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CHAPTER 18

Transformations in Europe, 1500–1750

I
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Religious Reformation
1
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Pope Leo X raised
money for the new basilica by authorizing the sale of indulgences
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The German monk Martin Luther challenged the Pope on the issue of
indulgences and other practices that he considered corrupt or not Christian
...

3
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Calvin argued that salvation was God’s
gift to those who were predestined and that Christian congregations should be
self-governing and stress simplicity in life and in worship
...
The Protestant Reformation appealed not only to religious sentiments, but also to
Germans who disliked the Italian-dominated Catholic Church and to peasants
and urban workers who wanted to reject the religion of their masters
...
The Catholic Church agreed on a number of internal reforms and a reaffirmation
of fundamental Catholic beliefs in the Council of Trent
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”
6
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B
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European concepts of the natural world were derived from both local folk
traditions and Judeo-Christian beliefs
...

2
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In the witch-hunts over 100,000
people (three-fourths of them women) were tried and about half of them
executed on charges of witchcraft
...
Modern historians have sought to explain the witch-hunts as manifestations of
fear of unattached women or in terms of social stress
...

C
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European intellectuals derived their understanding of the natural world from the
writings of the Greeks and the Romans
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2
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The observations of Copernicus and other scientists including Galileo
undermined this earth-centered model of the universe and led to the introduction
of the Copernican sun-centered model
...
The Copernican model was initially criticized and suppressed by Protestant
leaders and by the Catholic Church
...

4
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Newton’s discoveries led to the development
of Newtonian physics
...

D
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The advances in scientific thought inspired European governments and groups of
individuals to question the reasonableness of accepted practices in fields ranging
from agriculture to laws, religions, and social hierarchies
...

2
...

3
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These thinkers were not a homogeneous group; they
drew inspiration from disparate sources and espoused a variety of agendas
...

4
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Social and Economic Life
A
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Europe's cities experienced spectacular growth between 1500 and 1700
...
The wealthy urban bourgeoisie thrived on manufacturing, finance, and especially
on trade, including the profitable trade in grain
...
Amsterdam's growth, built on trade and finance, exemplifies the power of
seventeenth-century bourgeoisie enterprise
...
The bourgeoisie forged mutually beneficial relationships with the monarchs and
built extensive family and ethnic networks to facilitate trade between different
parts of the world
...
Partnerships between merchants and governments led to the development of
joint-stock companies and stock exchanges
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6
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7
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B
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While serfdom declined and disappeared in Western Europe, it gained new
prominence in Eastern Europe
...
African slaves, working in the Americas, contributed greatly to Europe's
economy
...
It is possible that the condition of the average person in Western Europe declined
between 1500 and 1700
...
New World crops helped Western European peasants avoid starvation
...


High consumption of wood for heating, cooking, construction, shipbuilding, and
industrial uses led to severe deforestation in Europe in the late seventeenth and
early eighteenth centuries
...

6
...
Some
efforts were also made to conserve forests and to plant trees, particularly in order
to provide wood for naval vessels
...
Deforestation had particularly severe effects on the rural poor who had relied on
free access to forests for wood, building materials, nuts and berries, and wild
game
...
The urban poor consisted of “deserving poor” (permanent residents) and large
numbers of “unworthy poor”—migrants, peddlers, beggars, and criminals
...
Women and the Family
1
...

2
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The young people of the bourgeois
class also married late, partly because men delayed marriage until after finishing
their education
...

3
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4
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III
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State Development
1
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Charles was able to forge a coalition to defeat the Ottomans at the
gates of Vienna in 1529, but he was unable to unify his many territorial
possessions
...
Lutheran German princes rebelled against the French-speaking Catholic Charles,
seizing church lands and giving rise to the German Wars of Religion
...

3
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B
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The rulers of Spain and France successfully defended state-sponsored
Catholicism against the Protestant challenge
...
In England, Henry VIII challenged papal authority and declared himself head of
the Church of England
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C
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In England, a conflict between Parliament and king led to a civil war and the
establishment of a Puritan republic under Oliver Cromwell
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2
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E
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Louis XIV’s finance minister Colbert was able to increase revenue
through more efficient tax collection and by promoting economic growth while
Louis entertained and controlled the French nobility by requiring them to attend
his court at Versailles
...
Constant warfare in early modern Europe led to a military revolution in which
cannon, muskets, and commoner foot soldiers became the mainstays of European
armies
...

2
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3
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England took the lead in the development of new naval technology, as
was demonstrated when the English Royal Navy defeated Spain’s Catholic
Armada in 1588, signaling an end to Spain’s military dominance in Europe
...
With the defeat of Spain, France rose as the strongest power on continental
Europe, while its rival England held superiority in naval power
...

5
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Paying the Piper
1
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The Spanish, however, undermined their economy by driving out Jews,
Protestants, and the descendants of Muslims so that the bullion they gained from
their American empire was spent on payments to creditors and for manufactured
goods and food
...
The northern provinces of the Netherlands wrested their autonomy from Spain
and became a dominant commercial power
...

3
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The English government also improved its financial position by collecting
taxes directly and by creating a central bank
...
The French government streamlined tax collection, used protective tariffs to
promote domestic industries, and improved its transportation network
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