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NTRODUCTION TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
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

Overview of Consumer Behavior
Consumerism, Public Policy, and Ethics 

 
2:  INTRINSIC INFLUENCES
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Consumer Information Processing 
Cognitive Learning and Memory 
Behavioral Learning 
Social Influence and Compliance Techniques 
Motivation and Affect 
Personality and Psychographics 
Tripartite Model and Attitude Measurement 
Beliefs, Attitudes, and Behavior Change: the Fishbein Model 
Persuasion 
ELM: Involvement, Knowledge, and Persuasion 
Consumer Decision Processes 

 
3:  EXTRINSIC INFLUENCES
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
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Environmental and Situational Influences 
Group Influences 
Households and Families 
Cultural and International Issues 
Subculture

OVERVIEW
CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
the study of exchange processes involved in
acquiring, consuming, and disposing of
goods, services, experiences, and ideas
The study of consumer behavior (CB) incorporates theories and concepts from all of the behavioral
sciences:






cognitive, experimental, social psychology
sociology
anthropology
economics
- etc
...
Much of CB research has focused
on this stage
...
g
...
E
...
, what sorts of attitudes are you forming during the
time that you own a car, and how does this affect future purchases?
Disposition:
What consumers do with a product once they have completed their use of it
...
g
...

Consumer:
How to become a better consumer by learning how people go about consumption activities and how
marketers sell products
...


INFLUENCES ON CONSUMER BEHAVIOR
Intrinsic:
Individual, internal influence factors: personality, motivation, beliefs, attitudes, etc
...


PERSPECTIVES ON ACQUISITION BEHAVIOR
Decision-making
Consumers move through a series of steps when making a purchase:


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problem recognition
search
alternative evaluation
choice
post purchase evaluation



E
...
, we might go through the above steps in buying an expensive product such as a car or
house
...
Hence, we are interested in the intrinsic and extrinsic influences on this
model
...



E
...
, concerts, movies, camping: these are experiences that do not result in the ownership of a
physical thing, but rather result in a pleasant (or unpleasant) memory
...



E
...
, using a coupon, responding to a contest, feeling proud when the national song is played
...


EXCHANGE
a transfer of something,
tangible or intangible
actual or symbolic
between two or more social actors
Exchange occurs between organizations as well as between organizations and household consumers
...


Outcomes of B / Inputs of B
When would satisfaction be the result?

 

PUBLIC POLICY
REGULATORY ENVIRONMENT
the laws and regulations that federal, state, and local governments develop to exert control over
business practices
e
...
, in the U
...
:





Food and Drug Administration (FDA, 1906)
Federal Trade Commission (FTC, 1914)
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA 1970)
Consumer Product Safety Commission (1972)

These organizations attempt to ensure that all marketers are on an even playing field, and that the
market is fair for buyers
...
S
...
E
...
, DMA, local BBB
...


CONSUMERISM
the set of activities of government, business, independent organizations, and concerned consumers that
are designed to protect the rights of consumers

e
...
:



Consumers Union - Consumer Reports
Nader's Raiders

SOME PUBLIC POLICY ISSUES
Deceptive Advertising:
an ad which has the capacity to deceive a measurable (20 to 25%) segment of the public
Advertising Substantiation:
FTC (U
...
) idea that companies must provide evidence for the truth of their claims
Corrective Advertising:
advertising that is mandated by a federal agency (U
...
) to correct consumer impressions that were
formed by previously misleading advertising

CORPORATE SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY
idea that business has an obligation to help society with its problems by offering some of business's
resources

 CONSUMER INFORMATION PROCESSING
CONSUMER INFORMATION PROCESSING
the process through which consumers are
1
...

3
...

5
...


PERCEPTION
the process through which individuals are




exposed to information,
attend to the information, and
comprehend the information

Exposure:
consumers receive information through their senses
Attention:
consumers allocate processing capacity to a stimulus

Comprehension:
consumers interpret the information to obtain meaning from it

THE EXPOSURE STAGE
a consumer's sensory organs are activated by a stimulus
selective exposure:
consumers can actively choose whether or not to expose themselves to information


e
...
, zipping and zapping through a video tape (fast forwarding through commercials or turning
off the sound during commercials)

sensation:
the stimulation of a person's sensory receptors and the transmission of the sensory information to the
brain
Whether or not a stimulus is actually detected depends on its intensity:
absolute threshold:
the lowest level at which a stimulus can be detected 50% of the time
...
g
...

As involvement increases, consumers have greater motivation to comprehend and elaborate on
information salient to the purchase
...






Sensory
o preattention stage
o brief analysis to determine if additional processing capacity should be devoted to
stimulus
Short-Term
o where information is actively processed
Long-Term
o where information is stored after encoding for later retrieval

encoding:

the process of transferring information from short- to long-term memory for permanent storage

retrieval:

the process of accessing information stored in long-term memory so that it can be utilized in short-term
memory

MULTIPLE STORE MODEL OF MEMORY






Sensory Register(s)
o the immediate impression caused by the firing of the sensory nerve cells
o preattentive: determines if additional capacity should be allocated to processing
stimulus information
Short-Term Memory (STM)
o a
...
a
...
k
...
working memory
o can hold information for tens of seconds
o used for integrating inputs and LTM in"thinking"
o limited in capacity
Long-Term Memory (LTM)
o holds information for long periods of time (years)
o "unlimited" capacity

MILLER'S LAW:
Expanding the Limits of STM

Recall:

STM seems to be capacity limited at around seven bits of information, plus or minus two
Chunking:
the mental process of grouping together several pieces of information and treating them as a single set
A chunk uses about the same amount of capacity as a bit
...
====> higher arousal

...

What are the implications for advertising?

LONG TERM MEMORY
Testing LTM:

recognition task

person is asked to judge if information that is presented has been seen previously

recall task

person must retrieve the information from long-term memory
Consideration Set (evoked set)
the set of alternative brands that a consumer regards as acceptable for further consideration; ones
which are recalled (enter STM)

LONG-TERM MEMORY
Two basic types of interest to consumer researchers:
Episodic
refers to memories associated with events or episodes in our experiences


-e
...
, your first date

Semantic
refers to facts and other information that we store through language; verbal material


-e
...
, how to do addition

(Note: Mowen also distinguishes between semantic and visual memory
...
Mowen notes that pictorial information is recognized and
recalled more readily than verbal information
...
k
...
preconscious attention

STRENGTH OF LEARNING
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Importance (effort)
Reinforcement (consequences)
Repetition (refresh)
Imagery (multiple memories)

COGNITIVE PROCESSING TERMS
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Activation
Stored cognitive representations are made available for retrieval from memory for processing
...

Capacity Limits
The cognitive processing system has a finite limit in the amount of information that can be
processed at one time
...
e
...


FORGETTING
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

retroactive interference
after old material has been learned, new material interferes with the retrieval of old material
from memory
proactive interference
material learned prior to the new material interferes with the learning of the new material
advertising pulsing
forgetting occurs rapidly at first, and then levels off: why do advertisers often use a pulsing
strategy?

 

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING
TWO SCHOOLS OF THOUGHT
Cognitive
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"learning is knowledge"
focuses on internal characteristics
emphasizes the role of memory and thinking

Behavioral

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"learning as behavior"
focuses on changes in behavior that occur as a result of experience
emphasizes stimuli and response behaviors

SUMMARY OF LEARNING THEORIES
Reasoning
individuals use thinking to restructure and recombine existing information and new information to form
new associations and concepts
Iconic rote learning
two or more concepts become associated without conditioning and without reasoning
Vicarious learning (modeling)
behaviors are learned by watching the outcomes of others' behaviors or by imagining the outcome of
potential behavior
Operant (instrumental) conditioning
a response that is given reinforcement is more likely to be repeated when the same situation arises in
the future
Classical conditioning
a response elicited by one object will be elicited by the second object if both objects frequently occur
together

BEHAVIORAL LEARNING
a process in which experience with the environment leads to a relatively permanent change in behavior
or the potential for a change in behavior
Three major approaches:
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

classical conditioning
operant conditioning
vicarious learning

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
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stimulus =======> response
behavior is 'elicited'

OPERANT CONDITIONING


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behavior =======> reward (or punishment) [or positive/negative reinforcement]
behavioral response is 'emitted'
behavior is caused by altering the consequences that follow the behavior

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
any stimulus capable of eliciting autonomically an unconditioned response (note that it can be possible
for an unconditioned or 'unconditional' stimulus to have previously been conditioned)
unconditioned response (UCR)
the reflexive, involuntary response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
a previously neutral stimulus that, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, may elicit a conditioned
response
conditioned response (CR)
the response elicited by the conditioned stimulus when classical conditioning occurs

OPERANT CONDITIONING
operant
naturally occurring actions of an organism in the environment
reinforcements
stimuli that occur after the behavior, affecting the likelihood that the behavior will be emitted again by an
organism
extinction
the disappearance of a response due to lack of reinforcement
shaping
a process through which a new operant behavior is created by reinforcing successive approximations of
the desired behavior

 

SOCIAL INFLUENCE - COMPLIANCE TECHNIQUES
RECIPROCITY
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Guilt
o feel guilty====>action to reduce guilt
Door in the Face Effect (DITF)
o large request====>moderate request

COGNITIVE CONSISTENCY
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

Imagining an Event
o imagine an event====>commitment compliance
Foot in the Door Effect (FITD)
o small request====>moderate request
Low Ball Procedure
o decision====>increase in "cost"

VICARIOUS LEARNING


Overt Modeling
consumer observes modeled behavior and consequences
e
...
, commercial shows how to apply cosmetic and consequences of usage



Covert Modeling
consumer is told to imagine a model (or self) performing behavior and consequences
e
...
, travel agency ad: ""imagine you're on the warm, sunny beaches of Florida"



Verbal Modeling
consumer is given a description of how others similar to her/him self behave in purchase or
usage situation
e
...
, door-door volunteer collecting for worthy cause: "others on this street have been giving five
dollars on average"

MOTIVATION
MOTIVATION
an activated state within a person that leads to goal-directed behavior
motive:
a construct representing an unobservable force that stimulates and compels a behavioral response and
provides specific direction to that response

Needs occur when a perceived discrepancy exists between an actual and a desired state of being
Note that there are many theories of motivation:



Don't look at these as "right" or "wrong"; they are just theories
...


MULTIPLE MOTIVES
Consumers usually have multiple motives for particular behaviors
...


A model of motivation might look like:
unsatisfied need===>

...
drives===>

...
satisfied need===>

...

2
...

4
...


Physiological
Safety
Social
Esteem
Self actualization

You may use this theory as a conceptual guide; it is intuitively appealing
...
g
...
Bob spend a few years in a doctoral program, attempting to raise a
family of four on $725 per month, if "self actualization" shouldn't occur without first meeting lower order
needs?)
Nonetheless, one point that can be made from looking at Maslow's theory and from others is that we
can expect different people in different situations to be motivated in different ways and toward different
goals depending on what needs have been met
...


McCLELLAND'S THREE NEEDS THEORY


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

nACH:
need for achievement: drive to excel: drive to achieve in relation to a set of standards; to strive
to succeed
...

nAFF:
need for affiliation: the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
...
These people are high achieves
...
We all have more or
less of a need on some of these factors, making each of us motivated toward different personal goals
...
People who have a higher nPOW would probably make better leaders but could be
obnoxious "armtwisters" as salespeople
...

The point of this is to note that different people have different personalities
...



has to do with traits



has to do with individual differences

PERCEIVED RISK
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Financial - might the used car cost me too much to maintain?
Performance - might the car break down and leave me unable to get to school?
Physical - what if I get into an accident in a car without air bags?
Social - what will my friends think if I buy the pink car?
Time - what if I have to drive 100 miles each month to that dealer for warranty service on a new
car?
Psychological - what if I attend the more rigorous college but flunk out?
Opportunity loss - if I go to college now, how much will I lose by not working a "real" job?

 

PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOGRAPHICS
PERSONALITY
patterns of behavior that characterize each individual's adaptation to particular situations
Personality deals with relatively long-lasting personal qualities that allow us to respond to the world
around us
...
That all individuals have internal characteristics or traits
...
That there are consistent and measurable differences between individuals on those traits
...


CONSUMER SOCIAL PROFILE


culture/subculture

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social class
reference groups
stage in family life cycle
- etc
...


AIO INVENTORY
Activities
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work
hobbies
social events
vacation
entertainment
community
shopping
sports
club membership

Interests
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family
home
job
community
recreation
fashion
food
media
achievement

Opinions
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themselves
social issues
politics


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business
economics
education
products
future
culture

LIFESTYLE
how one lives
Lifestyle is a function of inherent individual characteristics that have been shaped through social
interaction as one moves through the lifecycle
...

- - "TOUCHY FEELY" - Demographic data alone, however, are inadequate
...

This equates to a continuum from stronger levels of intensity or strength to lower levels of intensity or
strength
...


Emotions are strong, relatively uncontrolled feelings that affect behavior:
- e
...
,
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anger
joy
fear
sadness
grief
jealousy

Emotions are accompanied by physiological changes:
- e
...



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

eye pupil dilation
increased perspiration
more rapid breathing
enhanced blood sugar level
increased heart rate and
blood pressure

Note: some social scientists distinguish between affect and emotion; I don't
...

Entities that are evaluated are known as attitude objects
...
g
...


Direction
Such evaluative responses are regarded as differing in valence or direction because they can be
classified into positive and negative evaluations
...
E
...
, slightly positive vs
...


MEASURING ATTITUDE
One-item Rating Scale
Compared to other brands, how much do you
like this product?
dislike it :__:__:__:__:__:__:__: like it
very much
very much

Likert Scale (short i)
1
...

___ strongly agree
___ agree
___ neutral
___ disagree
___ strongly disagree

2
...

___ strongly agree
___ agree
___ neutral
___ disagree
___ strongly disagree

3
...

___ strongly agree
___ agree
___ neutral
___ disagree
___ strongly disagree

What might be wrong with this set of questions?

MEASURING ATTITUDE
Likert Scale

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





assemble a large number of opinion statements relevant to the attitude issue
a large number of people express the extent of their own agreement or disagreement with each
of the statements
the scale assumes that each of the items measures the same underlying attitude
the responses to each individual item are summed to obtain a total test score
any items that do not correlate highly with the total test score are eliminated from the scale
a new (shorter) scale is constructed from the remaining items
a person's overall attitude is taken to be the sum of the individual items, or the average of the
items

MEASURING ATTITUDE
Semantic Differential Scale
Rate how you feel about this product
on each of the scales below
...

observable=======>inferred=======>observable
stimuli that
evaluative
denote atd
...
=======>attitude=======>responses
object
\
\
\=======>behavioral
responses

TRIPARTITE MODEL
Cognitive
thoughts that people have about the attitude object
Affective
feelings or emotions that people have in relation to the attitude object
Behavioral

peoples' actions with respect to the attitude object
Cognitive, affective, and behavioral responses to a stumulus are taken to suggest an overall attitude
about some object
...


 

BELIEFS AND ATTITUDE MEASUREMENT:
THE FISHBEIN MODEL
BELIEFS, ATTITUDES, AND BEHAVIORS
beliefs
the knowledge that a consumer has about objects, their attributes, and their benefits
objects
products, people, companies, and things about which people hold beliefs and attitudes
attributes
characteristics or features than an object might or might not have
benefits
the positive outcomes that attributes might provide to the consumer
Note: people buy a bundle of benefits, not product attributes; hence, benefit segmentation as a basis for
segmentation beliefs can differ between people beliefs and attitudes are directed toward some specific
object of those beliefs and attitudes

BELIEFS
Three types of beliefs:




1
...
attribute-benefit beliefs
3
...


BEHAVIORS AND BEHAVIORAL INTENTIONS
behaviors
everything that consumers do related to acquiring, using, and disposing of products

behavioral intentions
the intentions of consumers to behave in a particular way with regard to the acquisition, use, and
disposition of products
Note: behavioral intentions are presumed to precede behaviors
...


CREATING BELIEFS DIRECTLY
This can be done via cognitive learning and information processing
...

FORMING ATTITUDES DIRECTLY
Attitudes can be formed through:





classical conditioning
o e
...
, patriotic music during a TV commercial for a political candidate
operant conditioning
o e
...
, friends make positive or negative responses to your comments about a particular
car model
vicarious learning
o e
...
, a celebrity model is seen using a particular brand of cosmetics
mere exposure
o e
...
, Ace-Finderhol Ltd
...


1
...
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
extremely unlikely
...
How likely is it that Mountain Dew is made from all natural ingredients?

...
extremely likely
3
...
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
extremely unlikely
...
Mountain Dew has no caffeine
...
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
very bad
...
Mountain Dew has all natural ingredients
...
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
very bad
...
Mountain Dew has lemon-lime flavor
...
-3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
very bad
...


 

PERSUASION
PERSUASION
the explicit attempt to influence beliefs and attitudes
Communication
all aspects of a message, including the source of the message, the type of message, and through what
channel it moved
Message
information about some topic
Message Source
an individual or character who is presenting information about some topic
Channel of Communication
media through which information flows
Boomerang Effect
attitude changes in direction opposite to what was intended
Cognitive Responses

the thoughts that a person might develop in response to a message

SOURCE CHARACTERISTICS
our interest here is in source effects on persuasion
Source Credibility
the extent to which a source is perceived to have expertise and trustworthiness
Source Expertise
the extent of knowledge that the source is perceived to have about the subject on which s/he is
communicating
Source Trustworthiness
the extent to which the source is perceived to provide information in an unbiased, honest manner
Source Physical Attractiveness
Source Likability
positive or negative feelings that people have toward a source of information

MESSAGE CHARACTERISTICS
our interest here is on the effects of the content and construction of the message on persuasion
Message Content
Message Construction
Some Factors:









message complexity
comparative message
one-sided, two-sided message
fear
humor
vividness
primacy vs
...
, wearout)

Some Other Terms
Need for Cognition
measures the extent to which people have a tendency to engage in effortful cognitive activities
Attitude Toward the Advertisement

a person's general liking or disliking for the ad itself
Imagery
the extent to which an ad causes consumers to imagine their use of the product and to connect the ad
to their own feelings

 

PERSUASION AND THE
ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL
INVOLVEMENT
a state if energy (arousal) that a person experiences in regard to a consumption-related activity
Involvement is often thought of as a



continuum of personal relevance
continuum of a willingness to expend effort

This continuum is anchored by



HIGH involvement
LOW involvement

HIGH INVOLVEMENT



high levels of energy are aroused within the consumer
this energy is directed toward some particular consumer activity

A person under conditions of high involvement is likely to be thinking more or feeling more strongly
...

Two sided messages (both points of view) are more effective than one-sided messages in terms of
changing a strongly held attitude
...
e
...
These
influencers can be loosely classified as:




intrinsic
extrinsic
environmental/situational

PROBLEM RECOGNITION
occurs when there is a difference between a desired state and an actual state
...

Measurement of Evaluative Criteria:




direct methods:
o ask consumers what information they use in a particular purchase
o observe what consumers say about products and their attributes;
e
...
, focus groups
indirect methods:
o projective techniques:
allow a person to indicate what criteria someone else might use
o perceptual mapping:
consumers judge the similarity of alternative brands (often by ranking), which is
processed by a computer to derive a spatial configuration

PRODUCT POSITIONING
refers to the place an offering occupies in consumers' minds on important attributes relative to
competitive offerings
E
...
, which is more sporty, Porsche, Mercedes, or Cadillac? More prestigious? Expensive? Escort, Miata,
Neon, Viper?
What are some dimensions, or characteristics, that you might use to assess business schools?
On each of these dimensions, where would you position several schools relative to each other? E
...
,
Harvard University, Michigan State, Podunk College, Branfield Community Tech
...


QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
Uses nonstatistical, unstructured research methods in which consumers are enticed to reveal what they

can about their innermost thoughts, feelings, and motivations
...
"

story completion


Respondents complete a story
...


ALTERNATIVE EVALUATION
Surrogate indicator:
readily observable attribute of a product used to represent the performance level of a less observable
attribute


e
...
, price and brand name are often used by consumers as surrogate indicators of quality

Framing:
how a person perceives the value of something in relation to something else


e
...
, "mfgr's
...

Heuristics are the "rules of thumb" that people use to make judgments and decisions
...
g
...

Satisfaction or dissatisfaction is the difference between what was what is experienced and what
was expected
...

Also, recall the notion of cognitive dissonance, where a person experiences doubts
about the wisdom of a decision
...
This consumer will be dissatisfied
...
This consumer will be satisfied
...
m
...
m
...


Consumption:



Eating at an expensive restaurant with date at 6:30 p
...
Saturday evening
Eating at McDonald's at 6:30 a
...
Tuesday morning on the way to work
...

Shopping at Salvation Army for a dorm room sofa
...


REFERENCE GROUP
a group whose values, norms, attitudes, or beliefs are used as a guide for behavior by an individual

a group whose presumed perspectives or values are being used by an individual as the basis for her/his
current behavior in a specific situation
Note: as the situation changes, so do reference groups and so does out behavior
...
g
...


GROUP INFLUENCE




aspiration group:
a group to which an individual would like to belong
o What is the attraction of a Harley to different age groups?
Does a Harley have a Forbes or Hell's Angels image?
o What is the attraction of a "gold card" or an American Express card?
What are the long term strategic implications?
dissociative group:
a group with which a person does not wish to be associated
o Does a Harley have a Forbes or Hell's Angel's image?

Conformity:
the tendency to want to be like relevant and significant others
a change in behavior or belief toward a group as a result of real or imagined group pressure
Conformity is often viewed as following the crowd, not acting and thinking as an individual
...


Conformity: the Asch experiment
Eight subjects are asked which of three unequal lines is closest in length to a fourth line
...
These subjects are actually
working for the experimenter, but this is unknown to the eight subject
...

If the eighth subject makes a decision after hearing the incorrect choices of the other seven subjects,
then the eighth subject is very likely to make an incorrect response that is in agreement with the group
...
f
...


SOCIAL COMPARISON
the process through which people evaluate the 'correctness' of their opinions, the extent of their abilities,
and the appropriateness of their possessions

GROUP INFLUENCE
Role
prescribed pattern of behavior expected of a person in a given situation by virtue of the person's
position in that situation
Sanctions
punishments imposed on individuals for violating role parameters
Role parameters
range of behavior acceptable within a given role
Role overload
results when a person attempts to fill more roles than the available time, energy, or money allows
Role conflict
results when a person faces incompatible role demands in which roles demand different behaviors
Role stereotype
a shared visualization of the ideal performer of a given role
What sorts of products might a 'supermom' buy? How do product choices differ between a traditional
mom of the 1950s and a working mom, going to college, in the 1990s?

Word of Mouth (WOM) communications
refer to exchanges of comments, thoughts, or ideas between two or more consumers, none of whom
represent a marketing source


Joe Girrard: we each have about 250 friends, relatives, and acquaintances and will tell them
about good or bad experiences

OPINION LEADERS
those consumers who influence the purchase decisions of others
a group member who consistently filters, interprets, or provides information for others



direct flow of information:
a marketing communication flows directly from the marketing organization to a relevant market
segment
multistep flow of information:
a marketing communication is processed by opinion leaders and others as it flows to a relevant
market segment

Opinion leaders are likely to be used under conditions where an individual has low knowledge but is in a
high involvement situation
...
g
...


DIFFUSION OF INNOVATION
continuous innovation





usually modifications of existing products to improve performance, taste, reliability, etc
...

His solution: the world's first 'disposable' camera
...
The user paid $25 for the preloaded box and sent the whole box back to the
factory when all of the pictures had been taken
...
"

Teletronix has just introduced a new wristwatch which contains a "personal communicator
...

Picture and voice clarity is constrained due to the small physical size of the device
...
Price: $999; not
discounted due to limited distribution channels
...
Would you buy one of these?
2
...

Each stage presents the marketer with different opportunities
...
How does this relate to the
notion of routinized vs
...
g
...
vs
...
wrong, as in "lubrication"

CULTURE





Culture is comprehensive: it includes almost everything that influences an individual's thought
processes and behaviors
Culture is acquired or learned: it does not include inherited responses or predispositions
...

Culture supplies boundaries within which individuals think and act
...


CULTURE
Culture provides loose boundaries for individual behavior
...

norms
rules that specify or prohibit certain behaviors in specific situations; expectations of behaviors
regardless of position
cultural values
what is right, good, and important; widely held beliefs that affirm what is desirable
customs
basic actions such as what ceremonies are held and the roles played by the sexes
mores
customs that emphasize the moral aspects of behavior

NORMS: Nonverbal Communication
Time




polychronic vs
...
slow

Agreements


verbal vs
...
blue identifiers

Etiquette


generally accepted ways of behaving in social situations

SOME CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS
individual vs
...
  Nonetheless,
these are repeated here because they help to make an important point
...
S
...


e
...
,

baby boomers: people in the U
...
born between 1946 and 1964
mature market: increasing in size in the U
...

Note that many characteristics of subculture can be measured with demographics
...

Using demographics, we are interested in estimating:





market size - how many potential consumers?
market composition - who buys and who doesn't?
market location - where are the buyers?
market trends - what will the future bring?

Demographic Profile
a listing of the characteristics of the audience for a particular television show, magazine, or other
medium

CAUSES OF POPULATION GROWTH




Birth rate: fertility; number of births
Death rate: mortality; number of deaths
Net immigration: the number of people moving into or out of a country

What was the single most significant factor contributing to U
...
population growth prior to the baby
boom era?
What are some public policy changes in different countries that affect these factors?

AGE SUBCULTURES
American baby boom
1946-1964; high birth rate
American baby bust
1965-1980; low birth rate
...
k
...
"generation X"
...
" Do you agree or disagree with the claim that is made by several baby-boomer textbook
writers?

Mature consumer
Woopies?

SOCIAL CLASS SYSTEM
a hierarchical division of society into relatively distinct and homogeneous groups with respect to status,
wealth, education, possessions, and values
social class
distinguished in terms of esteem and prestige
Most frequently used measures:




education
occupation
income

These make up the U
...
Bureau of Census Index of Socioeconomic Status (SES)
The average of these scores results in an index with four classifications:





upper class
upper-middle class
lower-middle class
lower class

PROBLEMS IN THE USE OF SOCIAL CLASS







problem of definition
choice-behavior fallacy
husband-only fallacy
present social class fallacy
effect of aspirations and disdain

status crystallization
how consistent an individual is on various status dimensions




 

In the U
...
: which job has more prestige, a plumber or a professor?
Which has higher education? Education?
Which pays a higher "occupational privilege" tax in Pennsylvania?



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