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Social Influence Notes
Conformity – a change in a person’s behaviour or opinions as a result of real or imagined pressure from a group
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Procedure:
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50 American male volunteers took part in what they thought was a vision test
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Each person in the group was asked to judge which comparison line matched the standard line
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In the next 12 trials all confederates were
instructed to give the same wrong answer (18 trials in total)

Findings:
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On average, the naïve participant agreed with the confederates’ incorrect
answers 37% of the time, with 75% conforming to at least one wrong answer
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Variables:
1
...
He found a curvilinear
relationship between group size and conformity: conformity increased with group size, but only up to a point
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8%, but the presence of more confederates
made little difference – the conformity rate soon levelled off
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Unanimity
Asch introduced a confederate who disagreed with the other confederates (in one variation of the study this
person gave the correct answer and in another variation he gave a different wrong one)
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The rate decreased to less than ¼ of the level it was
when the majority was unanimous (the presence of a dissenter freed the naïve participant to behave more
independently, even when the dissenter disagreed with the genuine participant)
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3
...
He found that conformity increased
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AO3
Artificial
situation
and task

Limited
application

Limitation: Participants knew they were in a research study and may have gone along with
what was expected (demand characteristics)
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Fiske (2014), “Asch’s groups were not very groupy” i
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they did not resemble groups that we
experience in everyday life
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Limitation: All Asch’s participants were American men
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Furthermore, the USA is an individualist culture (where people are more concerned about
themselves rather than their social group)
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This means that Asch’s findings tell us little about conformity in women and people from
some cultures
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’s study found that
studies for the effects of task difficulty
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(2006) asked their participants to solve “easy” suggested
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Participants were
confidence in their math abilities
given answers from three other students (not
conformed less on hard tasks than those
real)
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(agreed with the wrong answers) when the
This shows that an individual-level factor
problems were harder
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research the roles of individual factors
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However, the naïve
participants were deceived because they thought the other people involved in the procedure
(the confederates) were also genuine participants like themselves
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Types of conformity
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Compliance (public) – simply going along with others in public, but not changing personal opinions
and/or behaviour
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Identification (public and semi-private) – sometimes there is something in a group that we value
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This means we publicly change our opinions/ behaviour
to be accepted with the group, even if we don’t privately agree with everything the group stands for
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This
results in a private as well as a public change of opinions/behaviour
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Explanations for conformity
Deutsch and Gerard (1955) developed a two-process theory, based on two central human needs
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Informational social influence (ISI)
We follow the behaviour of the majority because we want to be right
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It
leads to a permanent change in opinion/behaviour (internalisation)
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It also occurs in crisis situations where decisions have to be made quickly
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Normative social influence (NSI)
People don’t like to appear foolish and prefer to gain social approval rather than be rejected
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NSI is likely to occur
in situations with strangers where you may feel concerned about rejection
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It may be more pronounced in
stressful situations where people have a greater need for social support
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For example, when Asch
interviewed his participants, some said they conformed because they felt self-conscious
giving the correct answer and they were afraid of disapproval
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5% because there was no normative group pressure
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Research
support for
ISI

Individual
differences
in NSI

Is NSI/ISI
distinction
useful?

Strength: supported by Lucas et al
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For
often to incorrect answers they were
example, Asch found that conformity is reduced
given when the maths problems were
when there is one other dissenting participant
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The participants didn’t want (because they provide social support) or they may
to be wrong, so they relied on the
reduce the power of ISI (because they provide an
answers they were given
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ISI is a valid explanation of conformity
Therefore, it is hard to separate NSI and ISI and
because the results are what ISI would
both processes probably operate together in most
predict
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Limitation: NSI does not predict conformity in every case
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McGhee and Teevan (1967) found that students who were nAffiliators were more likely to
conform
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There are individual differences in conformity that cannot be fully explained by one general
theory of situational pressures
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Lucas et al
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Useful: Asch’s research clearly demonstrates both NSI and ISI as reasons for conformity
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The possibility of rejection is a strong reason for conforming (NSI)
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The Stanford Prison Experiment – Zimbardo
Procedure:
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Took place in the basement of Standford University
Meant to last 2 weeks, only lasted 6 days before the experiment
had to be called off
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De-individuation: Prisoners wore a loose smock and cap and were identified by their number
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The prisoners became depressed and anxious, staging rebellions and going on hunger strikes
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AO3
Control

Lack of
realism

Understated
role of

Strength: Study was conducted in a controlled environment, so there’s high control over
extraneous variables
...
g
...
This increases internal validity so
we can be more confident in drawing the conclusion of the influence of roles on behaviour
rather than individual differences
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Performances were about prison life, and they discussed
based on stereotypes, e
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one guard claimed he
how it was impossible to leave before
was basing his role on the brutal film character of
their “sentences” were over
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The situation seemed real to
Claims the study had low internal validity
participants, giving the study high
internal validity
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Differences in behaviour indicate participants were able to exercise right and wrong despite
situational pressure
...
g
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This was done without
their prior knowledge and in full view of the neighbours (lack of confidentiality)
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Right to withdraw questionable: Zimbardo’s role as lead conflicted with his role as prison
superintendent, and worried less about the rights of participants and more about his study
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The person issuing the
order is usually a figure of authority who has the power to punish when not obeyed
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He thought Germans could be more obedient than people from other countries
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1
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“The experiment requires you to continue”
Learner, however draw was fixed so the naïve ppt
3
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“You have no other choice, you must go on”
was always the Teacher, and the Learner was a
confederate
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The Teacher could not see, only hear, the Learner and had to give him an electric shock every time he
made a mistake on the memory test
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Findings:
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All participants gave all shocks up to 300V, where 12
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AO3
Research
support

Low internal
validity

Strength: Milgram’s findings were replicated in a French documentary (Beauvois et al
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Ppts were paid to
give (fake) electric shocks, ordered by the presenter, to other contestants (confederates) in
front of a studio audience
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Hofling (1966) studied nurses on a hospital ward and found that levels of obedience to
unjustified demands were very high (21/22 nurses obeyed and administered a medicine to a
patient from a so-called authority figure over the phone)
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Limitation: Milgram’s procedure may not have been
C/A: However, Sheridan and King
testing what he intended to test
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Ppts gave real shocks to a
genuine
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54% of male student
really believe in the set up, so they were “playppts and 100% of females delivered
acting”
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that only half of the ppts believed the shocks were
This suggests that the effects in
real, and 1/3 of these ppts were disobedient
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even when the shocks were real
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interpretation Haslam et al
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However, every ppt who was given the 4th prod (“You have no other
choice, you must go on”) without exception disobeyed
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When ordered to blindly obey an authority figure, they refused
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’s study
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16/18 nurses disobeyed direct orders
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This shows that SIT may provide a more valid interpretation of Milgram’s findings, especially
as Milgram himself suggested that ‘identifying with the science’ is a reason for obedience
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Deception made their informed consent worthless
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2
...
3
had full blown seizures
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Right to withdraw: prods used, inducement to take part (money)
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However benefits do not outweigh costs
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1
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5% – venue moved
from Yale uni to run-down office
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2
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- 30% – Teacher had to force learner’s hand onto plate to receive the shock (touch proximity)
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5% – Experimenter left the room and instructed teacher by telephone (remote instruction proximity)
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3
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Uniforms are recognised as symbols of legitimate authority
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They asked passers-by to perform tasks –
people were 2x more likely to obey the security guard than the jacket and tie
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Strength: Miranda et al
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cannot be concluded that Milgram’s findings
Mantell (1971) found an obedience of 85% apply to people in all cultures
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Limitation: Orne and Holland (1968) – possible to have even more demand characteristics
than the original study due to manipulation of variables
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We cannot
conclude if the findings are due to genuine obedience or the fact that ppts saw through the
deception and “play-acted”
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It is offensive to survivors of the Holocaust to suggest that Nazis were simply
obeying orders
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Situational explanations of obedience – Agentic state
AO1
AO3
Agentic state – people believe they are acting for
Strength: Research support
someone else and they aren’t responsible: acting as
Most of Milgram’s ppts resisted giving shocks at
an agent for someone
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Ppts continued with no objections
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Blass & Schmitt (2001) showed a film to students
and they blamed the harm of the leaner on the
Autonomous state – opposite of agentic state
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An autonomous person is free to behave according
The ppts were acting as agents of authority,
to their own principles and feels a sense of
supporting the agentic state explanation
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Agentic shift – shift from
Strength: Explains real-life crimes of obedience
autonomy to agency
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All
someone else to be in authority could deny personal responsibility for their behaviour because they
(with more power in social
perceived themselves to be acting as agents of a higher authority
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Hofling’s nurse study: 21/22 obeyed doctor’s orders
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Binding factors – why an
Limitation: Limited explanation
individual remans in the agentic 1/3 ppts in Milgram’s baseline study disobeyed orders (65% obedience
state; aspects of the situation
rate)
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the damaging effect of their
The experimenter in Milgram’s study and the doctor in R&J’s study were
behaviour, reducing the moral
authority figures, but an agentic shift didn’t occur as their subordinates
strain they are feeling
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E
...
shifting the responsibility to Agentic state can only account for some situations of obedience – it
the victim
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There may be innate
Denying the damage they were
tendencies that make people more likely to obey/ disobey
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explanation may be a stronger explanation
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went all the way to 450V in a Milgram experiment
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Mantel – 85% of Germans went all the way to 450V
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obedience from individuals
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children are raised to perceive authority
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g
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of the explanation
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g
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power of authority in cruel Hofling’s nurse study: 21/22 obeyed orders from doctor
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This led to destructive authority, supporting this social-psychological
Present in Milgram’s
explanation of obedience
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to order the ppts
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There may be innate tendencies that make people more likely to obey/disobey
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Dispositional explanations of obedience
Authoritarian Personality – A type of personality that Adorno argued was especially susceptible to obeying
people in authority
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Adorno’s F-Scale
Aim: wanted to understand the anti-Semitism of the Holocaust
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He tried to locate the cause of this in the personality of the individual
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Findings: People with authoritarian leanings (scored high on F-Scale) identified with ‘strong’ people and were
contemptuous of the ‘weak’
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They had a cognitive style where there was no ‘fuzziness’ between categories of people
and had fixed stereotypes about other groups
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They scored
significantly higher on the FScale than disobedient ppts
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C/A: Low predictive validity: correlation doesn’t mean
causation
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g
...
So they are not directly linked
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g
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This means the link is complex and so the AP is not a useful
predictor of obedience
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This was even though they all differed in personality in multiple ways
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There must be a more realistic explanation e
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Social Identity
Theory: the Germans identified with anti-Semitism and scapegoated the 'outgroup’
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Christie &
Jahoda (1954) argue that extreme left-wing (Bolshevism and Maoism) have a lot in common
with right-wing ideologies – they both emphasise the importance of complete obedience to
legitimate political authority
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Based on
Limitation: Every item is worded in the same direction (acquiescence bias) – people could
flawed
just click and not actually read the question; it’s possible to get a high score for AP by just
methodology ticking the same line of boxes
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Therefore the AP explanation may not be valid if the method of measuring is so flawed
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Asch found that if the non-conforming confederate (dissenter) conforms again then so will the ppt
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AO3
Real-world
research
support

Research
support

Strength: Albrecht et al (2006) evaluated Teen Fresh
C/A: May et al (2007) carried out a
Start USA – helping pregnant teens resist pressure to
study to see whether SS could help
smoke
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SS was a good
smoke than a control group without a buddy
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After 26 weeks, the
direct orders because they had SS
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difference – getting positive support
This shows evidence of the positive effects of SS in
from friends and partners had no
society
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Strength: Allen & Levine (1971) found in a similar study to Asch’s that when there was a
dissenter conformity reduced (64% resisted), even when the dissenter was wearing thick
glasses (36%) vs no dissenter (3% resisted)
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This shows social support reduced social influence
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External LOC – People believe that others are in control of their lives
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People who have an internal LOC are more likely to resist social pressures to conform or obey
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These people are usually self-confident, more achievement-oriented, believe in hard work rather than
luck (not superstitious), independent and are more intelligent
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He found that 37% of internals did not
exaggerated as it only comes into play
continue to 450V whereas only 23% of externals
in new situations
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This supports the idea that
conformed/ obeyed in the past will do
resistance to SI is due to LOC
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Contradictory
Limitation: Twenge et al (2004) conducted a meta- analysis of studies over 4 decades and
research
found that, over time, people have become more external in their locus of control but also
more resistant to obedience, which does not support Rotter’s explanation
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This suggests that LOC is not a valid explanation of resistance to social influence
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Some may
issues
conform but not obey, and may have a high internal LOC
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This suggests that the LOC may not be a valid explanation of resistance to social influence
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Minority influence is likely to lead to internalisation, due to the deeper processing it causes
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Synchronic consistency – all the minority
group are saying the same thing at the same
time
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Commitment

Demonstrating dedication to their position,
e
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making personal sacrifices or engaging
in extreme activities
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Flexibility – accepting the possibility of
compromise because relentless
consistency could be counter-productive
and seen as unbending and unreasonable
by the majority
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Research support: Moscovici (1969)
Ppts asked if 36 blue-coloured slides were
green or blue
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Group 1 – consistent (36x) – 8% agreed, 32%
conformed at least once
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25% agreed
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25% were wrong
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The balance between consistency and
flexibility is key as it reduces putting off the
majority
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More people will switch viewpoints which
increases the rate of conversion
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AO3
Research
Strength: Moscovici’s study showed that a consistent
support for minority opinion had a greater effect on changing views
consistency than an inconsistent minority
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This suggests that presenting a consistent view
is a minimum requirement trying to influence a majority
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Ppts were then
exposed to a conflicting view and opinions were
measured again
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So
minority message was more deeply processed and had a
more enduring effect – supports central argument about
how minority influence works
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Perhaps this happens in the
real world because people don’t want to be associated
with a minority position for fear of being considered
‘radical’ or ‘weird’
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Findings suggest that although minority influence is
unusual, it is a valid form of SI as when it happens it
influences people very powerfully and permanently
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g
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Findings lack external validity so
we know little of how minority
influence works in the real world
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It is not
such a useful concept to explain
the vast majority of social
influence
C/A: Studies like Martin’s make
clear distinctions between
majority and minority – doing in a
controlled way is a strength for
minority influence research
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g
...
Most studies do
not capture the commitment that
minorities show towards their
causes, including the social
support that members give each
other when majority hostility
threatens to overwhelm them
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Social change
Social change – society adopts a new belief or way of behaving which becomes widely accepted as the norm
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Civil rights activists displayed consistency of message and intent, despite being in the
minority – there were many marches and many people taking part
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There were incidents where individuals risked their lives, e
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‘freedom riders’ were
beaten for challenging the fact that black people were made to sit separately on buses
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In 1964 the US Civil Rights Act was passed, prohibiting discrimination
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Where people have a memory where change has occurred but cannot remember the
events that led to the change
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Environmental and health campaigns exploit conformity processes by appealing to NSI
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Process of social change from Obedience
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Milgram’s research shows the importance of disobedient role models – obedience dropped to 10%
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AO3
Research
support
for NSI

Strength: Nolan et al (2008) wanted to see if they
could change people’s energy-use habits
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As a control group, some residents
were asked to save energy without referencing anyone
else’s behaviour
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Conformity to majority influence can lead to social
change through NSI – valid explanation
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Foxcroft et al (2015) reviewed 70 social
norms interventions where social
norms approach was used to reduce
student alcohol use
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Shows using NSI doesn’t always
produce long-term social change
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influence
When people consider minority arguments they engage in divergent thinking
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Nemeth argues that
change
this leads to better decisions and more creative solutions to social issues
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Role of
Limitation: Mackie (1987) disagrees that people are converted because they think more deeply
deeper
about minorities views and presents evidence that it is majority influence that may create
processing deeper processing
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A central element of minority influence has been challenged, casting doubt on its validity as an
explanation for social change
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The researchers found that ppts were less likely to behave in
change
environmentally-friendly ways because they didn’t want to be associated with ‘tree-huggers’
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