a significant subfield in
philosophy
...
Problems with the Principle of Humanity
Vagueness of the Principle
•
•
•
•
•
The principle of humanity, emphasizing rationality and autonomy, faces challenges
due to its vagueness
...
Lack of a precise test hinders the ability to determine if actions align with the
principle of humanity
...
The principle fails to provide clear guidance on morally acceptable actions
...
Justice involves providing individuals with their just deserts, even if it may not
benefit others
...
•
•
The principle of humanity struggles to address scenarios where blame and
punishment are not involved
...
Kant's Lex Talionis
Principle of Humanity
•
•
•
•
•
Kant's lex talionis, or eye-for-an-eye principle, faces challenges in application
...
Kant's view on punishment: justified only if criminals are autonomous and can
freely choose their maxims
...
Punishment assumes criminals are rational, acting on principles universally
applicable
...
It allows criminals to see the perspective of their victims, realizing the true extent of
their actions
...
Provides concrete advice on punishment, e
...
, advocating for the death penalty for
murderers
...
Criticisms of Lex Talionis
•
•
Inability to differentiate punishment based on intent and blameworthiness
...
•
•
•
Moral implications of the prescribed punishments under lex talionis
...
Need for a more comprehensive principle of justice beyond lex talionis
...
Doubts arise regarding the impact of factors beyond one's control on moral
conduct
...
External factors influencing actions challenge the centrality of autonomy in
morality
...
•
•
Influence of Results on Moral Assessment
•
•
•
•
•
Kant's view on the moral irrelevance of actions' outcomes if beyond one's control
...
Instances of unintended consequences affecting moral judgments
...
Moral considerations in evaluating actions with unintended outcomes
...
Examples of moral luck in everyday life, like driving incidents, highlighting the lack of
control over outcomes
...
Illustration of moral luck in various scenarios like drag races, investments, and
revolutions
...
Autonomy and Moral Responsibility
•
•
•
•
•
Kant's view on autonomy as essential for moral responsibility, leading to the
concept of moral luck
...
Comparison of blame towards babies, hypnotized individuals, and those lacking
autonomy
...
Implications of autonomy on moral views and judgments in various scenarios
...
Exclusion of infants, mentally ill individuals, and nonhuman animals from the moral
community based on rationality
...
Kant's stance on mistreatment of animals and the principle of humanity
...
Moral Protections and Vulnerability
•
•
•
•
•
Lack of moral protections for wild and domesticated animals under Kant's view
...
Kant's theory's implications on the treatment of unloved and abandoned
individuals
...
Ethical considerations regarding the treatment of vulnerable members in society
...
Identification of goodwill as the ultimate value irrespective of external factors like
happiness or wealth
...
Kant's emphasis on the moral worth of actions driven by good will
...
•
•
Moral Worth and Reason
•
•
Comparison of two shopkeepers to illustrate actions driven by fear versus moral
commitment
...
Significance of reason in guiding moral duty and motivating morally praiseworthy
behavior
...
•
Implications of acting from the good will for moral character and worth
...
Key People
•
•
Richard Hare: A moral philosopher who defended the utilitarian view that denied
slavery is intrinsically wrong
...
Fundamental Theories
•
•
Kantian Ethics: Ethical theory based on the belief that actions are morally right if they
are done out of a sense of duty, following the Categorical Imperative
...
Key Dates
•
•
1979: Publication of Richard Hare's article 'What Is Wrong with Slavery'
...
Key Events
•
•
Kant's Defense of the Good Will: Kant's argument that actions done from a good will
have moral worth
...
Important Quotes
"Always treat a human being (yourself included) as an end, and never as a mere means
...
"The good will is the only thing of intrinsic value
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
•
•
•
•
Categorical Imperative: A moral principle that requires actions to be done for the sake
of duty, regardless of consequences or personal desires
...
Principle of Universalizability: A concept that states an action is morally acceptable if
its maxim can be applied universally without contradiction
...
Self-regarding Actions: Actions that primarily affect the individual performing them
...
CHAPTER 13
...
Originating from a scenario involving two rational thieves, Al and Bob, who face
different jail sentences based on their mutual decisions to confess or remain silent
...
Rational Decision-Making
•
•
•
Rational individuals in a prisoner's dilemma prioritize personal gain over
cooperation, leading to a breakdown of trust and mutual benefit
...
The cooperative strategy of remaining silent is often overshadowed by the selfinterested choice to confess for individual benefit
...
Silence
•
•
•
Confession signifies betrayal and self-interest, while silence represents honoring
agreements and cooperation
...
Analysis: Both Al and Bob opt to confess, resulting in a suboptimal four-year jail
sentence each, instead of the potential two-year sentence if they both remained
silent
...
Comparison: The state of nature mirrors a prisoner's dilemma, where self-interest
drives individuals to compete rather than cooperate
...
Social Contract and Cooperation
•
•
•
The social contract entails mutually agreed-upon rules that promote cooperation
and deter betrayal
...
Importance of Enforcement: Effective enforcement mechanisms, such as a
governing body or authority figure, are crucial to ensure compliance with the social
contract
...
Alternative Enforcers: In the absence of a formal government, entities like mob
bosses or regulatory bodies may enforce cooperation through threats or penalties
...
Advantages of Contractarianism
Key Benefits
•
•
•
Contractarianism offers a structured approach to societal organization based on
mutually agreed-upon rules and cooperation
...
Significance: Provides a framework for resolving prisoner's dilemmas and fostering
harmonious interactions among individuals
...
Contractarianism denies the existence of self-regarding moral duties
...
Examples like being alone on a desert island illustrate the necessity of social
context for moral actions
...
Justification of Basic Moral Rules
•
•
•
•
•
Contractarianism defines moral rules as those governing social cooperation
...
Central moral rules include prohibitions on killing, theft, and fraud, and
requirements to keep promises and respect others
...
Contractarianism explains the immorality of slavery and discrimination based on
the need for rules benefiting all
...
Rational contractors would forbid actions deemed morally wrong
...
Disagreements may arise in applying the method, but it provides a framework for
moral justifications
...
Objectivity and Flexibility in Morality
Objective Nature of Morality
•
•
•
•
•
Contractarianism presents morality as objective, not dependent on personal
opinions or societal norms
...
Challenges the origins of morality, suggesting it arises from rational choices for
cooperation
...
Moral rules are not eternal truths, but outcomes of rational choices tailored to
human nature
...
Trust and cooperation are fundamental to moral obligations
...
Examples like promises made under duress or in a state of nature illustrate
exceptions to moral rules
...
Morality and the Law
Justification for Obedience to Law
•
•
•
•
•
Contractarianism provides insights into both obeying and breaking the law
...
Moral considerations may allow for exceptions to legal obligations in certain
circumstances
...
Moral and legal duties are intertwined but may have exceptions based on moral
principles
...
Obedience to the law supports institutions that provide security for online
transactions, public safety, and legal agreements
...
Individuals have a moral duty to obey the law to maintain societal order and support
the common good
...
Justification of Legal Punishment
•
•
•
•
Social contract theory justifies legal punishment as a means to deter crime and
maintain social order
...
Legal punishment corrects the imbalance created by criminals who exploit societal
benefits without bearing the associated responsibilities
...
•
Criminals who violate laws place themselves outside the protection of the legal
system and are subject to justified punishment
...
Criminal law aims to preserve the state and its advantages, while civil law
addresses personal harm and wrong
...
The distinction between civil and criminal law aligns with the state's duty to
maintain order and protect communal benefits
...
Civil Disobedience and Contractarianism
Moral Justification for Civil Disobedience
•
•
•
•
•
Contractarianism acknowledges circumstances where disobeying unjust laws can
be morally acceptable
...
Governments must earn citizens' allegiance by significantly improving their wellbeing compared to a state of nature
...
Nonviolent protests against unjust laws demonstrate a respect for the rule of law
and aim to establish a system of genuine legal justice
...
's actions against segregationist laws exemplify
morally justified civil disobedience
...
•
•
•
Protestors seek to change unjust laws, not promote anarchy, emphasizing the value
of a just legal system
...
The moral integrity of civil disobedience lies in its commitment to challenging unjust
laws for the greater
QUICK REFERENCE
...
Fundamental Theories
•
Social Contract Theory: Morality is based on a social contract that free, equal, and
rational people would accept as the basis of cooperative living
...
'" - Thomas Hobbes
Explanation: Hobbes describes the chaotic and self-interested nature of a society without
governance, emphasizing the need for social order
...
" Contractarianism Principle
Explanation: Contractarianism highlights the importance of fair rules that benefit all
members of society, emphasizing mutual cooperation and benefit
...
•
•
•
•
•
Prisoner's Dilemmas: Situations where rational self-interest leads individuals to not
cooperate, even though cooperation would benefit everyone
...
Social Contract Theory: The idea that moral rules are those that free, equal, and
rational people would agree to live by
...
Veil of Ignorance: An imaginary device that erases personal traits to ensure fair
decision-making
...
The Social Contract Tradition: Morality,
Rationality, and Obligations
...
Social contract theorists, like Hobbes, address the challenge posed by the
'calculating amoralist' or the Fool, who prioritizes self-interest over morality
...
The Fool's dilemma involves keeping promises for personal gain, even when
breaking them seems advantageous
...
Challenges to Hobbes's Argument
•
•
•
•
•
Hobbes faces the challenge of divine punishment as a deterrent to immorality, but
he dismisses it in the context of the Fool's amoral perspective
...
Examples of public goods like clean parks, democratic elections, and national
defense illustrate the necessity of individual contributions for societal benefits
...
Hobbes attempts to convince even self-interested individuals of the benefits of
contributing to common goods for long-term personal well-being
...
•
•
•
•
However, in imperfect societies with weak enforcement and mild punishments,
there can be rational incentives to engage in unjust behavior
...
While Hobbes may not prove that injustice is always irrational, he suggests that
being a just person is rational for those who value fairness and ethical conduct
...
Hobbesian Rationality
Understanding Rationality in Society
•
•
•
•
•
In a society based on Hobbesian principles, rationality is defined as maximizing
self-interest by adhering to mutually beneficial rules
...
Imperfect enforcement and light punishments can make it rational to take chances
at injustice
...
Hobbes distinguishes between the rationality of acting justly (claim 1) and being a
just person (claim 2)
...
Just people are more likely to do better in the long run, leading to a more secure and
fulfilling life
...
In contrast, immoral individuals live in constant fear, insecurity, and face the risk of
being exposed or betrayed
...
Challenges to Virtue in Corrupt Societies
•
•
•
•
•
Virtue may not always be rational in corrupt societies where the powerful evade
consequences
...
Corruption and lack of justice can make virtue a risky choice, leading to disastrous
outcomes
...
Criminal organizations may be considered well-ordered societies where betraying
the group leads to severe consequences
...
A social contract is a promise exchanged for expected benefits, imposing duties
and creating advantages
...
Historical examples like the Mayflower Compact and pledges of allegiance
demonstrate explicit promises in social contracts
...
Tacit Consent and Obligations
•
•
•
•
Tacit consent suggests that individuals express agreement through silence and
non-opposition to government laws
...
Factors like fear of authorities or inability to voice dissent freely challenge the
notion of tacit consent
...
•
The debate on tacit consent raises questions about the legitimacy of obligations
based on assumed consent
...
Example: Remaining silent in a classroom when asked to move on signifies
agreement to proceed
...
However, this assumption of consent is problematic due to various factors
...
Others may fear reprisal from authorities, limiting their ability to voice dissent
...
Individual protest in oppressive regimes often leads to imprisonment or worse,
discouraging opposition
...
The Consent Argument
•
The Consent Argument posits that individuals have a duty to obey the law only if
they have consented to it
...
The argument's validity hinges on both premises being true
...
Coercion by the government, without consent, raises ethical concerns similar to
coercion by private individuals
...
Example: Individuals have a moral duty to assist the needy, irrespective of explicit
agreement
...
Contractarianism does not limit moral duties to those who explicitly agree but to
rational, cooperative terms
...
Evaluation of Social Rules
•
Contractarianism does not mandate blind adherence to existing laws and customs
...
Moral obligations align with terms rational individuals would accept for cooperative
living
...
Contractarianism serves as a framework to assess societal rules against an ideal
moral law
...
Disagreements among idealized contractors raise challenges in determining
universal moral rules
...
Hobbes argues for rules that rational individuals, with their unique characteristics,
would agree to
...
Implications of Disagreement
•
•
•
•
If idealized contractors disagree, actions or policies in question are considered
morally neutral
...
Matters of disagreement may not fall under universal moral rules, leading to moral
ambiguity
...
Social Contract Theory
Nature of Disagreement in Social Contract Theory
•
•
•
•
•
Disagreement in social contract theory varies based on the significance of the
issues at hand
...
Disagreement on fundamental issues like war policy or justice indicates a serious
problem
...
Different conceptions of rationality (e
...
, Kant's vs
...
Determining Moral Rules in Social Contract Theory
•
•
•
•
The description of contractors and their positions significantly impacts the moral
rules favored
...
The level of agreement among contractors is influenced by how their positions are
defined
...
•
The process of defending a specific theory is essential before establishing moral
rules and predicting contractual disagreement
...
Kantians prioritize individuals who are rational and autonomous for respect and
rights
...
Contractors, as rational and self-interested individuals, determine the scope of the
moral community
...
Rationality and Self-Interest in Social Contract Theory
•
•
•
•
•
Contractors are characterized by rationality and self-interest, not necessarily
selfishness
...
The assumption of self-interest among contractors aligns with the rational pursuit
of personal well-being
...
Membership in the moral community is based on rational self-interest, where
contractors receive special treatment
...
Membership in the moral community is exclusive to contractors due to the
rationality of sacrifice
...
•
•
Only contractors, who require reciprocal cooperation, hold genuine moral
importance
...
Contractarianism and Vulnerability
Rationality and Vulnerability
•
•
•
•
•
Contractarianism does not provide secure protection for the vulnerable
Rational parties may not be morally obligated to protect the vulnerable if it doesn't
benefit them
Analogy of powerful aliens treating humans as insignificant beings
Morality in social contract theory is based on beneficial cooperation among rational
parties
Implications for animals, ecosystems, infants, and the mentally disabled
Critique and Conclusion
•
•
•
•
•
Morality in contractarianism is based on rules rational parties would agree to
Evaluation of moral claims and justification of basic moral views
Objectivity of morality and justification for obeying or breaking laws
Explanation for punishing criminals and rational behavior
Criticisms include the possibility of rational immoral actions and neglect of the
neediest
Development and Discussion
•
•
•
•
Ongoing development of contractarianism by philosophers
Encouragement for further exploration and refinement of moral theories
Comparison with competing moral theories
Invitation for deeper analysis and critique of contractarianism
Ethical Dilemmas and Applications
Doping in Sports
•
Lance Armstrong's doping scandal in professional cycling
•
•
Ethical implications of doping on fairness in sports
Pressure on athletes to enhance performance through illegal means
•
•
Technological advancements in detecting doping
Ethical questions on the morality of doping in sports
Climate Change
•
•
•
•
•
Global issue of climate change driven by human-induced greenhouse gases
Risks of climate change including extreme weather events and sea-level rise
Challenges in reducing emissions and transitioning to sustainable energy sources
Comparison of climate change dilemma to the prisoner's dilemma
Moral obligations of individuals to combat climate change
World Hunger
•
•
•
•
•
Global disparity in wealth and food distribution leading to widespread hunger
Vulnerable groups at risk of starvation due to lack of resources
Efforts by governments and individuals to provide aid to the hungry
Insufficiency of current aid efforts to eradicate global poverty and hunger
Ethical considerations and moral obligations in providing charitable aid
QUICK REFERENCE
...
Casper Hare: Philosophy professor at MIT who teaches ethics of climate change
...
Global Climate Change Crisis: Rising global temperatures and extreme weather events
due to greenhouse gas emissions
...
Fundamental Theories
•
•
Social Contract Theory: Moral and political theory based on the idea of a contract or
agreement among individuals to form a society
...
Key Movements
•
•
Climate Change Activism: Global movement advocating for policies to combat climate
change and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
...
Concept Comparisons
Concept
Description
Hobbes vs
...
Rawls, on the
other hand, assumes contractors are clones of each other to avoid
disagreement
...
This excludes
vulnerable beings like animals and infants
...
World Hunger
Aid
Contractarianism raises questions about obligations to aid the poor
globally and locally, addressing issues of charity and moral duty
...
Doping: The practice of taking drugs to enhance athletic performance, considered
unethical in sports
...
•
•
•
Greenhouse Gases: Gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, contributing to the
greenhouse effect and global warming
...
World Hunger: A condition in which people do not get enough food to provide the
nutrients for active and healthy lives
...
Defending Moral Absolutism
...
Absolute moral rules are non-negotiable and must always be obeyed, regardless of
the outcomes or situations
...
Moral absolutism does not claim that every moral rule is absolute, only that some
are
...
Case Studies and Examples
•
•
•
•
•
In situations like thwarting a violent attacker by hitting them or lying to an inquiring
murderer, breaking certain moral rules may be permissible
...
Absolute rules like prohibiting torture are challenged in scenarios where the lives of
many innocent people are at stake
...
Critics of absolutism argue that in rare cases, actions like torture, rape, or killing
may be morally justifiable to prevent disastrous outcomes
...
' - Why Terrorism Works: Understanding the Threat, Responding
to the Challenge (2003)
•
References to real-world examples and scholarly debates provide insights into the
practical implications of moral absolutism
...
Challenges arise when absolute rules conflict, leading to moral contradictions
...
The Argument from Contradiction posits that if absolute rules conflict, the theory is
false
...
Resolving Moral Conflict in Absolutism
•
•
•
•
Absolute moral rules should ideally not require conflicting actions
...
Absolute rules that only prohibit actions can be followed through inaction, thus
avoiding conflicts
...
Ethical Dilemmas and Moral Absolutism
The Ethics of Torture
•
•
•
•
•
Examining the ethical implications of torture in scenarios like extracting information
from terrorists to prevent large-scale harm
...
Waterboarding, a controversial interrogation technique, raises questions about the
morality of inflicting severe pain to obtain information
...
Justifications for torture in extreme cases are often based on the argument that
preventing catastrophes may require breaking absolute rules
...
Conditions under which torture may be considered acceptable, such as nonlethality and authorization by multiple officials, are explored
...
Critics of moral absolutism argue that in situations of imminent disaster, breaking
moral rules may be necessary to avert greater harm
...
The ethical debate surrounding moral absolutism extends to contentious issues like
the deliberate killing of innocents to prevent larger tragedies
...
Exploring the limits of moral absolutism through thought experiments and ethical
analyses sheds light on the complexities of ethical decision-making in extreme
circumstances
...
It distinguishes between intended and merely foreseen consequences of an action
...
It is often applied in scenarios were choosing the lesser of two evils is necessary
...
Application of the Doctrine in Moral Reasoning
•
•
•
•
•
Emergency Room Scenario: Choosing between saving one patient with all
available antidotes or five patients with a fifth of the serum
...
Military Operation: Opting to risk one soldier's life instead of five for an important
mission
...
Absolutist Perspective: Exploring how absolutists use the DDE to uphold moral
principles without relying on consequentialist reasoning
...
Foresight: The challenge of distinguishing between
intending harm and merely foreseeing it
...
Absolutist Standpoint: Addressing the need for a clear basis to differentiate
between actions that are intended and those that are merely foreseen
...
Ethical Justification: Evaluating the ethical reasoning behind actions that have
both positive and negative outcomes
...
Various attempts to define intention include wanting an outcome, it being part of a
plan, regretting its absence, nonaccidental results, and necessity for goal
achievement
...
Example: The distinction between intending harm and foreseeing harm in scenarios
like the trolley problem highlights the complexity of defining intention
...
Examples like the surgeon saving patients by harming innocent victims challenge
traditional definitions of intention
...
Philosophical debates continue on defining intention to align with moral
distinctions
...
The story of Rabbi Efrati's brother highlights the consequences of adhering strictly
to such rules
...
Absolutists defend the ban on killing innocents by emphasizing the importance of
following the rule, even if it may result in unintended consequences
...
Absolutists argue that the purpose of such bans is to forbid individuals from acting
in specific ways, rather than solely to prevent harm
...
The Doctrine of Doing and Allowing (DDA) asserts that it is morally worse to do harm
than to allow harm to occur
...
The DDA justifies why it is crucial to refrain from committing evil acts, even if
allowing harm to occur may lead to greater consequences
...
It explains the ethical dilemma faced by Nazi officers who believed that staying in
their positions could mitigate greater harm, despite aiding an evil cause
...
•
•
•
•
•
It asserts that being complicit in evil actions is morally worse than allowing others
to perpetrate such actions
...
This doctrine explains why individuals must avoid engaging in immoral acts, even if
not preventing them may lead to negative outcomes
...
The DDA provides a framework for understanding the moral decisions of individuals
in oppressive or morally bankrupt systems
...
The Doctrine of Doing and Allowing (DDA) forbids certain actions without mandating
prevention by others
...
Emphasis on abstaining from evil, even if it means risking greater harm or personal
safety
...
Cases Illustrating the DDA
•
•
•
•
•
Case 1: Choosing to dine at a restaurant instead of saving starving children with the
same money
...
Case 3: Contrasting actions of withholding life-saving medication and
administering a poison pill
...
Distinguishing between doing and allowing in morally complex scenarios
...
Challenge 2: Difficulty in consistently drawing the line between actions that
constitute doing versus allowing
...
Importance of Distinguishing Actions: Absolutists' need to differentiate between
harmful actions and omissions
...
Defending Absolutism and Moral Rules
•
•
•
•
•
Moral Absolutism: Arguing for the prohibition of certain harms regardless of
outcomes
...
Justification for Moral Rules: Exploring reasons behind absolute rules against
deliberate harm
...
Fate of Absolutism: Hinging on successful defense of the DDE and DDA
...
Challenges to Ethical Particularism
...
This rule is considered moral bedrock, not derived from others but can explain their
correctness
...
Absolute Nature of Moral Rules
•
The second assumption is that fundamental moral rules are absolute and should
never be broken
...
The chapter discusses views that challenge these assumptions, proposing multiple
fundamental moral rules and rejecting absolutism
...
D
...
Ross proposed at least seven fundamental moral rules, termed as prima facie
duties, none of which are absolute
...
Seven Prima Facie Duties
•
•
•
Fidelity: keeping promises
Reparations: repairing harm done
Gratitude: acknowledging benefits received
•
•
•
•
Justice: rewarding virtue and punishing vice
Beneficence: enhancing others' well-being
Self-improvement: enhancing one's own virtues
Non-maleficence: preventing harm to others
Nature of Prima Facie Duties
•
•
•
Prima facie duties are not absolute obligations but provide strong reasons for moral
actions
...
Ross believed that absolutism in moral rules is implausible and that multiple
important moral considerations exist
...
Prima facie duties are permanent moral reasons that can be outweighed by
competing reasons in specific situations
...
Advantages of Ross's View
•
•
•
Ross's theory accommodates the idea of multiple fundamental moral
considerations
...
The theory allows for the permissibility of breaking moral rules in certain
circumstances
...
For example, breaking a promise to meet a student for coffee is justified if one's
daughter has a medical emergency
...
It emphasizes the concept of prima facie duties, which are duties that can
sometimes conflict
...
Moral Conflict and Prima Facie Duties
•
Prima facie duties make sense of moral conflicts where duties cannot all be
fulfilled
...
•
•
•
Example: A single mother facing a conflict between going to work and caring for her
sick child showcases conflicting prima facie duties
...
The theory explains how conflicting duties can coexist without leading to
irrationality or contradiction
...
Regret signifies the acknowledgment of sacrificing something valuable when
prioritizing one duty over another
...
Regret serves as a test for identifying prima facie duties; if there is regret in not
fulfilling a duty, it indicates its moral importance
...
Addressing Anti-absolutist Arguments
Response to Anti-absolutist Arguments
•
•
•
•
•
Ross's theory directly responds to anti-absolutist arguments, including the
Argument from Contradiction
...
The theory also counters the Argument from Disaster Prevention by allowing for the
permissibility of sacrificing moral rules in extreme situations
...
While agreeing that moral results are important, Ross maintains that they are not
the sole determinants of moral actions
...
•
•
•
•
Example: Ross's scenario where keeping a promise to person A is morally right,
even if benefiting person B would produce better
...
Ross's rejection of consequentialism is based on the belief that moral actions are
not solely defined by their consequences
...
Challenges to Ross's View
The Problem of Permanent Ranking
•
•
•
•
•
Ross's theory faces challenges in determining when moral rules can be broken due
to the absence of fixed rankings of prima facie duties
...
Example: Sometimes, being grateful may outweigh preventing harm, but this
hierarchy is not fixed
...
The theory acknowledges the complexity of moral decision-making and the dynamic
nature of moral obligations
...
•
•
•
•
•
Honesty may conflict with sparing feelings, highlighting moral dilemmas
...
Prima facie duties lack inherent moral weight, requiring situational evaluation
...
Need for guidelines to navigate conflicting moral duties
...
•
•
Challenge in determining real duties from superficial ones
...
•
It is necessary to establish a true list of prima facie duties for moral decisionmaking
...
Ross's perspective on the significance of determining authentic moral duties
...
Ross's assertion of self-evidence in prima facie duties
...
Examples of self-evident truths in various contexts
...
Criticisms of self-evidence and its historical misinterpretations
...
Utilizing self-evidence to establish moral truths without further justification
...
Importance of mature reflection in discerning genuine moral claims
...
•
Ross's approach to handling disagreements on moral principles
...
Importance of not disregarding common sense for theoretical constructs
...
Ross's rejection of consequentialism due to conflicting fundamental moral
concerns
...
Balancing order and moral principles in ethical decision-making
...
Self-evident beliefs, such as the value of promise-keeping, justice, and repairing
wrongs, should not be compromised for the sake of a theory's demands
...
Ethical thought data consists of moral beliefs that have withstood careful
reflection, with self-evident principles serving as the foundation for moral thinking
...
He criticizes both consequentialism and Kantianism for their narrow understanding
of morality, advocating for at least seven fundamental moral rules that are not
absolute
...
Unlike proceduralism, Ross rejects the reliance on procedures and emphasizes the
importance of self-evident moral truths derived from careful reflection
...
Legitimate procedures for assessing moral views must align with self-evident moral
truths according to Ross
...
Moral Decision Making and Prima Facie Duties
•
•
Ross acknowledges the challenge of determining the correct moral course of action
when prima facie duties conflict
...
•
•
•
•
Understanding prima facie duties is crucial in moral thinking, guiding individuals on
what aspects to consider in specific situations
...
The absence of a universal moral decision procedure is a common feature across
ethical theories, including virtue ethics and feminist ethics
...
Ethical Decision Making in Science and Morality
Theoretical Virtues in Science
•
•
•
•
Scientists balance competing theories based on virtues like parsimony,
conservatism, generality, and testability
...
Example: Comparing theories based on parsimony, conservatism, generality, and
testability
...
Virtue
Description
Example
Parsimony
Using fewer assumptions
than competitors
Occam's razor principle
Conservatism
Preserving existing beliefs
Retaining Newtonian
mechanics
Generality
Explaining a wide range of
phenomena
Theory of relativity
Testability
Open to experimental
verification
Double-slit experiment in QM
Ethical Decision Making in Morality
•
Moral decision-making involves balancing conflicting duties and exercising
judgment
...
• Example: Ethical dilemmas where options respect some duties but violate others
...
"Sometimes it is just obvious that one theory is better or worse than another
...
"
Case
Description
Example
Easy moral
cases
Clear-cut moral solutions Helping someone in need
Difficult moral
cases
Conflicting duties require
judgment
Choosing between honesty and
loyalty
Ethical Particularism
Rejection of Prima Facie Duties
•
•
•
•
Particularists reject moral absolutism and the existence of prima facie duties
...
Example: Critiquing Ross's view on promise-keeping and moral absolutes
...
Concept
Description
Example
Prima facie
duties
Moral reasons always
important
Keeping promises
Absolute rules
Features morally
decisive
Prohibition of murder
Contextual Moral Importance
•
•
Moral importance depends entirely on context according to particularists
...
• Example: Moral value of actions varies based on contextual details
...
"Particularists rely on nonmoral examples to illustrate the context-dependent nature of
moral value
...
Virtue Ethics
...
Traditional ethical theories focus on actions and duties, neglecting character
...
'We should focus less on matters of moral duty and more on ideals of character
...
Aristotle's 'Nicomachean Ethics' (2,400 years ago) is a foundational text
...
Key Concepts in Virtue Ethics
The Standard of Right Action
•
Virtue ethicists focus on the nature of a good life and character traits
...
•
Actions are not judged solely by results or rules but by virtuous character
exemplars
...
'
Virtue
Corresponding Rule
Honesty
Act honestly
Courage
Display courage
Justice
Deal justly with others
Moral Complexity
• Virtue ethicists reject simple rules for determining moral duty
...
• The golden rule is critiqued for its oversimplification of moral decision-making
...
'
Moral Understanding
Nature of Moral Understanding
•
•
•
•
•
•
Morality is not a rigid discipline like geometry; it involves moral rules of thumb that
can guide but not dictate behavior
...
Moral understanding requires sensitivity and practical wisdom, going beyond rote
rule-following
...
Precision in morality differs from subjective opinions; objective moral standards are
believed to exist
...
subjective morality
...
Fear, guilt, and compassion are key emotions that guide moral decision-making
...
Emotions motivate individuals to act morally, reinforcing their moral beliefs
...
Development of Moral Wisdom
•
•
•
•
•
Moral understanding is not just about knowing facts but involves practical wisdom
...
Emotional intelligence is essential for moral wisdom; virtues like compassion and
kindness enhance moral perception
...
Emotions guide individuals towards morally important actions, supporting their
moral beliefs
...
Virtue is not innate but acquired over time through the right environment, teachers,
and moral luck
...
Moral education aims to cultivate virtues and develop moral wisdom in children
...
Process of Moral Education
•
•
•
•
•
Moral education involves learning dos and don'ts initially, akin to apprenticeship in
other fields
...
Experience, guidance, and understanding help children appreciate the nuances of
moral decision-making
...
Rules in moral education evolve from strict obedience to nuanced understanding
through trial and error
...
Successful education aims to cultivate independent thinkers who can navigate
moral complexities without relying solely on rigid rules
...
Gradual transition from following basic rules to critically examining and applying
them in different contexts is essential for moral growth
...
The Nature of Virtue
•
•
•
Virtue ethics focuses on developing admirable character traits to become better
individuals
...
Virtues go beyond habits, requiring a deep understanding of why certain actions are
morally right
...
Virtuous individuals possess a well-integrated understanding and emotional
response to moral situations, acting for the right reasons without reluctance
...
Virtues shape not only actions but also inner perceptions, beliefs, and emotions
...
The distinction between truly virtuous individuals and those who merely conform
lies in their inner motivations and responses to moral challenges
...
Virtue and the Good Life
The Concept of Eudaimonia
•
•
•
•
•
Eudaimonia, or 'flourishing,' is the ultimate goal of a moral education, representing
a life of excellence and fulfillment
...
Virtue is considered essential for a good life, as it enables individuals to make
morally sound decisions and pursue worthy goals
...
Aristotle's view on eudaimonia underscores the importance of virtue in achieving a
fulfilling and worthwhile life
...
The relationship between virtue and a good life is complex, with virtue ethicists
arguing that true happiness requires more than external success or pleasure
...
Pleasure without virtue is deemed inadequate for a truly fulfilling life, emphasizing
the intrinsic value of virtuous actions
...
Virtue Ethics and Human Good
Distinctive Human Good
•
The human ultimate good involves exercising rationality, unique to humans
...
• Virtue lies in the excellent use of reasoning powers, as per Aristotle
...
• A virtuous life may not guarantee success but is essential for a fulfilling life
...
"
Attractiveness of Virtue
•
•
•
•
Virtues like courage and generosity are qualities we desire in ourselves and others
...
Virtuous traits may attract envy and hatred but are essential for a good life
...
"The virtues are those excellences of character that contribute to one’s well-being
...
Tragic dilemmas, where all choices lead to disaster, challenge virtue ethics
...
Virtue ethicists debate whether virtuous actions in tragic dilemmas are morally
right
...
"Tragic dilemmas highlight the difficulty in applying virtue ethics to extreme situations
...
Virtue ethics advises following virtuous traits like temperance and courage
...
• Virtue ethicists address conflicts by considering the virtues and vices involved
...
"
Understanding Virtue Ethics
Principles of Virtue Ethics
•
•
•
•
•
•
Virtue ethics focuses on acting based on moral rules derived from virtues and vices
...
Vices to avoid greed, deceit, malice, unfairness, and short temper
...
Moral conflict arises when virtues conflict with each other, requiring individuals to
balance conflicting virtues
...
Resolving Moral Conflicts in Virtue Ethics
•
•
•
•
Virtue ethicists provide limited guidance on resolving conflicts, emphasizing
individual judgment
...
Virtue ethics rejects the idea of a universal moral guidebook or precise rules for
every situation
...
•
Virtue ethics challenges the expectation of clear-cut rules in ethical decisionmaking
...
Virtue ethics lacks specific guidelines for resolving conflicts between virtues
...
Virtue ethicists argue against the need for precise rules, advocating for individual
moral discernment
...
Moral Standards and Role Models
Role of Virtuous Individuals
•
Virtue ethics suggests emulating the actions of virtuous individuals in moral
decision-making
...
Moral excellence may require sacrifices beyond conventional expectations
...
The theory challenges individuals to consider the actions of truly virtuous
individuals in their decision-making
...
The selection of role models is influenced by personal beliefs and values
...
Failure to recognize virtuous individuals may stem from personal shortcomings in
moral judgment
...
Moral Wisdom and Role Model Selection
•
•
•
•
•
Moral insight in choosing role models improves with increased moral wisdom and
experience
...
Moral education is a continuous process that shapes individuals' ability to identify
virtuous role models
...
The process of gaining moral knowledge and identifying role models is complex and
requires ongoing moral development
...
Disagreements among virtuous individuals can result in conflicting actions in the
same situation
...
Resolving contradictions in virtue ethics requires addressing differences in virtuous
perspectives
...
QUICK REFERENCE
...
•
Russ Shafer-Landau: Philosopher from the University of Wisconsin-Madison known
for his work on virtue ethics
...
Moral Understanding: Practical wisdom that goes beyond knowing moral facts and
involves emotional intelligence and experience
...
Key Events
•
•
1933: Mohandas Gandhi's hunger strike that nearly resulted in his death, raising
questions about the demands of virtue ethics
...
Key Objections
•
•
•
•
Tragic Dilemmas: Ethical challenges where all choices lead to negative outcomes,
questioning the moral implications of actions
...
Moral Role Models: Challenges in selecting appropriate moral exemplars and resolving
conflicts in role model choices
...
Concept Comparisons
Virtue Ethics
Utilitarianism
Focuses on the character of the individual
and what it means to be a good person
...
Emphasizes the importance of moral
virtues and character traits
...
Considers the motivations and intentions
behind actions
...
Rooted in the idea of living a good life
through virtuous behavior
...
Important Quotes
"Virtuous conduct gives pleasure to the lover of virtue
...
"I hate Indians
...
"
Explanation: This quote by Winston Churchill illustrates how personal biases and
prejudices can cloud moral judgment and perception of others
...
Moral Duty: The obligation to act in a certain way based on ethical principles or rules
...
Tragic Dilemmas: Situations where all available choices lead to negative outcomes,
presenting moral challenges
...
Moral Exemplars: Individuals who serve as role models for ethical behavior and
embody virtuous traits
...
Feminist Ethics and the Ethics of Care
...
• Feminist ethics aims to address false claims about women and the ignorance of
female experiences in ethical thinking
...
• It acknowledges that traits associated with gender are cultural constructs and not
innate characteristics
...
"
Central Claims of Feminist Ethics
•
•
•
•
Women are the moral equals of men, and any justification for their subordination is
flawed
...
Traits traditionally associated with women are as morally significant as traditionally
masculine traits
...
Contributions of Feminist Ethics
•
•
Feminist ethics challenges traditional views on gender roles and moral reasoning
...
•
•
Feminist ethics advocates for a more inclusive and diverse approach to moral
philosophy
...
Diversity of Women's Experiences
•
•
•
•
•
Women's experiences and responses to life are diverse, with no singular 'female
perspective'
...
Feminist philosophers aim to address ethical issues like rape, abuse, and
discrimination that were historically neglected
...
Historical observations highlight women's dependence, sacrifices for family, and
vulnerability to abuse and discrimination
...
Women's choices are often influenced by familial roles and obligations
...
Feminist ethics emphasize vulnerability, lack of control, and interconnectedness in
moral decision-making
...
Ethic of Care
•
Feminist ethicists propose an 'ethic of care' based on nurturing relationships and
interconnectedness
...
The maternal model of care is presented as a foundation for moral relations and
ethical principles
...
•
•
•
Care ethics suggests considering a loving mother's care as a model for moral
behavior
...
Gilligan argued that women think and experience the world differently from men,
rejecting the notion of inferiority in women's thinking
...
Gilligan observed that women often prioritize care, sympathy, and concrete details
in moral decision-making over abstract principles of justice
...
Gilligan's research highlighted a distinct approach to moral reasoning among
women, challenging traditional models of moral development
...
Gilligan's work sparked a reevaluation of ethical frameworks to incorporate diverse
perspectives and values
...
The ethics of care emphasizes the importance of nurturing relationships and
interconnectedness
...
Care ethics proposes considering a mother's care for her children as a model for
moral conduct
...
Understanding Ethics of Care
Comparison with Other Ethical Theories
•
•
•
•
•
Ethical Egoism vs
...
Kantianism vs
...
Contractarian Theories vs
...
Utilitarianism vs
...
Partiality in Care Ethics: Care ethics advocates for partiality towards loved ones,
emphasizing that love and care cannot be distributed equally to everyone
...
Role of Emotions in Moral Motivation: Emotions play a central role in moral
motivation and discovery within care ethics, contrasting with utilitarian and Kantian
views
...
Rejection of Unification: Care ethics rejects the idea of a single supreme moral
rule governing all actions, highlighting the complexity and individuality of moral
duties
...
Critique of Traditional Ethical Theories
Rejection of Supreme Moral Rule
•
•
Care ethics diverges from traditional theories by rejecting the concept of one
supreme moral rule governing all actions
...
Emphasis on Relationships and Context
•
•
Sources of Moral Duties: Moral duties in care ethics primarily stem from
relationships with others, leading to potential conflicts and difficult choices
...
Critique of Impartiality and Abstraction
•
•
Partiality in Care Ethics: Care ethics challenges the notion of impartiality by
advocating for prioritizing loved ones and being partial to those we care about
...
Moral Reasoning and Care Ethics
Importance of Specifics in Moral Reasoning
•
•
•
•
•
Moral reasoning should not rely solely on general rules but on a nuanced
understanding of specific situations
...
They reject utilitarian emphasis on impartiality and the idea that general rules like
lex talionis can define justice
...
Emphasizes the absence of a master rule in guiding moral decisions
...
Ethic of Care vs
...
Ethical egoists advocate harming others if their interest's conflict with our own
...
Contrasts a competitive approach with a caring, sacrificial mother-child
relationship
...
Example: Highlighting the importance of reconciliation and understanding in
resolving conflicts
...
Emphasizes responsibilities and connectedness over individual rights and
independence
...
Criticizes rights for potentially creating barriers and emphasizing separateness
...
Challenges for Feminist Ethics
Scope of Moral Community
•
•
•
•
Early care ethicists limited moral duties to that one care about, posing a challenge
in extending moral obligations to strangers
...
Importance of expanding the moral community beyond close relations for moral
progress
...
Role of Emotions in Moral Decision-Making
•
Emotions play a crucial role in guiding moral actions but require further exploration
...
Regulation of emotions like anger to prevent bias and promote moral action
...
•
•
•
Example: Investigating the impact of emotions on moral clarity and decisionmaking
...
Partiality
•
•
•
Impartiality is essential in various roles, despite criticisms of its importance
...
Example: Discussing the significance of impartiality in maintaining fairness and
justice
...
Anger can motivate individuals to address immorality and act courageously
...
Example: Anger can alert individuals to social injustices, prompting action for
positive change
...
•
•
•
Acts as a corrective measure against prejudice and bias
...
Example: Impartiality ensures fair treatment in legal proceedings
...
Lack of supreme moral rules can lead to ambiguity in moral decision-making
...
Principle
Role in Ethics
Universalizability
Standard for moral decisions
Moral conflicts
Resolution through ethical standards
Cooperation, Competition, and Justice
Balancing Cooperation and Competition
•
•
•
•
Cooperation is valuable, but strategies for dealing with uncooperative entities are
essential
...
Need for a nuanced approach to determine when cooperation or competition is
appropriate
...
Strategy
Importance
Cooperation
Collaboration for mutual benefit
Competition
Driving force for excellence
Significance of Justice and Rights
• Justice and rights play a crucial role in morality
...
• Example: Oppression of women can be addressed by invoking violated rights
...
•
Carol Gilligan: A Harvard psychologist known for her work on gender and moral
development, particularly her book 'In a Different Voice' which contributed to the
development of feminist ethics
...
It critiques traditional ethical theories for
their focus on impartiality and abstract rules
...
Importance of Emotions: Recognizing the role of emotions, such as care and empathy,
in moral decision-making and relationships
...
It raises questions about
moral rules and ethical decision-making
...
Details to Note
•
•
•
•
Feminist ethics is not a single theory but a general approach to ethics defined by four
central claims
...
Feminist ethics highlights traditionally feminine traits and ways of moral reasoning
...
Main Ideas/Plot Points
•
•
•
Feminist ethics emphasizes the importance of care, emotions, and relationships in
moral decision-making
...
Feminist ethics critiques traditional ethical theories for their lack of attention to female
experiences and perspectives
...
"
Explanation: This quote encapsulates the core principle of feminist ethics, advocating for
the equal moral standing of women and men
...
"
Explanation: This quote highlights the value placed on traditionally feminine traits in moral
reasoning within feminist ethics
...
CHAPTER 19
...
Another type of doubt questions the existence of objective moral standards, which
can undermine confidence in morality
...
While there are millions of objective non-moral truths, the existence of objective
moral truths is uncertain
...
Moral Nihilism and Ethical Relativism
•
•
•
•
•
•
Moral Nihilism: Believes there are no moral truths at all, viewing morality as a
human construct based on emotions
...
Ethical relativism is divided into two categories: cultural relativism and ethical
subjectivism
...
Ethical Subjectivism: Moral standards are those endorsed by each individual
...
Two Kinds of Ethical Relativism—and Their Attractions
Ethical Subjectivism
•
•
•
•
•
Acts are deemed morally acceptable based on personal approval or adherence to
individual commitments
...
Each person's moral standards are equally plausible in ethical subjectivism
...
Subjectivism asserts that there are right answers in ethics relative to each person's
values
...
•
•
•
•
Acts are morally acceptable or forbidden based on societal ideals in cultural
relativism
...
The difference between ethical subjectivism and cultural relativism lies in whether
individuals or societies have the final say in ethics
...
Ethical Subjectivism and Cultural Relativism
Explanation of Ethical Subjectivism and Cultural Relativism
•
•
•
•
•
Morality is viewed as a set of rules invented by humans for their own use, making it a
construct of human creation
...
The origins and contents of morality can be scientifically confirmed through
disciplines like psychology, sociology, and anthropology
...
Both theories promote egalitarianism by suggesting that almost everyone is an
excellent judge of morality, denying the existence of moral experts and emphasizing
equality in moral judgment
...
The origins of morality are linked to human evolution, suggesting that morality arose
with the emergence of humans
...
Subjectivism emphasizes individual moral commitments, while relativism focuses
on societal norms to determine right and wrong
...
Implications of Ethical Subjectivism and Cultural Relativism
•
•
•
•
•
Ethical subjectivism and cultural relativism offer a middle ground between moral
nihilism and ethical objectivism
...
Subjectivists and relativists differ in their views on cultural relativism, with
subjectivists questioning the moral correctness of societal norms
...
The case of honor killings highlights the ethical dilemmas posed by cultural
relativism, where cultural practices may condone morally abhorrent actions
...
Cultural relativism can lead to moral infallibility within societies, where deeply
ingrained beliefs are considered morally correct
...
The origins of moral beliefs, whether societal or individual, are deemed irrelevant by
relativism, leading to the acceptance of morally questionable principles
...
Ethical Subjectivism vs
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Implies that the moral outlooks of individuals like Hitler or Stalin are as plausible as
those of a Nobel Peace laureate
...
Raises questions about the worthiness of personal commitments and the value of
moral judgments
...
Cultural Relativism
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•
•
•
•
Denies that all moral views are equally plausible and acknowledges varying levels of
wisdom in moral matters
...
This allows for questioning the basic codes of societies but maintains that all codes
are morally equivalent
...
Faces difficulties in explaining moral progress and the evaluation of societal moral
standards
...
Involves a shift towards more true fundamental beliefs and better moral standards
...
Subjectivism and relativism struggle to explain fundamental moral progress due to
their inherent principles
...
Ethical Subjectivism Challenges
Problem of Contradiction
•
•
•
Ethical subjectivism leads to contradictions when considering the truth of moral
judgments based on personal feelings and commitments
...
Subjectivists attempt to avoid contradiction by reinterpreting moral claims as
expressions of personal approval or disapproval
...
Subjectivism's solution to contradiction raises issues of accusing individuals of
misunderstanding their moral claims and eliminates the possibility of genuine
moral disagreement
...
•
It suggests that when individuals make moral claims, they are essentially stating
their own attitudes towards certain actions
...
Subjectivism faces a dilemma as it struggles to explain the existence of moral
disagreement
...
•
•
•
Critique of Moral Subjectivism
•
•
•
•
•
Subjectivism leads to contradictions when taken at face value, making it untenable
as a moral theory
...
Serious moral debates involve more than just reporting personal outlooks; they
entail substantive disagreements on moral issues
...
The dilemma faced by subjectivism highlights the limitations of reducing moral
judgments to individual attitudes
...
It asserts that the truth of a moral claim is determined by its alignment with the
prevailing social customs of a society
...
The example of cross-cultural moral disagreement highlights the challenges faced
by cultural relativism in reconciling conflicting moral claims
...
Critique of Cultural Relativism
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•
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•
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Cultural relativism encounters a dilemma similar to subjectivism in addressing
moral contradictions
...
The case of subcultures within larger societies exemplifies the challenges
individuals face when ethical codes clash
...
Critics argue that cultural relativism may ultimately devolve into subjectivism when
faced with conflicting moral codes
...
Yoder
Background of the Case
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Wisconsin v
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S
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The case involved the conflict between state laws mandating school attendance
and the religious beliefs of Old Order Amish families
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•
•
The Supreme Court's decision favored the Amish families' right to prioritize their
religious beliefs over state education requirements
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Ethical Dilemma and Critique
•
•
•
•
•
Wisconsin v
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Cultural relativism struggles to provide a clear resolution when individuals are
members of multiple societies with conflicting ethical codes
...
Critics argue that cultural relativism's emphasis on societal norms may undermine
individual autonomy and moral agency
...
Morality and Society
Justification of Moral Wisdom
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•
•
•
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Morality is a human creation, leading to challenges in justifying whether moral
wisdom resides with the masses or individuals
...
Cultural relativists, on the other hand, believe that societies hold moral wisdom
...
Both individuals and societies can be mistaken in their deepest commitments,
prompting the need to explore alternative accounts of morality
...
They are envisioned as entities with perfect information, clear reasoning, and
rationality, capable of creating moral law
...
Ideal observer views aim to eliminate errors in moral thinking, such as ignorance,
emotional bias, and irrationality
...
Challenges of Ideal Observer Views
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•
•
•
•
Disagreement among ideal observers poses a significant challenge, as conflicting
choices may lead to contradictions
...
A fundamental issue arises when ideal observers might endorse morally
questionable actions, such as killing the mentally ill or approving of racism
...
Subjectivism, cultural relativism, and ideal observer theories share a common
structure where actions derive their moral status from individual or societal
approval, raising questions about the foundation of morality
...
Key People
•
Russ Shafer-Landau: Professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, known for his
work on metaethics and ethical relativism
...
Moral Equivalence: The theories imply that all moral views are equally valid,
undermining the concept of moral superiority or progress
...
Moral Progress: The inability of subjectivism and relativism to explain genuine moral
progress or improvement in moral beliefs over time
...
Concept Comparisons
Subjectivism
Cultural Relativism
Focuses on individual moral standards
Focuses on societal moral standards
Claims that moral standards are relative
to personal values
Claims that moral standards are relative to
cultural values
Views personal conviction as the ultimate Views society's guiding ideals as the
measure of morality
ultimate measure of morality
Allows for moral disagreement among
individuals
Suggests that cross-cultural moral
disagreement may not exist
Faces the problem of contradiction in
moral judgments
Also faces the problem of contradiction in
moral judgments
Can lead to moral equivalence among
individuals
Can lead to moral equivalence among
societies
Facts to Memorize
•
•
•
•
Ethical relativism comes in two varieties: cultural relativism and individual relativism
(ethical subjectivism)
...
Ethical objectivism is the view that some moral standards are objectively correct and
that some moral claims are objectively true
...
Problem-Solving Steps
6
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7
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8
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9
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Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
•
•
•
Objective Moral Standards: Standards that apply universally, regardless of individual
beliefs or desires, and are objectively true when they accurately reflect these standards
...
Ethical Relativism: The view that correct moral standards are relative to cultures or
individuals, leading to moral subjectivism and cultural relativism
...
Cultural Relativism: The belief that correct moral standards are those endorsed by
each society, emphasizing societal values over individual beliefs
...
Moral Nihilism: Error Theory and
Expressivism
...
Moral nihilism posits that morality is a human creation with no inherent value
...
They believe in a rigid fact-value distinction where values lack truth
...
Error Theory vs
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Expressivists also deny moral claims accurately reflect reality
...
Error theory questions the existence of moral features in the world
...
Comparison to Atheism
"The error theory is to morality as atheism is to religion
...
Error theorists aim to reveal a fundamental mistake in moral views
...
•
Both require convincing arguments to support their views
...
It claims there are no moral features in the world
...
Error theory suggests there is no moral knowledge
...
Fundamental Claims of Error Theory
Claim
Description
No moral features
The world lacks moral qualities like good or bad
...
Absence of moral
knowledge
Without moral truth, there can be no moral knowledge
...
Analogy to Atheism
"The error theory is to morality as atheism is to religion
...
Error theorists and atheists aim to expose fundamental errors in morality and
religion
...
Error theory suggests that morality's assumption of objective standards is its fatal
flaw
...
This assumption, akin to religion's reliance on the supernatural, is considered by
error theorists as the foundation of morality's failure
...
Error theorists aim to demonstrate that morality hinges on the belief in moral
objectivity and categorical reasons
...
Attractions of Error Theory
•
•
Simplicity of Reality: Error theory presents a simplistic view of the world, aligning
with scientific descriptions without additional moral values
...
•
•
•
Explanatory Ease: Error theory avoids the complex task of explaining moral
objectivity and categorical reasons, which has historically been contentious
...
Comparison with Ethical Relativism: Error theory shares similarities with ethical
relativism in explaining the origins of moral beliefs without asserting moral truth or
knowledge
...
Distinction from Moral Status: Confusion between the truth of a theory and the
moral status of actions is clarified, emphasizing that the theory's acceptance does
not determine its validity
...
Rejection of Moral Theories: Error theory does not prescribe moral duties or
virtues but rather refutes all moral theories as fundamentally flawed
...
Metaphysical Theories
Argument from Disastrous Results
•
•
•
•
Metaphysical theories attempt to defend concepts like the existence of the soul,
free will, or immortality
...
Metaphysical theories aim to describe the nature of the world, potentially revealing
bitter truths that could challenge societal norms
...
•
Criticisms of the error theory often target the trustworthiness of its proponents,
suggesting that rejecting objective morality may lead to untrustworthy behavior
...
Conscience is seen as a check on antisocial behavior when moral duty is perceived
as real and authoritative
...
The objection that error theorists lack goals associated with upright behavior is
countered by the observation that many atrocities are committed in the name of
differing moral beliefs
...
Expressivism
Theory and Its Attractions
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•
•
•
•
Expressivism is a group of views that deny the objectivity of morality
...
Unlike error theorists, expressivists reject the idea that sincere moral judgments
aim to describe moral features
...
Moral claims under expressivism serve different purposes than factual claims,
focusing on emotional expression and encouragement rather than objective
description
...
•
•
•
•
They aim to retain confidence in morality while avoiding issues of cultural relativism
and ethical subjectivism
...
Unlike error theorists, expressivists reject ethical objectivity but seek to maintain
faith in morality
...
Expressivism's Main Attractions
•
•
•
•
•
Handling Contradictions: By asserting that no moral claim is true or false,
expressivism eliminates moral contradictions
...
Simplicity: Similar to error theory, expressivism views the world based on scientific
facts without adding moral values as an extra layer of reality
...
Contrast with Beliefs: Expressivists differentiate moral judgments from beliefs by
highlighting their motivational nature
...
Example Argument: Analyzing an argument about the immorality of torture to
illustrate the logical challenges faced by expressivism
...
Incompatibility with Logical Validity: Expressivism's stance on moral claims being
neither true nor false conflicts with the principles of logical validity
...
Expressivism and Amoralists
•
•
Definition of Amoralists: Individuals who make moral claims but remain
unaffected by them pose a challenge to expressivism
...
Expressivism and Logical Support
Nature of Moral Claims
•
Expressivists deny the truth value of moral claims, asserting that they express
feelings rather than convey objective truths
...
"Expressivists cannot accept the natural explanation that if the premises of a moral
argument are true, then the conclusion must also be true, as they deny the truth value of
moral claims
...
Expressivism struggles to explain how moral judgments can reliably motivate
individuals if they are merely expressions of feelings
...
Expressivists face difficulties in accounting for individuals who sincerely make
moral claims but lack motivation to act on them
...
•
They argue that moral judgments do not offer accurate descriptions of reality but
instead express emotions and feelings
...
The challenge lies in transforming statements about morality into expressions of
emotions or commands
...
Most individuals view their moral claims as true statements about the world rather
than mere expressions of emotions
...
Error theorists view morality as fundamentally flawed, akin to atheists' views on
religious claims
...
They do not see morality as a bankrupt enterprise but rather as expressions of
emotions and feelings
...
Expressivists
•
Error Theorists' Perspective: View moral claims as fundamentally flawed and
lacking objectivity
...
Agreement and Disagreement: Both deny moral duties as providing categorical
reasons but differ in their approach to moral thinking foundations
...
Concerns with Expressivism: While solving some issues, expressivism struggles
with logical moral argumentation and amoralism
...
Challenges and Considerations in Expressivism
•
•
•
•
•
•
Problem of Contradiction: Expressivism resolves contradictions in moral
discourse
...
Simplicity in Reality: Offers a streamlined view of reality in moral judgments
...
Limitations and Criticisms: Struggles with logical moral argumentation,
amoralism, and clashes with common views on moral judgments
...
Philosophical Reflections on Moral Theories
•
•
•
•
•
Evaluation of Expressivism: The ongoing debate aims to determine if expressivism
can address its inherent challenges
...
Role of Arguments in Morality: The assessment of moral theories relies on the
strength of arguments presented
...
Hope vs
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Discussion Questions on Moral Error Theory and Expressivism
Types of Moral Nihilism and Ethical Objectivism
•
•
•
Differentiating Moral Nihilism: Explore the distinctions between the two types of
moral nihilism
...
Disagreements with Objectivism: Highlight the aspects where moral nihilism
diverges from ethical objectivism
...
Essential Assumptions: Evaluate the significance of the assumptions identified by
error theorists in moral thought
...
Expressivism and Moral Judgments
•
•
•
Interpretation of 'Stealing is Wrong': Examine how expressivism defines the moral
statement and assess its plausibility
...
Amoralism and Expressivism: Consider the compatibility of expressivism with the
concept of amoralism and its implications for the theory
...
Accuracy of Expressivist Analysis: Evaluate whether expressivism accurately
captures the essence of moral judgments
...
CHAPTER 21
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Moral claims are considered objectively true when they accurately reflect these
moral standards or their requirements
...
Objectivism shines by overcoming the shortcomings of relativism and nihilism,
such as rendering individuals infallible, denying moral progress, and generating
contradictions
...
Key Concepts and Explanations
•
•
•
•
•
Ethical objectivism distinguishes between moral systems, asserting that some are
superior due to fewer moral mistakes
...
Moral progress is explained as alignment with objective moral standards, indicating
improvement in moral views
...
The theory affirms the existence of true moral views, enabling the differentiation
between moral correctness and error
...
Example: Ethical objectivism explains moral progress as individuals or societies aligning
with objective moral standards, indicating improvement
...
The theory explains the logical validity of moral arguments, emphasizing the truthpreserving nature of valid arguments
...
Ethical objectivism views moral judgments as attempts to represent an objective
moral reality, supporting the idea that beliefs can be true or false
...
The Argument from Absolutism posits that if moral claims are objectively true, then
moral rules must be absolute, a premise refuted by the absence of absolute moral
rules
...
Some critiques question the necessity of absolutism for objectivity, highlighting the
complexity of defining objective moral standards
...
Objectivity
•
•
Moral claims' objectivity implies absolute moral rules
...
•
•
•
Examples of potential absolute moral rules: prohibition on rape and killing innocent
people
...
The existence of God could lead to objective morality without absolute rules
...
Absoluteness of Moral Rules
•
•
•
•
•
Objectivity of moral rules pertains to their correctness independent of opinion
...
Comparison with natural laws: objective but not always absolute
...
Support for ethical objectivism despite the argument against absolutism
...
Denial of objective truths in logic, chemistry, history, and morality
...
Implications of premise 1 on morality's status compared to other disciplines
...
Existence of Objective Truths
•
Refutation of the argument's premise through logical reasoning
...
Doubts on the argument's effectiveness in challenging ethical objectivism
...
Assertion of everyone's equal right to moral opinions
...
Recognition of the truth in premise 4 regarding objective moral standards
...
Critique of the Argument
•
Distinction between the right to an opinion and the merit of that opinion
...
Rejection of premise 1 due to the confusion between rights and opinion merit
...
Dogmatism is characterized by closed-mindedness and unwavering confidence in
one's opinions
...
Ethical objectivism does not inherently promote a dogmatic attitude
...
Neutrality of Ethical Objectivism
•
•
•
Ethical objectivism focuses on the status of moral claims, not on closedmindedness
...
Clarification on the nature of ethical objectivism and its stance on moral
correctness
...
It emphasizes that moral truth, not being subjective, may be challenging to discern,
promoting humility and open-mindedness
...
Objectivism denies individual or societal authority in determining right and wrong,
discouraging dogmatism
...
Misconceptions and Fanaticism
•
•
•
Fanatics often misapply ethical objectivism, but this reflects on individuals, not the
theory itself
...
Ethical objectivism does not endorse dogmatism, as it acknowledges the
complexity and objectivity of moral truths
...
Critics argue that assuming all moral views are equally valid supports tolerance, but
this overlooks the value of objective moral standards
...
The Argument from Tolerance highlights the clash between tolerance and moral
equivalence, favoring the former
...
Moral Objectivity and Cultural Variation
Cultural Differences and Moral Standards
•
•
•
•
Ethical objectivism posits that objective moral standards apply universally, raising
concerns about cultural variations
...
The Argument from Cultural Differences questions the compatibility of objectivism
with culturally specific moral standards
...
•
Cultural variation in moral practices does not negate the universality of core moral
principles
...
Objectivists maintain that respecting others is a universal moral duty, but the
expressions of respect may differ culturally
...
The core idea is that while basic moral rules remain constant, their application can
result in culturally specific moral advice
...
Moral Objectivity
Role of Customs and Traditions in Moral Duties
•
•
•
•
•
•
Moral advice can vary based on the interpretation of a basic rule, such as showing
respect to others
...
Objectivists attribute moral differences to deeper moral principles that underlie
specific customs
...
Universal moral rules exist and may lead to different specific moral duties across
societies
...
Moral Disagreement and Objectivity
•
•
Ethical disagreements do not necessarily undermine moral objectivity
...
•
•
•
•
The Argument from Disagreement suggests that persistent disagreement negates
objective truth in morals
...
Deep disagreement does not negate the existence of objective moral truths
...
Atheism and Moral Objectivity
The Argument from Atheism
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ivan Karamazov's claim 'if God is dead, then everything is permitted' questions the
basis of morality without a divine authority
...
The Argument from Atheism posits that morality can only be objective if God exists
...
The assumption that laws require lawmakers is central to the argument from
atheism
...
The Argument from Atheism and Moral Laws
Explanation of Moral Laws
•
•
•
Atheists question the need for an author for moral laws, similar to other objective
laws
...
The premise that laws require lawmakers is flawed and not universally accepted
...
Philosophical debate on the existence of categorical reasons challenges ethical
objectivism
...
Responses to the Argument from Categorical Reasons
•
•
•
Objectivists may challenge either the premise that moral duties must provide
reasons for action or the assertion that categorical reasons do not exist
...
Example: Saving a stranger's life despite personal indifference illustrates the
presence of categorical reasons in moral duties
...
Critics liken objective values to ghosts, suggesting they are unnecessary for
scientific explanations
...
Ethical Objectivists' Responses
•
•
•
Objectivists may either reject the premise that science cannot verify objective
moral values or challenge the belief that science is the ultimate test of reality
...
Moral naturalists reject the argument against objective values by asserting that
moral features are natural aspects of the world
...
Skeptics question the necessity of moral features in explanations, suggesting they
are optional and unnecessary
...
•
QUICK REFERENCE
...
Key Arguments
•
•
•
•
Argument from Absolutism: Challenges the idea that moral claims must be absolute
for objectivism to be true
...
Argument from Atheism: Posits that the existence of objective moral values is
contingent on the existence of God
...
Key Rebuttals
•
•
•
•
Rejection of Absolutism: Objectivists argue that moral rules can be objective without
being absolute, allowing for exceptions based on specific circumstances
...
Rejection of Atheism: Objectivists challenge the notion that objective moral values
require the existence of God, proposing alternative explanations for the objectivity of
morality
...
Facts to Memorize
•
•
•
Ethical objectivism is the view that there are objective moral standards
...
Ethical objectivism easily explains moral progress and moral disagreement
...
Objectivists believe in the existence of objective moral truths
...
Concept Comparisons
Ethical Objectivism
Relativism
Nihilism
Believes in objective
moral standards
Believes moral standards are
relative
Denies existence of moral
truths
Explains moral progress
May struggle to account for
moral progress
Does not account for moral
progress
Allows for logical moral
arguments
May not support logical
moral arguments
Does not support logical
moral arguments
Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ethical Objectivism: The view that there are objective moral standards that apply
universally, regardless of individual beliefs or desires
...
Relativism: The belief that moral standards are relative and vary between individuals
or cultures
...
Expressivism: A theory that moral statements express emotions or attitudes rather
than objective truths
...
Moral Naturalism: The view that moral values are natural features of the world and
can be explained scientifically
...
Challenges to Moral Knowledge
...
• Premise 1: If smart individuals persistently disagree on a claim, belief in that claim
is unjustified
...
• Conclusion: Justification for any moral claims is lacking
...
Disagreement among rational individuals extends to various controversial topics,
questioning the validity of premise 1
...
• Premise 1: Knowledge requires certainty in the truth of a claim
...
• Implications: Moral knowledge becomes unattainable under this argument
...
The high bar set by premise 1 challenges the possibility of knowledge in various domains
...
• The question 'Who’s to say?' implies the impossibility of moral knowledge
...
• Premise 2: No individual possesses the authority to dictate moral standards
...
Premise 2 can be supported by the absence of designated authorities whose decisions are
universally binding
...
Moral Equality
•
•
•
•
•
Designated authorities like Supreme Court justices have the power to determine
legal matters, with their decisions being binding on all citizens
...
Even without being a designated moral authority, individuals can possess moral
knowledge, such as recognizing genocide as immoral
...
Moral leaders may provide guidance, but no one has the ultimate authority to
dictate what is moral or immoral
...
No human being can claim authorship of morality except, perhaps, in religious
contexts like God
...
Individuals can have substantial moral knowledge even without being the author of
moral rules
...
Irrelevant Influences
Origins of Moral Beliefs
•
•
•
The origins of moral beliefs, such as parental influence, cultural norms, or
evolutionary programming, can raise doubts about the justification of those beliefs
...
The Irrelevant Influences Argument posits that if moral beliefs stem from external
influences, they lack justification, leading to a lack of moral knowledge
...
Suspicions arise when moral beliefs are shaped by influences that may not align
with moral truths
...
Evolutionary pressures shaping moral beliefs for adaptability do not guarantee
truthfulness
...
Lack of responsiveness to moral facts that validate beliefs can weaken the
justification for moral beliefs
...
Moral Knowledge and Its Challenges
Influence on Moral Beliefs
•
•
•
•
•
Moral beliefs influenced by parental, cultural, or evolutionary factors may raise
doubts about the validity of moral knowledge
...
The distinction between conventional morality and cultural relativism impacts the
acquisition of moral knowledge
...
The ability to discern moral facts, such as the evils of slavery and rape, indicates the
potential for moral knowledge despite varying origins of moral beliefs
...
Hume's Argument posits that moral claims do not fit into the categories of
conceptual truths or empirical truths
...
Empirical truths rely on sensory evidence, which is absent in moral claims
...
Moral naturalists challenge premise 3 by considering moral features as empirically
discoverable
...
Premise 1 of Hume's Argument questions the nature of truths and knowledge
beyond conceptual and empirical realms
...
The possibility of justified moral beliefs challenges the skepticism posed by Hume's
Argument
...
The need to demonstrate the feasibility of acquiring moral knowledge remains a
significant challenge
...
The default view should not lean towards moral skepticism, given the substantial
challenges it faces
...
Key People
•
Russ Shafer-Landau: Philosopher from the University of Wisconsin-Madison who
explores the topic of moral knowledge and skepticism
...
Seminal Studies
•
Hume's Argument: A skeptical challenge proposed by David Hume, questioning the
possibility of moral knowledge based on the nature of moral claims
...
Skeptical arguments challenge the possibility of moral knowledge
...
Reference Information
•
•
Moral skepticism faces serious challenges that must be addressed
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
•
•
•
Moral Knowledge: The ability to have beliefs about morality that are both true and
justified, allowing for understanding and support of moral claims
...
Skeptical Arguments: Challenges to the possibility of moral knowledge, questioning
the justification and support for moral beliefs
...
Empirical Truths: Knowledge gained through sensory evidence and observations
...
Act utilitarianism is a version of this theory that focuses on maximizing overall wellbeing
...
Deontological Ethics
•
•
•
Focuses on the inherent rightness or wrongness of actions themselves, not their
consequences
...
Example: Keeping a promise because it is considered a moral duty, regardless of
the outcome
...
Focuses on developing good habits and traits to lead a virtuous life
...
Rule Consequentialism
•
•
Actions are considered morally right if they align with optimific social rules
...
•
Example: Following a rule that maximizes overall happiness in society
...
In normative ethics, actions are deemed morally right if they adhere to rules agreed
upon by rational individuals
...
Key Ethical Concepts
Altruism
•
•
•
Direct care and concern for improving the well-being of others
...
Contrasts with ethical egoism, which focuses on maximizing self-interest
...
Implies the capacity to choose between different courses of action
...
Cultural Relativism
•
•
•
Belief that an action is morally right or wrong based on the societal norms in which it
occurs
...
Example: Practices such as polygamy being acceptable in certain cultures while
condemned in others
...
Typically, conceptual truths are considered self-evident
...
Slippery Slope Argument
•
•
•
Utilitarian reasoning cautions against social innovations by predicting negative
future consequences
...
Example: Opposing a minor policy change due to potential drastic negative
outcomes
...
Involves framing the maxim, imagining a world where everyone follows it, and
assessing achievability of its goal
...
QUICK REFERENCE
...
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Act consequentialism: An act is morally right if it produces the best actual or
expected results
...
Agnostics: Suspend judgment on the existence of God
...
Ambiguous: Having multiple meanings
...
Argument: A chain of thoughts with premises supporting a conclusion
...
Feminist ethics: Emphasize moral equality of women and women's experiences in
moral development
...
Golden rule: Treat others as you would like to be treated
...
Free will: Capability to make decisions that are genuinely your own
...
Empathy-altruism hypothesis: Empathy can prompt altruistic motivation
...
Hedonism: Pleasure is intrinsically valuable
...
Key Terms/Concepts
•
•
•
•
•
Absolute: Moral rules that should never be broken; violating them is always wrong
...
Act Utilitarianism: A version of act consequentialism that deems an act morally right if
it maximizes overall well-being
...
Agnostics: Individuals who suspend judgment on the existence of God
Title: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF ETHICS IN NURSING.
Description: The Fundamentals of Ethics in Nursing Perfect for Nursing Students This comprehensive Study notes dives into the core ethical principles that guide nursing practice. It covers a wide range of topics, from exploring the nature of happiness and morality to examining various ethical theories and their implications.
Description: The Fundamentals of Ethics in Nursing Perfect for Nursing Students This comprehensive Study notes dives into the core ethical principles that guide nursing practice. It covers a wide range of topics, from exploring the nature of happiness and morality to examining various ethical theories and their implications.