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Talk in Life and Literature
Notes
Contextual factors
•
situational factors
•
status and relationships
•
discourse conventions
•
purposes

Lexico-grammatical features
•
types of utterance
•
figurative language
•
rhetorical questions

Interactional features
•
turn-taking
•
pauses
•
talk as action
•
agenda-setting in conversation
•
modes of address

phonological and graphological features
•
intoxication
•
word stress
•
tone of voice
•
accent
•
pace
•
volume
•
typography

Content words:
•
nouns
•
adjectives
•
verbs
•
adverbs
•
OPEN SET – WE CAN CHANGE
THEM
...
e
...
e
...
Chair (Chairman)
Concrete vs Abstract
•
concrete – the thing that physically exists
...
g
...
e
...
hostility, fear
...
e
...
e
...
sand – cannot say 'five sands' – doesn't make
sense
...

'TO BE'
st

PRESENT

PAST

SINGULAR

1 person
2nd person
3rd person

I
You
he/she/it

Am
are
is

Was
was
was

PURAL

1st person
2nd person
3rd person

We
you
they

Are
are
are

Were
were
were

TRANSCRIPTS
•
•
•

Record of conversation that has already taken place
...

Language in transcripts is not usually tidies up or connected, can be confusing to
read them aloud
...

No capital letters or sentence punctuation
...
Longer pauses often
shown by a number in brackets, representing the number of seconds the pause
lasted for
...
g
...

Each turn in the exchange is called a move
...
These are called ADJACENCY
PAIRS
...


e
...

[“How was your day?”
“good thanks,[ [yours?”
“yeah, good thanks
...
] = one adjacency pair
...

Initiating utterances signal the need for a response from the other participants
...

◦ Interrogative: what did she say to you?
◦ Declarative: I cannot stand people who agree all the time
...


ALLOCATING TURNS
•
•
•
•

intonation clues: rising intonation suggests the speaker is not finished
...

Sometimes the turn is allocated by naming another person
...
This is called self-selection
...


INTERATIONAL FEATURES
→ BACK CHANNEL BEHAVIOUR
•

•

•
•

Listeners can also indicate they want the speaker to continue their turn by uttering
short and encouraging sounds or works
...
e
...

e
...

◦ Assessments: express some form of appreciation of what has just been said
...
g
...

◦ Newsmarkers: mark the speaker's turn as news
...
g
...

Questions either:
◦ indicate interest by asking for further details
...

Collaborative completions – finishing each other's utterances
...
It can be interesting to see
how these transactions are managed
...

Also, it is interesting to note who establishes the topic of conversation
...
'Changing the subject' is a familiar way of avoiding
another topic
...

They can be broken!
Quantity: give the right amount of information:
◦ Make your contribution as informative as is appropriate
...

•
Quality: try to make your contribution one that is true:
◦ do not say what you believe to be false
...

•
Relevance: be relevant:
◦ talk about the same topic
•
Manner: Be clear:
◦ avoid obscurity of expression
...

The maxims are not a set of rules that must be followed, rather, they are a set of
guidelines that can be applied after a conversation has taken place to gain a deeper
understanding
...

•
Violate: when a speaker intentionally departs from a maxim
...

•

LANGUAGE AND GENDER
→ Keith and Shuttleworth
Women use language
...


talk more than men
talk too much
are more polite
indecisive and hesitant
complain and nag
ask more questions
support each other
are more co-operative

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Swear more
don't talk about their emotions
talk about sport
talk about women and machines in a
similar manner
...

Give more commands
interrupt more
...

Modes of address:
•
first name
•
title and surname
•
full name
•
relationship
•
honorific
•
endearment
•
altered first name
•
nickname
TABOO LANGUAGE
situation –
•
classroom/formal situation – unacceptable
•
friends/informal situation – more acceptable
age –
•
young people – seen as unacceptable
•
some use it in everyday dialect
•
women seen as unladylike to use taboo language
...

◦ would you turn the music down please?
◦ I wonder if I could ask you to turn the music down
...

These principles assume a cosy world where social pleasantries are everything
...

Brown and Levinson •
developed a politeness strategy around the concept of face, which refers to our
public self-image
...

•
Negative face refers to our right not to be imposed on
...

•
Positive politeness strategies should be used with friends to emphasise solidarity,
such as:
◦ shared dialect
◦ informal lexis
◦ informal grammar
◦ more direct requests
...


PURPOSES OF TALK IN LIFE
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Expressive – revealing feelings and emotions
...

Transactional – talk used to obtain goods, services or ideas
...

Expository – explaining
...

Persuasive – to persuade
...

Performative – talk which can be treated as the performance of an act
...
g
...


Purposes of crafted talk:
•
•
•
•
•
•

creating or revealing character
advancing the plot or narrative
describing a place or situation
conveying mood and emotion or creating atmosphere
expressing opinions or feelings
addressing the audience and initiating empathy/sympathy and some involvement
...

The immediate context is still important, but so is the context in which the text was
originally produced
...


ATTITUDES AND VALUES
'Values' → the deep-seated beliefs that someone holds
...

•
•
•
•

Look at how discourse is organised, what is being talked about and how it is
expressed
...

Interpretations of attitudes and values – may vary between individuals
...

Two layers – attitudes and values of the speaker and also the underlying attitudes
and values of the author
...
E
...
It can:
•
progress the plot-line
•
make the audience believe the representation are real people
•
reveal aspects of character
•
give audiences more knowledge than the characters possess
•
create a relationship between audience and character
•
relay information and imply a past which has relevance to the present
•
predict the rest of the action
•
move the action along
•
comment on the action
Realistic dialogue →
•
modern drama – tries to give an impression of real-life; particularly true of soap
opera
...
For
example, Eastenders
...

Stylised dialogue →
•
writing in the style of the era
...
g
...
Dialogue has to fit with the time and genre

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