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CAMBRIDGE

English Phonetics and
Phonology
A practical course
Peter Roach
Fourth edition
English Phonetics and Phonology
A practical course
English Phonetics and Phonology: A practical course by Peter Roach has been a leading coursebook on English
pronunciation for twenty-five years
...
Each unit ends with notes on issues
that deserve further study and recommendations for further reading, as well as notes for teachers and written
exercises
...

The new edition adds to this a website with additional written and spoken exercises, as well as a wealth of
other material offering a wider perspective on the subject
...
cambridge
...
He is the principal editor of the Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary,
71th edition, and a member of the International Phonetic Association, the British Association of Academic
Phoneticians and IATEFL
...
He is now Emeritus Professor of Phonetics
at the University of Reading
...


CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS

7

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo, Delhi
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB7 5RU, UK
www
...
org
Information on this title: www
...
org/1250879292707
© Cambridge University Press 7001
This publication is in copyright
...

First published 9157
Fourth edition 7001
Printed in Italy by G
...
S
...
A
...
- 7th ed
...
cm
...

ISBN 125-0-879-29270-7 (pbk
...
English language - Phonetics
...
English language - Phonology
...
English language - Study
and teaching - Foreign speakers
...
Title
...
R88 7001
779'
...


7

Contents

Preface to the fourth edition
ix
List of symbols x
Chart of the International Phonetic Alphabet

xii

1
...
The production of speech sounds 8
•
Articulators above the larynx 8
•
Vowel and consonant 01
•
English short vowels 03
3
...
Voicing and consonants
22
•
The larynx 22
•
Respiration and voicing 22
•
Plosives 21
•
English plosives 21
•
Fortis and lenis
28
5
...
Fricatives and affricates 13
•
Production of fricatives and affricates 33
•
The fricatives of English 01
•
The affricates of English 43
•
Fortis consonants 00
7
...
The syllable 61
•
The nature of the syllable
31
•
The structure of the English syllable 57
•
Syllable division 05
9
...
Stress in simple words
31
•
The nature of stress 73
•
Levels of stress 74
•
Placement of stress within the word

75

11
...
Weak forms

83

8

13
...
Aspects of connected speech 103
•
Rhythm 011
•
Assimilation 115
•
Elision 003
•
Linking 003
15
...
Intonation 2 123
•
The tone-unit 023
•
The structure of the tone-unit 031
•
Pitch possibilities in the simple tone-unit

033

17
...
Functions of intonation 1 161
•
The attitudinal function of intonation
•
Expressing attitudes
031

001

6

19
...
Varieties of English pronunciation
111
•
The study of variety 010
•
Geographical variation 012
•
Other sources of variation 013
21
...
Answers to written exercises 200
23
...

My debt to them, which in some cases dates back more than twenty-five years, remains, and I have put copies of
the Prefaces to the first three editions on the new website of the book so that those acknowledgements are not lost
and forgotten
...
Any errors that remain are entirely my fault
...

As in all previous editions, I want to thank my wife Helen for all her help and support
...
syllable division, as in 'differ' 

7 Word stress
 primary stress, as in 'open' 
 secondary stress, as in 'half time' 
7 Intonation

 tone-unit boundary
 pause
Tones: \ fall
/ rise
 fall-rise
 rise-fall
- level
 stressed syllable in head, high pitch, as in please \do
 stressed syllable in head, low pitch, as in please \do

...
turn
 extra pitch height, as in \my
...


99

1 Introduction
You probably want to know what the purpose of this course is, and what you can expect to learn from it
...
If this was the only thing the
course did, a more suitable title would have been "English Pronunciation"
...
Why is it necessary to learn this theoretical background? A similar question
arises in connection with grammar: at lower levels of study one is concerned simply with setting out how
to form grammatical sentences, but people who are going to work with the language at an advanced level
as teachers or researchers need the deeper understanding provided by the study of grammatical theory and
related areas of linguistics
...

1
...
It is designed to be studied from beginning to end, with the
relevant exercises being worked on for each chapter, and it is therefore quite different from a reference
book
...
You may be working under the supervision of a teacher, or working through the course
individually; you may be a native speaker of a language that is not English, or a native English-speaker
...




Notes for teachers: this gives some ideas that might be helpful to teachers using the book to teach
a class
...

Answers to the exercises are given on pages 700-1
...


97



Additional exercises: you will find more written and audio exercises, with answers, on the book's
website
...
The exercises for Chapter 9 are
mainly aimed at helping you to become familiar with the way the written and audio exercises work
...
2 The English Phonetics and Phonology website

If you have access to the Internet, you can find more information on the website produced to go with this
book
...
cambridge
...
Everything on the website is additional
material - there is nothing that is essential to using the book itself, so if you don't have access to the
Internet you should not suffer a disadvantage
...




Links to useful websites
...




Recordings of talks given by Peter Roach
...




A Glossary giving brief explanations of the terms and concepts found in phonetics and phonology
...
3 Phonemes and other aspects of pronunciation

The nature of phonetics and phonology will be explained as the course progresses, but one or two basic
ideas need to be introduced at this stage
...

Because of the notoriously confusing nature of English spelling, it is particularly important to learn to
think of English pronunciation in terms of phonemes rather than letters of the alphabet; one must be
aware, for example, that the word 'enough' begins with the same vowel phoneme as that at the beginning
of 'inept' and ends with the same consonant as 'stuff'
...
The symbols are always printed in blue type in this book to distinguish them from letters of the
alphabet
...
x-xi, and the chart of the International Phonetic Association
(IPA) on which the symbols are based is reproduced on p
...

Chapters 7 and 7 deal with vowels and Chapter 7 with some consonants
...
After the phonemes of English have been
introduced, the rest of the course goes on to look at larger units of speech such as the syllable and at
aspects of speech such as stress (which could be roughly described as the relative strength of a syllable)
and intonation (the use of the pitch of the voice to convey meaning)
...
In the former the stress is on the first syllable, while in the latter it is on the
second syllable
...

You will have to learn a number of technical terms in studying the course: you will find that when they
are introduced in order to be defined or explained, they are printed in bold type
...
Another
convention to remember is that when words used as examples are given in spelling form, they are
enclosed in single quotation marks - see for example 'pin', 'pen', etc
...
Words are sometimes printed in italics to mark them as specially important in a particular
context
...
2 Accents and dialects

Languages have different accents: they are pronounced differently by people from different geographical
places, from different social classes, of different ages and different educational backgrounds
...
We use the word dialect to refer to a variety of a language which is
different from others not just in pronunciation but also in such matters as vocabulary, grammar and word
order
...

The accent that we concentrate on and use as our model is the one that is most often recommended for
foreign learners studying British English
...
Since it is most
familiar as the accent used by most announcers and newsreaders on BBC and British independent
television broadcasting channels, a preferable name is BBC pronunciation
...
However, the accent described here is typical of broadcasters with an English accent, and
there is a useful degree of consistency in the broadcast speech of these speakers
...


97

This course is not written for people who wish to study American pronunciation, though we look briefly
at American pronunciation in Chapter 70
...
There are exceptions to this - you can find accents in parts of Britain
that sound American, and accents in North America that sound English
...

In talking about accents of English, the foreigner should be careful about the difference between England
and Britain; there are many different accents in England, but the range becomes very much wider if the
accents of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland (Scotland and Wales are included in Britain, and
together with Northern Ireland form the United Kingdom) are taken into account
...
This is a very rough division, and there can be endless argument over where the
boundaries lie, but most people on hearing a pronunciation typical of someone from Lancashire,
Yorkshire or other counties further north would identify it as "Northern"
...
There is no implication that other accents are inferior or less pleasantsounding; the reason is simply that BBC is the accent that has usually been chosen by British teachers to
teach to foreign learners, it is the accent that has been most fully described, and it has been used as the
basis for textbooks and pronunciation dictionaries
...
In reality there is no such accent,
and the term should be used with care
...

If you are a native speaker of English and your accent is different from BBC you should try, as you work
through the course, to note what your main differences are for purposes of comparison
...
If you are a learner of English you are
recommended to concentrate on BBC pronunciation initially, though as you work through the course and
become familiar with this you will probably find it an interesting exercise to listen analytically to other
accents of English, to see if you can identify the ways in which they differ from BBC and even to learn to
pronounce some different accents yourself
...
'BBC
pronunciation' is used in recent editions of the Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (Jones, eds
...
Roach et al, 7006)
...
Where I quote other
writers who have used the term RP in discussion of standard accents, I have left the term unchanged
...
The BBC has an excellent Pronunciation Research Unit to advise broadcasters on the
pronunciation of difficult words and names, but most people are not aware that it has no power to make
broadcasters use particular pronunciations: BBC broadcasters only use it on a voluntary basis
...
However, it seems that the majority of English
teachers would be reluctant to learn to speak in the classroom with a non-English accent, so this is not a
practical possibility
...
We will
return to the subject of accents of English in Chapter 70
...
However, I would recommend looking at Collins and Mees (7005: 8-6, 706-5, 765-727);
Cruttenden (7005: 52)
...
In the past, many different conventions have been proposed and students have often been
confused by finding that the symbols used in one book are different from the ones they have learned in
another
...
C
...
These symbols are now used in almost all modern works on English pronunciation
published in Britain, and can therefore be looked on as a de facto standard
...
The subject of symbolisation is
returned to in Section 8
...

Notes for teachers

Pronunciation teaching has not always been popular with teachers and language-teaching theorists, and in
the 9120s and 9150s it was fashionable to treat it as a rather outdated activity
...
A good example of this attitude is to be
found in Brown and Yule (9157: 76-2)
...
There are very active groups of pronunciation teachers who meet at
TESOL and IATEFL conferences, and exchange ideas via Internet discussions
...
To claim this mixes up models with goals: the model chosen is BBC (RP), but the goal is normally
to develop the learner's pronunciation sufficiently to permit effective communication with native
speakers
...
It is, incidentally, quite incorrect to suggest that the classic works on
pronunciation and phonetics teaching concentrated on mechanically perfecting vowels and consonants:
Jones (9186, first published 9101), for example, writes " 'Good' speech may be defined as a way of
speaking which is clearly intelligible to all ordinary people
...
A person may speak with sounds very different from those of
his hearers and yet be clearly intelligible to all of them, as for instance when a Scotsman or an American
addresses an English audience with clear articulation
...
7-8)
...
This is a different goal from that of this book, which concentrates on a specific accent
...

There are many different and well-tried methods of teaching and testing pronunciation, some of which are
used in this book
...
(9116) and Hewings (7007)
...
The answers to the exercises are given on page 700
...


92

7 What is the difference between accent and dialect1
...


95

2 The production of speech sounds

2
...
The muscles in the chest
that we use for breathing produce the flow of air that is needed for almost all speech sounds; muscles in
the larynx produce many different modifications in the flow of air from the chest to the mouth
...
Here the air from the lungs escapes into the atmosphere
...
These different parts are called articulators, and the study of them is called articulatory
phonetics
...
9 is a diagram that is used frequently in the study of phonetics
...
You will need to look at it carefully as the
articulators are described, and you will find it useful to have a mirror and a good light placed so that you
can look at the inside of your mouth
...
It is about 2 cm long in women and
about 5 cm in men, and at its top end it is divided into two, one

91

part being the back of the oral cavity and the other being the beginning of the way through the nasal
cavity
...

ii) The soft palate or velum is seen in the diagram in a position that allows air to pass through the
nose and through the mouth
...
The other important thing about the soft palate is that it
is one of the articulators that can be touched by the tongue
...

iii) The hard palate is often called the "roof of the mouth"
...
A consonant made with the tongue close to the hard palate is called palatal
...

iv) The alveolar ridge is between the top front teeth and the hard palate
...
Its surface is really much rougher than it feels, and is covered with little ridges
...
Sounds made with the tongue touching here (such as t, d, n) are called alveolar
...
It is usual to divide the tongue into different parts, though there are no clear
dividing lines within its structure
...
7 shows the tongue on a larger scale with these parts
shown: tip, blade, front, back and root
...
)
vi) The teeth (upper and lower) are usually shown in diagrams like Fig
...
This is for the sake of a simple diagram, and you should
remember that most speakers have teeth to the sides of their mouths, back almost to the soft
palate
...
Sounds made
with the tongue touching the front teeth, such as English T, D, are called dental
...
They can be pressed together (when we produce the sounds p, b),
brought into contact with the teeth (as in f, v), or rounded to produce the lip-shape for vowels like
u:
...

The seven articulators described above are the main ones used in speech, but there are a few other things
to remember
...
Secondly, the jaws are sometimes called articulators;
certainly we move the lower jaw a lot in speaking
...
Finally, although there is
practically nothing active that we can do with the nose and the nasal cavity when speaking, they are a
very important part of our equipment for making sounds (which is sometimes called our vocal
apparatus), particularly nasal consonants such as m, n
...

2
...
The most common view is that
vowels are sounds in which there is no obstruction to the flow of air as it passes from the larynx to the
lips
...
But if we make a sound like s, d it can
be clearly felt that we are making it difficult or impossible for the air to pass through the mouth
...
However, there are many
cases where the decision is not so easy to make
...
Another problem is that different languages have different
ways of dividing their sounds into vowels and consonants; for example, the usual sound produced at the
beginning of the word 'red' is felt to be a consonant by most English speakers, but in some other languages (e
...
Mandarin Chinese) the same sound is treated as one of the vowels
...
It is possible to establish two distinct groups of sounds (vowels and consonants) in another
way
...
g
...
Now think of English words beginning with the two sounds bI; we find many cases where a
consonant can follow (e
...
d in the word 'bid', or l in the word 'bill'),

79

but practically no cases where a vowel may follow
...
Study of the sounds found at the beginning and end of
English words has shown that two groups of sounds with quite different patterns of distribution can be
identified, and these two groups are those of vowel and consonant
...
It is important to remember that the
distribution of vowels and consonants is different for each language
...
We need to know in what
ways vowels differ from each other
...
It
is usual to simplify the very complex possibilities by describing just two things: firstly, the vertical
distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the palate and, secondly, the part of the tongue,
between front and back, which is raised highest
...
Now make an { vowel (as
in the word 'cat') and notice how the distance between the surface of the tongue and the roof of the mouth
is now much greater
...
Tongue height can be changed by
moving the tongue up or down, or moving the lower jaw up or down
...
9 and Fig
...
So we would illustrate the tongue height
difference between i: and  as in Fig
...


77

ii) In making the two vowels described above, it is the front part of the tongue that is raised
...
By changing the shape of the
tongue we can produce vowels in which a different part of the tongue is the highest point
...
If you make the vowel
in the word 'calm', which we write phonetically as , you can see that the back of the tongue is
raised
...
The
vowel in 'too' () is also a comparatively back vowel, but compared with a: it is close
...

Front
Back


Close


Open
However, this diagram is rather inaccurate
...
These cardinal vowels are a standard
reference system, and people being trained in phonetics at an advanced level have to learn to make them
accurately and recognise them correctly
...
They are recorded on
Track 79 of CD 7
...
7 - the design used here is the one recommended by the International Phonetic Association)
...

The vowels in Fig
...
In this course cardinal vowels are printed within square brackets
[ ] to distinguish them clearly from English vowel sounds
...
9 has the symbol [i], and is defined as the vowel which is as close and as front as it is
possible to make a vowel without obstructing the flow of air enough to produce friction noise; friction
noise is the hissing sound that one hears in consonants like s or f
...
8 has the symbol [a]
and is defined as the most open and back vowel that it is possible to make
...
5 [u] is
fully close and back and no
...
After establishing these extreme points, it is
possible to put in intermediate points (vowels no
...
Many students when they hear these
vowels find that they sound strange and exaggerated; you must remember that they are extremes of vowel
quality
...
If the map is to be useful to you it must cover all the area; but if it covers the whole area of
interest it must inevitably go a little way beyond that and include some places that you might never want
to go to
...
For example, we can say that the English vowel { (the
vowel in 'cat') is not as open as cardinal vowel no
...
We have now looked at how we can classify
vowels according to their tongue height and their frontness or backness
...
Although the lips can have many different shapes and
positions, we will at this stage consider only three possibilities
...
This is most clearly seen in cardinal vowel no
...

ii) Spread, with the corners of the lips moved away from each other, as for a smile
...
9 [i]
...
The noise most English people make
when they are hesitating (written 'er') has neutral lip position
...


 AU7, Exs 9-8

2
...
The symbols
for these short vowels are: I,e, {, V, Q, U
...

Each vowel is described in relation to the cardinal vowels
...
9 [] it is more open, and nearer in to the centre
...
7 [e] and no
...
The lips are slightly spread
...

7 []
...

 (example words: 'cut', 'come', 'rush') This is a central vowel, and the diagram shows that it is more
open than the open-mid tongue height
...

 (example words: 'pot', 'gone', 'cross') This vowel is not quite fully back, and between open-mid
and open in tongue height
...

 (example words: 'put', 'pull', 'push') The nearest cardinal vowel is no
...
The lips are rounded
...
This central vowel - which is called schwa - is
a very familiar sound in English; it is heard in the first syllable of the words 'about', 'oppose', 'perhaps', for
example
...

Notes on problems and further reading

One of the most difficult aspects of phonetics at this stage is the large number of technical terms that have
to be learned
...
Useful introductions are
Ladefoged (7006: Chapter 9), Ashby (7008), and Ashby and Maidment (7008: Chapter 7)
...
He suggested that
since the two approaches to the distinction produce such different results we should use new terms:
sounds which do not obstruct the airflow (traditionally called "vowels") should be called vocoids, and
sounds which do obstruct the airflow (traditionally called "consonants") should be called contoids
...
5 of Laver (9117)
...
A study of the
distributional differences between vowels and consonants in English is described in O'Connor and Trim
(9187); a briefer treatment is in Cruttenden (7005: Sections 7
...
6)
...
The Handbook of the International Phonetic Association (9111: Section 7
...
The distinction

78

between primary and secondary cardinal vowels is a rather dubious one which appears to be based to
some extent on a division between those vowels which are familiar and those which are unfamiliar to
speakers of most European languages
...

Written exercises

9 On the diagram provided, various articulators are indicated by labelled arrows (a-e)
...


7 Using the descriptive labels introduced for vowel classification, say what the following cardinal
vowels are:
a) [u]
b) [e]
c) [a]
d) [i]
e) [o]
7 Draw a vowel quadrilateral and indicate on it the correct places for the following English vowels:
a) 
b) 
C) 
d) 
7 Write the symbols for the vowels in the following words:
a) bread b) rough c) foot
d) hymn
e) pull
f) cough g) mat
h) friend

76

3 Long vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs

3
...
In this chapter we look at other types of English vowel
sound
...
It is necessary to say "in similar contexts" because, as we
shall see later, the length of all English vowel sounds varies very much according to their context (such as
the type of sound that follows them) and the presence or absence of stress
...

Thus we have  We will now look at each of these long vowels individually
...
If we compare some similar pairs of long and short vowels, for example  with , or 
with , or  with , we can see distinct differences in quality (resulting from differences in tongue shape
and position, and lip position) as well as in length
...
Perhaps the only case where a long and a short vowel are closely similar in quality is that of 
and  but  is a special case - as we shall see later
...
9 [i] (i
...
it is
closer and more front) than is the short vowel of 'bid', 'pin', 'fish' described in Chapter 7
...
9, the lips are only slightly spread
and this results in a rather different vowel quality
...
The lip
position is neutral
...
8
[a], but not as back as this
...

 (example words: 'board', 'torn', 'horse') The tongue height for this vowel is between cardinal vowel
no
...
2 [], and closer to the latter
...

 (example words: 'food', 'soon', 'loose') The nearest cardinal vowel to this is no
...

2
...
A vowel which remains constant and does not glide is called a pure vowel
...
Perhaps the most important
thing to remember about all the diphthongs is that the first part is much longer and stronger than the
second part; for example, most of the diphthong  (as in the words 'eye', 'I') consists of the a vowel, and
only in about the last quarter of the diphthong does the glide to I become noticeable
...
As a result, the  part is shorter and quieter
...

The total number of diphthongs is eight (though  is increasingly rare)
...
2):

75

The centring diphthongs glide towards the  (schwa) vowel, as the symbols indicate
...

 (example words: 'moored', 'tour', 'lure') For speakers who have this
diphthong, this has a starting point similar to  in 'put', 'pull'
...

The closing diphthongs have the characteristic that they all end with a
glide towards a closer vowel
...
The important thing is that a glide
from a relatively more open towards a relatively closer vowel is produced
...

Two diphthongs glide towards U, so that as the tongue moves closer to the
roof of the mouth there is at the same time a rounding movement of the
lips
...

 (example words: 'load', 'home', 'most') The vowel position for the beginning of this is the same as for
the "schwa" vowel , as found in the first syllable of the word 'about'
...

 (example words: 'loud', 'gown', 'house') This diphthong begins with a vowel similar to aI
...
There is only slight lip-rounding
...
3 Triphthongs
The most complex English sounds of the vowel type are the triphthongs
...
A triphthong is a glide from

71

one vowel to another and then to a third, all produced rapidly and without interruption
...
We use the symbol
 to represent the pronunciation of 'hour', but this is not always an accurate representation of the pronunciation
...
Thus we get:

 = 
 = 
 = 

 = 
 = 

The principal cause of difficulty for the foreign learner is that in present-day English the extent of the vowel
movement is very small, except in very careful pronunciation
...
e
...
To add to the difficulty, there is also the problem of whether a
triphthong is felt to contain one or two syllables
...

We will not go through a detailed description of each triphthong
...
However, to help identify these triphthongs, some example words are given here:
 'layer', 'player'
 'liar', 'fire'
 'loyal', 'royal'

 'lower', 'mower'
 'power', 'hour'

Notes on problems and further reading
For more information about vowels, see Ashby (7008, Chapter 7), Ladefoged (7007, Chapter 7)
...
Some writers give the label tense to long vowels and diphthongs and lax
to the short vowels
...
The accents are described in
7
...
7; the idea of pairs of vowels differing in tenseness and laxness follows in 7
...
Jakobson and Halle
(9167) explain the historical background to the distinction, which plays an important role in the treatment of the
English vowel system by Chomsky and Halle (9165)
...
7 of Chapter 8); you could read Cruttenden (7005: Section
5
...
As an example of a contemporary difference in symbol choice, see Kreidler (7007, 7
...

The phonemes ,  are usually classed as long vowels; it is worth noting that most English speakers
pronounce them with something of a diphthongal glide, so that a possible alternative transcription could be , ,
respectively
...

It seems that triphthongs in BBC pronunciation are in a rather unstable state, resulting in the loss of some
distinctions: in the case of some speakers, for example, it is not easy to hear a difference between 'tyre' , 'tower'
, 'tar' 
...
Gimson (9167) suggested that this shows a
change in progress in the phonemic system of RP
...
Foreign learners who
wish to get close to the BBC model should be careful not to pronounce the "r" that is often found in the spelling
corresponding to , ,  ('ar', 'or', 'er')
...
One of the most
common pronunciation characteristics that result in a learner of English being judged to have a foreign accent is
the production of pure vowels where a diphthong should be pronounced (e
...
[e] for , [o] for )
...
The diphthong  is included, but this is not used as much as the
others - many English speakers use  in words like 'moor', 'mourn', 'tour'
...
The other diphthong that requires comment is 
...
It often happens that
foreign learners, having understood that the first part of the diphthong is not a back vowel, exaggerate this by using
a vowel that is too front, producing a diphthong like 
...

Written exercises
9 On the vowel diagram provided, indicate the glides for the diphthongs in
the following words:
• fright c) clear
• home d) cow

79

• Write the symbols for the long vowels in the following words:
• broad d) learn
g) err
• ward
e) cool
h) seal
• calf
f) team
i) curl
• Write the symbols for the diphthongs in the following words:
• tone
d) way
g) hair
• style
e) beer
h) why
• out
f) coil
i) prey

77

2 Voicing and consonants
2
...
The larynx has several very important functions in speech, but
before we can look at these functions we must examine its anatomy and physiology - that is, how it is constructed
and how it works
...
90
...
If you press down on your nose, the hard part that you can feel is
cartilage
...
These are hollow and are attached to the top of the
trachea; when we breathe, the air passes through the trachea and the larynx
...
This point is
commonly called the Adam's Apple
...
Looking down the throat is difficult to do, and requires
special optical equipment, but Fig
...
At the front the vocal folds
are joined together and fixed to the inside of the thyroid cartilage
...
11 The larynx

77

small cartilages called the arytenoid cartilages so that if the arytenoid cartilages move, the vocal folds move too
...
97)
...
If
the vocal folds are apart we say that the glottis is open; if they are pressed together we say that the glottis is closed
...

These changes are often important in speech
...

• Wide apart: The vocal folds are wide apart for normal breathing and usually during voiceless consonants
•

•

like p, f, s (Fig
...
Your vocal folds are probably apart now
...
97b, the result is a
fricative sound for which the symbol is h
...
It is
called a voiceless glottal fricative
...
) Practise saying
hahahaha - alternating between this state of the vocal folds and that described in (iii) below
...
97c)
...
As the air flows quickly past the
edges of

77

the vocal folds, the folds are brought together again
...

iv) Vocal folds tightly closed: The vocal folds can be firmly pressed together so that air cannot pass between
them (Fig
...
When this happens in speech we call it a glottal stop or glottal plosive, for which we use
the symbol ?
...

2
...
9 referred several times to air passing between the vocal folds
...
All speech sounds are made with some movement of air, and the
egressive pulmonic is by far the most commonly found air movement in the languages of the world
...

How is air moved into and out of the lungs? Knowing about this is important, since it will make it easier to
understand many aspects of speech, particularly the nature of stress and intonation
...
97)
...
If we allow the
rib cage to return to its rest position quite slowly, some of the air is expelled and can be used for producing speech
sounds
...

In talking about making air flow into and out of the lungs, the process has been described as though the air
were free to pass with no obstruction
...
We obstruct the airflow by making one or more
obstructions or strictures in the vocal tract, and one place where we can make a stricture is in the larynx, by
bringing the vocal folds close to each other as described in the previous section
...

If the vocal folds vibrate we will hear the sound that we call voicing or phonation
...
We can make changes in the vocal folds themselves - they can, for example, be made
longer or shorter, more tense or more relaxed or be more or less strongly pressed together
...
Three main differences are found:
• Variations in intensity: We produce voicing with high intensity for shouting, for example, and with low
•
•

intensity for speaking quietly
...

Variations in quality: We can produce different-sounding voice qualities, such as those we might call
harsh, breathy, murmured or creaky
...
The stricture is, then, total
...

• If the air behind the stricture is still under pressure when the plosive is released, it is probable that the

escape of air will produce noise loud enough to be heard
...

be voicing during part or all of the plosive articulation
...
We call

this the closing phase
...
We call this the compression
phase
...

This is the release phase
...

•

1
...
The glottal plosive ? occurs frequently but it is of less
importance, since it is usually just an alternative pronunciation of p, t, k in certain contexts
...
The plosives p, b are bilabial since the lips are pressed together (Fig
...
96)
...
The plosives k, g are velar; the back of
the tongue is pressed against the area where the hard palate ends and the soft palate begins (Fig
...

The plosives p, t, k are always voiceless; b, d, g are sometimes fully voiced, sometimes partly voiced and
sometimes voiceless
...
8 below
...
To begin with we will look at plosives preceding vowels
(which can be abbreviated as CV, where C stands for a consonant and V stands for a vowel), between vowels
(VCV) and following vowels (VC)
...


72

 AU7, EX 9
i) Initial position (CV): The closing phase for p, t, k and b, d, g takes place silently
...
If the speaker pronounces an initial b, d, g very slowly and carefully there may be
voicing during the entire compression phase (the plosive is then fully voiced), while in rapid speech there
may be no voicing at all
...
There is then, in the
post-release phase, a period during which air escapes through the vocal folds, making a sound like h
...
Then the vocal folds come together and voicing begins
...
The most noticeable and important difference, then, between initial p, t, k and b, d, g is the
aspiration of the voiceless plosives p, t, k
...
If English speakers hear a fully
voiced initial plosive, they will hear it as one of b, d, g but will notice that it does not sound quite natural
...
Only when they hear a voiceless
aspirated plosive will they hear it as one of p, t, k; experiments have shown that we perceive aspiration
when there is a delay between the sound of plosion and the beginning (or onset) of voicing
...

When one of p, t, k is preceded by s it is unaspirated
...

Medial position (VCV): The pronunciation of p, t, k and b, d, g in medial position depends to some extent
on whether the syllables preceding and following the plosive are stressed
...


 AU7, Exs 7 & 7
•

Final position (VC): Final b, d, g normally have little voicing; if there is voicing, it is at the beginning
of the compression phase; p, t, k are always voiceless
...
The difference between p, t, k and b, d, g is primarily the fact
that vowels preceding p, t, k are much shorter
...
This effect is sometimes known as pre-fortis
clipping
...
0 Fortis and lenis
Are b, d, g voiced plosives? The description of them makes it clear that it is not very accurate to call them
"voiced"; in initial and final position they are scarcely voiced at all, and any voicing they may have seems to have
no perceptual importance
...
It may well be true that p, t, k are produced with more force, though nobody has really proved it force of articulation is very difficult to define and measure
...
Despite this, we shall follow the practice of many books and use these terms
...
Each major type of consonant (such as plosives
like p, t, k, fricatives like s, z, and nasals like m, n) obstructs the airflow in a different way, and these are classed
as different manners of articulation
...
9, 7
...

The outline of the stages in the production of plosives is based on Cruttenden (7005: 985)
...

•

•

It has been pointed out that the transcription sb, sd, sg could be used quite appropriately instead of sp, st, sk in
syllable-initial position; see Davidsen-Nielsen (9161)
...
Some phonetics books wrongly state that b, d, g
lengthen preceding vowels, rather than that p, t, k shorten them
...

•

The fortis/lenis distinction is a very complicated matter
...
The only difference that seems
reasonably reliable is that fortis consonants have higher air pressure in the vocal tract, but Lisker (9120) has
argued convincingly that this is not conclusive evidence for a "force of articulation" difference
...
A useful review of the "force of articulation" question is in Catford
(9122: 911-705)
...

Written exercises
• Write brief descriptions of the actions of the articulators and the respiratory system in the words given

below
...
Here is a
description of the pronunciation of the word 'bee' bi: as an example:
Starting from the position for normal breathing, the lips are closed and the lungs are compressed
to create air pressure in the vocal tract
...
The vocal folds are brought close
together and voicing begins; the lips then open, releasing the compressed air
...
Then the lung pressure is lowered, voicing ceases and the
articulators return to the normal breathing position
...

• Transcribe the following words:

a) bake
b) goat
c) doubt

d) bought
e) tick
f) bough

g) bored
h) guard
i) pea

79

0 Phonemes and symbols

0
...
It is now necessary to consider some
fundamental theoretical questions
...
In studying speech we divide this stream into
small pieces that we call segments
...
It is not always easy to decide on the number of segments
...
But should we regard the
aI in the middle as one segment or two? We will return to this question
...
Chapters 7 and 7 introduced the set of vowels found in
English
...
Yet we feel quite confident in saying that the number of English
vowels is not greater than twenty
...
For example, if we substitute as for e in the word 'bed' we get
a different word: 'bad'
...
If
we substitute a more open vowel, for example cardinal vowel no
...

The principles involved here may be easier to understand if we look at a similar situation related to the letters
of the alphabet that we use in writing English
...
In the alphabet we
have five letters that are called vowels: 'a', 'e', 'i', 'o', 'u'
...
Thus with a letter 'p' before and a letter 't' after the vowel
letter, we get the five words spelt 'pat', 'pet', 'pit', 'pot', 'put', each of which has a different meaning
...
If we look at the short

77

vowels  for example, we can see how substituting one for another in between the plosives p and t
gives us six different words as follows (given in spelling on the left):
'pit' 
'pet' 
'pat' 

'putt' 
'pot' 
'put' 

Let us return to the example of letters of the alphabet
...
They would quickly discover, through noticing differences in meaning, that 'u' is a
different letter from the first three
...
If our observer then examined a lot of typed and printed material
they would eventually conclude that a word that began with 'a' when it occurred in the middle of a sentence would
begin with 'A', and never with 'a', at the beginning of a sentence
...
As will be explained
below, we find similar situations in speech sounds
...
The principal difficulty lies in the fact that what is being talked about in our example of
letters is at the same time something abstract (the alphabet, which you cannot see or touch) and something real and
concrete (marks on paper)
...
But when the alphabet is used to write with, these letters appear on the page in a practically infinite number
of different shapes and sizes
...
Let us go back to the sounds of speech and see how
these principles can be explained
...
But just as there is an abstract alphabet as the basis
of our writing, so there is an abstract set of units as the basis of our speech
...
The phonemes themselves are
abstract, but there are many slightly different ways in which we make the sounds that represent these phonemes,
just as there are many ways in which we may make a mark on a piece of paper to represent a particular (abstract)
letter of the alphabet
...

For example, the b at the beginning of a word such as 'bad' will usually be pronounced with practically no voicing
...
If this is
done, the sound is still identified as the phoneme b, even though we can hear that it is different in some way
...
One can be
substituted for the other without changing the meaning
...
For example, we find that the realisation of t in the word 'tea' is aspirated (as are all
voiceless plosives when they occur before stressed vowels at the beginning of syllables)
...
The aspirated and unaspirated realisations are both recognised as t by English speakers
despite their differences
...
When we find this strict separation of places where particular realisations
can occur, we say that the realisations are in complementary distribution
...
In the last example, we were studying the aspirated and unaspirated allophones of the phoneme t
...

0
...
Basically the symbols are for one of two
purposes: either they are symbols for phonemes (phonemic symbols) or they are phonetic symbols (which is what
the symbols were first introduced as)
...
The most important point to remember is the rather obvious-seeming
fact that the number of phonemic symbols must be exactly the same as the number of phonemes we decide exist in
the language
...
However,
some of our phonemic symbols consist of two characters; for example, we usually treat  (as in 'chip' ) as one
phoneme, so  is a phonemic symbol consisting of two characters (t and )
...
There are two different kinds of transcription exercise: in one, transcription from dictation,
the student must listen to a person, or a recording, and write down what they hear; in the other, transcription from
a written text, the student is given a passage written in orthography and must use phonemic symbols to represent
how she or he thinks it would be pronounced by

77

a speaker of a particular accent
...
The disadvantage is that as you continue
to learn more about phonetics you become able to hear a lot of sound differences that you were not aware of
before, and students at this stage find it frustrating not to be able to write down more detailed information
...
We can display the
complete set of these phonemes by the usual classificatory methods used by most phoneticians; the vowels and
diphthongs can be located in the vowel quadrilateral - as was done in Chapters 7 and 7 - and the consonants can be
placed in a chart or table according to place of articulation, manner of articulation and voicing
...
The best- known set of symbols is that of the International Phonetic
Association's alphabet (the letters IPA are used to refer to the Association and also to its alphabet)
...
xii)
...
7 [a] may be modified by putting two dots above it
...
It would not be possible in this course to teach you to
use all these symbols and diacritics, but someone who did know them all could write a transcription that was much
more accurate in phonetic detail, and contained much more information than a phonemic transcription
...

One further type of transcription is one which is basically phonemic, but contains additional symbolic information
about allophones of particular symbols: this is often called an allophonic transcription
...
A widely-used convention is to enclose symbols within brackets that
show whether they are phonemic or phonetic: when symbols are used to represent precise phonetic values, rather
than phonemes, they are often enclosed in square brackets [ ], as we have done already with cardinal vowels; in
many phonetics books, phonemic symbols are enclosed within slant brackets / /
...
We will continue to use square brackets for cardinal vowel
symbols, but elsewhere all symbols are printed in blue

78

type, and the context should make it clear whether the symbols are phonemic or phonetic in function
...
Since the phonemic symbols do not have to indicate precise phonetic quality, it is possible to choose
among several possible symbols to represent a particular phoneme; this has had the unfortunate result that different
books on English pronunciation have used different symbols, causing quite a lot of confusion to students
...
It would be too long a task to
examine other writers' symbols in detail, but it is worth considering some of the reasons for the differences
...
Some writers have concentrated on producing a
set of phonemic symbols that need the minimum number of special or non-standard symbols
...
To use the same example again, referring to the vowel in 'cat', it could be
argued that if the vowel is noticeably closer than cardinal vowel no
...
There can be disagreements about the most
important characteristics of a sound that a symbol should indicate: one example is the vowels of the words 'bit' and
'beat'
...
Yet another point of view is that quality
and quantity are both important and should both be indicated; this point of view results in a transcription using I for
'bit' and , a symbol different from  both in shape of symbol (suggesting quality difference) and in length mark
(indicating quantity difference), for 'beat'
...

0
...
When we talk about how phonemes function in language, and the
relationships among the different phonemes - when, in other words, we study the abstract side of the sounds of
language, we are studying a related but different subject that we call phonology
...
Let us look briefly at some areas that come within the subject of phonology; these areas of study will be
covered in more detail later in the course
...
In chess, for example, the exact shape and colour of the pieces
are not important to the game as long as they can be reliably distinguished
...
Similarly, playing cards can be printed in
many different styles and sizes, but while changing these things does not affect the game played with them, if we
were to remove one card from the pack or add one card to it before the start of a game, nobody would accept that
we were playing the game correctly
...
There may be many slightly different realisations of the various
phonemes, but the most important thing for communication is that we should be able to make use of the full set of
phonemes
...
For
example, no English word begins with the consonant sequence zbf and no word ends with the sequence {h
...

Suprasegmental phonology
Many significant sound contrasts are not the result of differences between phonemes
...
Intonation is
also important: if the word 'right' is said with the pitch of the voice rising, it is likely to be heard as a question or as
an invitation to a speaker to continue, while falling pitch is more likely to be heard as confirmation or agreement
...
We will look at a number of other aspects of suprasegmental phonology later in the course
...
There is no shortage of material to read on the subject of the
phoneme, but much of it is rather difficult and assumes a lot of background knowledge
...
There
are many classic works: Jones (9126; first published 9180) is widely regarded as such, although it is often
criticised nowadays for being superficial or even naive
...

The subject of symbols is a large one: there is a good survey in Abercrombie (9162: Chapter 2)
...

The IPA's present practice on symbolisation is set out in the Handbook of the International Phonetic Association (IPA,
9111)
...
Some
phoneticians working at the end of the nineteenth century tried to develop non-alphabetic sets of symbols whose
shape would indicate all essential phonetic characteristics; these are described in Abercrombie (9162: Chapter 2)
...
Pike (9177) presents
at the end of his book an "analphabetic notation" designed to permit the coding of sounds with great precision on
the basis of their articulation; an indication of the complexity of the system is the fact that the full specification of
the vowel [o] requires eighty-eight characters
...
For example, where the IPA has  and , symbols not usually found outside phonetics, many
Americans use š and ž, the mark above the symbols being widely used for Slavonic languages that do not use the
Cyrillic alphabet
...
We are still some way, however, from
having a universally agreed set of IPA symbol codes, and for much computer-based phonetic research it is
necessary to make do with conventions which use existing keyboard characters
...
It is
difficult to go into detailed examples since not many symbols have been introduced at this stage, so further
consideration of phonological issues is left until later chapters
...
In
your phonetic transcription you should use the following diacritics:
b, d, g pronounced without voicing are transcribed 



• p, t, k pronounced with aspiration are transcribed ph, th, kh

75

•  when shortened by a following fortis consonant should be transcribed ', ', ', ', '
•  when shortened by a following fortis consonant should be transcribed , , , , , , 
...

Example spelling: 'peat'; phonemic: pi:t phonetic: phi't
Words for transcription

a) Speed
b) partake

c) book
d) goat

e) car
f) bad

g) appeared
h) toast

i) stalk

71

6 Fricatives and affricates

0
...
Most languages have fricatives, the most commonly- found being something like s
...
Plosives, which were described in Chapter 7, are not continuants
...
The hissing sound will stop as the air passage gets larger
...
Notice how the hissing sound of the air escaping between teeth and lip suddenly
stops
...
They begin as plosives and end as fricatives
...
It begins with an articulation practically the same as
that for t, but instead of a rapid release with plosion and aspiration as we would find in the word 'tip', the tongue
moves to the position for the fricative  that we find at the beginning of the word 'ship'
...
Since phonetically this affricate is composed of t and  we represent it as , so that
the word 'church' is transcribed as 
...
We would
not class all sequences of plosive plus fricative as affricates; for example, we find in the middle of the word
'breakfast' the plosive k followed by the fricative f
...
It is usually said that the plosive and the following fricative must be
made with the same articulators - the plosive and fricative must be homorganic
...
This
still leaves the possibility of quite a large number of affricates since, for example, t, d are homorganic not only with
,  but also with s, z, so

80

ts, dz would also count as affricates
...
However, we
normally only count ,  as affricate phonemes of English
...
In this way, t is one phoneme,  is another and  yet another
...
We will look at
this question of "two sounds = one phoneme" from the theoretical point of view in Chapter 97
...
2 The fricatives of English
English has quite a complex system of fricative phonemes
...
This is
similar to what was seen with the plosives
...
The lenis fricatives have very little or no voicing in initial and final
positions, but may be voiced when they occur between voiced sounds
...
Thus in a pair of
words like 'ice' aIs and 'eyes' aIz, the aI diphthong in the first word is considerably shorter than aI in the second
...


 AU6, Exs 9-7
We will now look at the fricatives separately, according to their place of articulation
...
95
...

T, D (example words: 'thumb', 'thus'; 'ether', 'father'; 'breath', 'breathe')
The dental fricatives are sometimes described as if the tongue were placed between the front teeth, and it is
common for teachers to make their students do this when they are trying to teach them to make this sound
...
91, with the tip touching the inner side of the lower front teeth and the blade

touching the inner side of the upper teeth
...
As
with f, v, the fricative noise is weak
...
The air escapes through a narrow passage
along the centre of the tongue, and the sound produced is comparatively intense
...
96 in Chapter 7
...
70)
...


87

The air escapes through a passage along the centre of the tongue, as in s, z, but the passage is a little wider
...
The
fricative  is a common and widely distributed phoneme, but  is not
...
In the case of ,
however, the distribution is much more limited
...
Only medially, in
words such as 'measure' , 'usual'  is it found at all commonly
...
This means that the narrowing that produces the friction noise
is between the vocal folds, as described in Chapter 7
...
However, this is not producing speech
...
In the word 'hat', the h is followed by an as
vowel
...
The same is found for all vowels following h; the consonant always has
the quality of the vowel it precedes, so that in theory if you could listen to a recording of h-sounds cut off from the
beginnings of different vowels in words like 'hit', 'hat', 'hot', 'hut', etc
...
One way of stating the above facts is to say that phonetically h is a voiceless vowel with
the quality of the voiced vowel that follows it
...
It is usually found before vowels
...
It is noticeable that
when h occurs between voiced sounds (as in the words 'ahead', 'greenhouse'), it is pronounced with voicing - not
the normal voicing of vowels but a weak, slightly fricative sound called breathy voice
...
Many English speakers are surprisingly sensitive about this consonant; they tend to judge as
sub-standard a pronunciation in which h is missing
...

There are two rather uncommon sounds that need to be introduced; since they are said to have some
association with h, they will be mentioned here
...
e
...
g
...
The phonetic symbol for this voiceless fricative is AY
...
It is therefore rather surprising to find that practically all
writers on the subject of the phonemes of English decide that this answer is not correct, and that the sound AY in
'which', 'why', etc
...
We do
not need to worry much about this problem in describing the BBC accent
...
Whether the question of this
sound is approached phonetically or phonologically, there is no h sound in the "voiceless w"
...
Phonetically
this sound is a voiceless palatal fricative (for which the phonetic symbol is ); there is no glottal fricative at the
beginning of 'huge', etc
...
Again we can see that a phonemic analysis
does not necessarily have to be exactly in line with phonetic facts
...
We will follow
the usual practice of transcribing the sound at the beginning of 'huge', etc
...


AU6, EXS4&5

0
...
9 that ,  are the only two affricate phonemes in English
...
The place of articulation is the same as for
 - that is, it is post-alveolar
...
When  is final in the syllable it has the effect of shortening a
preceding vowel, as do other fortis consonants, ,  often have rounded lips
...
2 Fortis consonants
All the consonants described so far, with the exception of h, belong to pairs distinguished by the difference
between fortis and lenis
...

The first point concerns the shortening of a preceding vowel by a syllable-final fortis consonant
...
What happens if something other than a vowel precedes a fortis consonant? This arises in syllables
ending with l, m, n, , followed by a fortis consonant such as p, t, k as in 'belt' belt, 'bump' , 'bent' bent,
'bank' 
...

Fortis consonants are usually articulated with open glottis - that is, with the vocal folds separated
...
However, with plosives an
alternative possibility is to produce the consonant with completely closed glottis
...

The glottal closure occurs immediately before p, t, k, 
...
If we use the symbol  to
represent a glottal closure, the phonetic transcription for various words containing  can be given as follows:
With glottalisation

Without glottalisation

'nature'





'catching'
'riches'







There is similar glottalisation of p, t, k, although this is not so noticeable
...
However, it is worth pointing out the fact
that this occurs - many learners

88

notice the glottalisation and want to know what it is that they are hearing, and many of them find that they acquire
the glottalised pronunciation in talking to native speakers
...
This consonant
often shows so little friction noise that on purely phonetic grounds it seems incorrect to class it as a fricative
...
This matter is discussed again in Chapter 97, Section 97
...

On the phonological side, I have brought in a discussion of the phonemic analysis of two "marginal"
fricatives AY, which present a problem (though not a particularly important or fundamental one): I feel that this is
worth discussing in that it gives a good idea of the sort of problem that can arise in analysing the phonemic system
of a language
...
There is now a
growing awareness of how frequently this is to be found in contemporary English speech; however, it not easy to
formulate rules stating the contexts in which this occurs
...
7
...
7
...

Notes for teachers
Whether learners should be taught to produce glottalisation of p, t, k,  must depend on the level of the learner - I
have often found advanced learners have been able to pick up this pronunciation, and I find the increase in
naturalness in their accent very striking
...


86

2 Nasals and other consonats
So far we have studied two major groups of consonants - the plosives and fricatives - and also the affricates tS, dZ;
this gives a total of seventeen
...
All of these seven consonants are continuants and usually have no friction noise, but
in other ways they are very different from each other
...
1 Nasals
The basic characteristic of a nasal consonant is that the air escapes through the nose
...
In nasal consonants, however, air does not pass through the mouth; it is
prevented by a complete closure in the mouth at some point
...
The
three types of closure are: bilabial (lips), alveolar (tongue blade against alveolar ridge) and velar (back of tongue
against the palate)
...

The consonants m, n are simple and straightforward with distributions quite similar to those of the plosives
...
However, N is a different matter
...
The place of articulation of N is the same as that of k, g; it is a useful exercise to practise
making a continuous r) sound
...


AU2, Exs 9 & 7
We will now look at some ways in which the distribution of N is unusual
...
With the

possible exception of , this makes  the only English consonant that does not occur initially
...
When we find the letters 'nk' in the middle of a word in its
orthographic form, a k will always be pronounced; however, some words with orthographic 'ng' in the
middle will have a pronunciation containing  and others will have  without g
...
What is the
difference between A and B? The important difference is in the way the words are constructed - their
morphology
...
These pieces are called morphemes, and we say that column B words are morphologically different
from column A words, since these cannot be divided into two morphemes
...

We can summarise the position so far by saying that (within a word containing the letters 'ng' in the spelling) 
occurs without a following g if it occurs at the end of a morpheme; if it occurs in the middle of a morpheme it has a
following g
...
We find that these always end with N;
this  is never followed by a g
...
We do not need a separate explanation for
this: the rule given above, that no g is pronounced after  at the end of a morpheme, works in these cases too, since
the end of a word must also be the end of a morpheme
...
)
Unfortunately, rules often have exceptions
...
According to the rule given above, the adjective 'long' will
be pronounced , which is correct
...
However, it would additionally
predict that the comparative and superlative forms 'longer' and 'longest' would be pronounced with no g following
the , while in fact the correct pronunciation of the words is:
'longer'  'longest' 
As a result of this, the rule must be modified: it must state that comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are
to be treated as single-morpheme words for the purposes of

85

this rule
...
e
...

iii) A third way in which the distribution of  is unusual is the small number of vowels it is found to
follow
...

The velar nasal consonant N is, in summary, phonetically simple (it is no more difficult to produce than m or n) but
phonologically complex (it is, as we have seen, not easy to describe the contexts in which it occurs)
...
2 The consonant l

The l phoneme (as in 'long' , 'hill' ) is a lateral approximant
...
Because of this complete closure along the centre, the only way for the air to escape
is along the sides of the tongue
...
If you make a long l sound you may be able to
feel that the sides of your tongue are pulled in and down while the centre is raised, but it is not easy to become
consciously aware of this; what is more revealing (if you can do it) is to produce a long sequence of alternations
between d and l without any intervening vowel
...
It is
also possible to see this movement in a mirror if you open your lips wide as you produce it
...

We find l initially, medially and finally, and its distribution is therefore not particularly limited
...
For example, the realisation of l in the word 'lea'  is quite different
from that in 'eel' 
...
The phonetic symbol for this sound is 
...
The "dark l" is also found when it precedes a consonant, as in 'eels' 
...
We can say,
using terminology introduced in Chapter 8, that clear l and dark l are allophones of the phoneme l in
complementary distribution
...
You might be able to observe that
most American and lowland Scottish speakers use a "dark l" in all positions, and don't have a "clear l" in their
pronunciation, while most Welsh and Irish speakers have "clear l" in all positions
...
The I is then
devoiced (i
...
produced without the voicing found in most realisations of this phoneme) and pronounced as a
fricative
...


AU2, Ex 7

7
...
As far as the articulation of the sound is concerned, there is really only one
pronunciation that can be recommended to the foreign learner, and that is what is called a post-alveolar
approximant
...
The difficulty with this explanation is that
articulators are always in some positional relationship with each other, and any vowel articulation could also be
classed as an approximant - but the term "approximant" is usually used only for consonants
...
You should be able to make a long r sound and feel that no part of the tongue is in contact with the roof of
the mouth at any time
...
The tongue is in fact usually slightly curled backwards with the tip raised;
consonants with this tongue shape are usually called retroflex
...
The "curling- back" process usually
carries the tip of the tongue to a position slightly further back in

60

the mouth than that for alveolar consonants such as t, d, which is why this approximant is called "post-alveolar"
...
This pronunciation is found in words such as 'press', 'tress', 'cress'
...
If the lip-rounding is too strong the consonant will sound
too much like w, which is the sound that most English children produce until they have learned to pronounce r in
the adult way
...
No one has any difficulty in remembering this rule, but foreign learners (most of whom, quite reasonably,
expect that if there is a letter 'r' in the spelling then r should be pronounced) find it difficult to apply the rule to their
own pronunciation
...
But in the following words there is no r in the pronunciation:
ii) 'car' 
'ever' 
'here' 
iii) 'hard' 

'verse' 

'cares' 

Many accents of English do pronounce r in words like those of (ii) and (iii) (e
...
most American, Scots and West of
England accents)
...


AU3, Ex 6

7
...
They are known as
approximants (introduced in Section 2
...
The most important thing to remember about these phonemes is
that they are phonetically like vowels but phonologically like consonants (in earlier works on phonology they were
known as "semivowels")
...
In the same way w is closely similar to [u]
...
But despite this vowel-like character, we use them
like consonants
...

We can show that a word beginning with w or j is treated as beginning with a consonant in the following way: the
indefinite article is 'a' before a consonant (as in 'a cat', 'a dog'), and 'an' before a vowel (as in 'an apple', 'an orange')
...
Another example is that of the definite article
...
This evidence illustrates why it is said that j, w are phonologically consonants
...
Only in special contexts do we hear friction noise in j or w; this is when they are preceded by p,
t, k at the beginning of a syllable, as in these words:
'pure' 
'tune' 
'queue' 

(no English words begin with pw)
'twin' 
'quit' 

When p, t, k come at the beginning of a syllable and are followed by a vowel, they are aspirated, as was explained
in Chapter 7
...
However, when p, t, k are
followed not by a vowel but by one of l, r, j, w, these voiced continuant consonants undergo a similar process, as
has been mentioned earlier in this chapter: they lose their voicing and become fricative
...
Consequently, if for example 'tray' were to be pronounced without devoicing of the r (i
...
with
fully voiced r) English speakers would be likely to hear the word 'dray'
...
It is useful to place them on a
consonant chart, and this is done in Table l
...
When there is a pair of phonemes with the
same place and manner of articulation but differing in whether they are fortis or lenis (voiceless or voiced), the
symbol for the fortis consonant is placed to the left of the symbol for the lenis consonant
...
The
argument that  is an allophone of n, not a phoneme in its own right, is so widely accepted by contemporary
phonological theorists that few seem to feel it worthwhile to explain it fully
...
However, it is a rather complex theoretical matter, and you may
prefer to leave consideration of it until after the discussion of problems of phonemic analysis in Chapter 97
...
Everyone agrees that
English has at least two contrasting nasal phonemes, m and n
...
In favour of accepting  as a phoneme is the fact that traditional phoneme theory more
or less demands its acceptance despite the usual preference for making phoneme inventories as small as possible
...

There are three main arguments against accepting  as a phoneme:
iv) In some English accents it can easily be shown that  is an allophone of n, which suggests that something
similar might be true of BBC pronunciation too
...

vi) English speakers with no phonetic training are said to feel that  is not a 'single sound' like m, n
...
This is, of course, very hard to establish, although that does not mean that Sapir
was wrong
...
Please note that I am not trying to argue that this proposal must be correct; my aim is just to explain the
argument
...

In some English accents, particularly those of the Midlands,  is only found with k or g following
...
In the case of an accent like this, it can be shown that within the morpheme
the only nasal that occurs before k, g is 
...
Thus within the
morpheme  is in complementary distribution with m, n
...
), it is clear that for such non-BBC accents  must be an allophone of
one of the other nasal consonant phonemes
...
Thus:
'raincoat'  but 'tramcar' 
So in an analysis which contains no  phoneme, we would transcribe 'raincoat' phonemically as  and
'sing', 'singer', 'singing' as , , 
...


67

Let us now look at BBC pronunciation
...
9 above, the crucial difference between 'singer'
 and 'finger'  is that 'finger' is a single, indivisible morpheme whereas 'singer' is composed of two
morphemes 'sing' and '-er'
...
Consequently, the sound  and the sequence g are in complementary distribution
...

After establishing these "background facts", we can go on to state the argument as follows:
i) English has only m, n as nasal phonemes
...

iii) The words 'finger', 'sing', 'singer', 'singing' should be represented phonemically as , , ,
singing
...

It should be clear that Rule 7 will not apply to 'finger' because the  is not immediately followed by a morpheme
boundary
...

vi) Finally, it is necessary to remember the exception we have seen in the case of comparatives and
superlatives
...
The important point, however, is
that if one is prepared to use the kind of complexity and abstractness illustrated above, one can produce quite farreaching changes in the phonemic analysis of a language
...

Written exercises
a
...

b
...
Describe
what movements are carried out by the soft palate in the pronunciation of the following words:
a) banner
b) mid
c) angle

66

5 The syllable

The syllable is a very important unit
...
If they are asked to do this they often
tap their finger as they count, which illustrates the syllable's importance in the rhythm of speech
...

5
...
We find
a similar situation with the syllable, in that it may be defined both phonetically and phonologically
...
e
...
e
...
We will now look at some examples:
i) What we will call a minimum syllable is a single vowel in isolation (e
...
the words 'are' , 'or' , 'err' )
...
Isolated sounds such as m, which we sometimes produce
to indicate agreement, or , to ask for silence, must also be regarded as syllables
...
Looking at them from the phonological point of view is quite different
...
It is simplest to start by looking at what can occur in
initial position - in other words, what can occur at the beginning of the first word when we begin to speak after a
pause
...
No word begins with
more than three consonants
...

No current word ends with more than four consonants
...
7 The structure of the English syllable
Let us now look in more detail at syllable onsets
...
If the syllable
begins with one consonant, that initial consonant may be any consonant phoneme except  is rare
...
When we have two or more consonants together
we call them a consonant cluster
...
One sort is composed
of s followed by one of a small set of consonants; examples of such clusters are found in words such as 'sting' ,
'sway' , 'smoke' 
...
These clusters are shown in Table 7
...
We call the first consonant of these clusters the initial
consonant and the second the post-initial
...

This can best be shown in table form, as in Table 7
...
The s is the pre-initial consonant, the p,
t, k that follow s in the three example words are the initial consonant and the l, r, w are post-initial
...
g
...
These clusters can be analysed either as pre-initial s plus initial l, w, j, r or
initial s plus post-initial l, w, j, r
...

Table 3 Two-consonant clusters with post-initial l, r, w, j

Notes in doubtful cases:
9
...
g
...

7
...

7
...
This is, however, a very infrequent cluster for English
...
The only possible occurrence of gj would be in the archaic (heraldic) word 'gules', which is in very few
people's vocabulary
...
 occurs in the archaic word 'thew' only
...
Here we find the possibility of up to four
consonants at the end of a word
...
When there is one
consonant only, this is called the final consonant
...
The
consonant r is a special case: it doesn't occur as a final consonant in BBC pronunciation, but there are many rhotic
accents of English (see Section 2
...
There are two sorts of twoconsonant final cluster, one being a final consonant preceded by a pre-final consonant and the other a final
consonant followed by a post-final consonant
...
We can see
these in 'bump' , 'bent' , 'bank' , 'belt' , 'ask' 
...
These
post-final consonants can often be identified as separate morphemes (although not always - 'axe' , for example,
is a single morpheme and its final s has no separate meaning)
...

AU5, Ex 8
There are two types of final three-consonant cluster; the first is pre-final plus final plus post-final, as set out in the
following table:
Pre-final

Final

Post-final

p
t
'helped'

l
k
s
'banks'


d
z
'bonds'

n

f
'twelfth'

I
The second type shows how more than one post-final consonant can occur in a final cluster: final plus post-final l
plus post-final 7
...

Pre-final
Final
Post-final 1
Post-final 2

s
'fifths'

f
s
t
'next'

k
S
t
'lapsed'

p
Most four-consonant clusters can be analysed as consisting of a final consonant preceded by a pre-final and
followed by post-final 9 and post-final 7, as shown below:
Pre-final
'twelfths'
'prompts'




Final

Post-final 1

Post-final 2

l
m

f
P


t

s
s

20

A small number of cases seem to require a different analysis, as consisting of a final consonant with no pre-final
but three post-final consonants:
Pre-final

Final


—
'sixths'

k
'texts'
To sum up, we may describe the English syllable

Post-final 1 Post-final 2 Post-final 3

s
s
s
t
s
as having the following maximum phonological structure:

In the above structure there must be a vowel in the centre of the syllable
...
To fit in with what English speakers feel, we say that the word contains two syllables, with the second
syllable ending with the cluster nts; in other words, we treat the word as though there was a vowel between d and n,
although a vowel only occurs here in very slow, careful pronunciation
...

Much present-day work in phonology makes use of a rather more refined analysis of the syllable in which
the vowel and the coda (if there is one) are known as the rhyme; if you think of rhyming English verse you will
see that the rhyming works by matching just that part of the last syllable of a line
...
As we have seen, the syllable may also have an onset, but this is not obligatory
...
3 Syllable division
There are still problems with the description of the syllable: an unanswered question is how we decide on
the division between syllables when we find a connected sequence of them as we usually do in normal speech
...
For example, 'walked through'  gives us the
consonant sequence 
...
Most English speakers feel that the word 'morning'  consists of two syllables, but we need a way
of deciding whether the division into syllables should be  and , or mom and 
...
One problem is that by some definitions the s in the middle, between k and t, could be counted
as a syllable, which most English speakers would reject
...
However, the
more controversial issue relates to where the two syllables are to be divided; the possibilities are (using the symbol

...

One of the most widely accepted guidelines is what is known as the maximal onsets principle
...
In our first example above, 'morning' would thus be divided as

...
Our rule must therefore state that consonants are assigned to the right-hand syllable
as far as possible within the restrictions governing syllable onsets and codas
...
We then have to choose between
(ii), (iii) and (iv)
...
There are, though, many problems still remaining
...
to, but that means that the first syllable is analysed as be
...
The maximal onsets principle
must therefore also be modified to allow a consonant to be assigned to the left syllable if that prevents one of the
vowels , e, , , ,  from occurring at the end of a syllable
...
There are words like 'carry' kasri which still give us problems: if we divide the word as kas
...
i we have a syllable-final r, and both of these are non-occurring
in BBC pronunciation
...
7) this division would be
the natural one to make
...
The term used by phonologists for a consonant in this situation is
ambisyllabic
...
If you want to read further in
this area, I would recommend Giegerich (9117: Chapter 6), Katamba (9151: Chapter 1), Hogg and McCully
(9152: Chapter 7) and Goldsmith (9110: Chapter 7)
...
This could happen if one followed the sonority theory of
syllables: sonority corresponds to loudness, and some sounds have greater sonority than others
...
Consonants have a lower level of sonority, and
usually form the beginnings and ends of syllables
...
There is a thorough discussion, and a possible solution, in Giegerich (9117: Sections 6
...
7)
...
7)
...
90) and Kreidler (7007: Chapters 8 and 6) describe the phonotactics of English in more detail
...
This paper brought up two ideas
first discussed by earlier writers: the first is that sp, st, sk could be treated as individual phonemes, removing the
pre-initial position from the syllable onset altogether and removing s from the pre-final set of consonants; the
second is that since post-initial j only occurs before  (which in his analysis all begin with the same vowel),
one could postulate a diphthong ju and remove j from post-initial position
...

There are many different ways of deciding how to divide syllables
...
Roach et al, 7006)
...
There are many more
limitations on possible combinations of vowels and consonants than we have covered here, but an understanding of
the basic structures described will help learners to become aware of the types of consonant cluster that present

27

them with pronunciation problems
...
Most learners find some English clusters difficult, but few find all of them difficult
...
(9116: 50-1); Dalton and Seidlhofer (9117: 77-5); Hewings (7007: 9
...
90-7
...

Written exercise
Using the analysis of the word 'cramped' given below as a model, analyse the structure of the following onesyllable English words:

a) squealed
b) eighths
c) splash
d) texts

27

4 Strong and weak syllables

1
...
The distribution of strong and weak syllables is a subject
that will be met in several later chapters
...
Elision is a closely related subject, and in considering intonation the
difference between strong and weak syllables is also important
...
In this chapter we look at the general nature of weak syllables
...
When we compare weak syllables with strong syllables, we find the vowel in a
weak syllable tends to be shorter, of lower intensity (loudness) and different in quality
...
In a word like 'bottle'  the weak second syllable contains no vowel at all, but consists
entirely of the consonant 
...

There are other ways of characterising strong and weak syllables
...
The most important thing to note at
present is that any strong syllable will have as its peak one of the vowel phonemes (or possibly a triphthong) listed
in Chapters 7 and 7, but not a, i, u (the last two are explained in Section 1
...
If the vowel is one of
 then the strong syllable will always have a coda as well
...
At the end of a word, we may have a
weak syllable ending with a vowel (i
...
with no coda):
i) the vowel  ("schwa");
ii) a close front unrounded vowel in the general area of , , symbolised i;
iii) a close back rounded vowel in the general area of , , symbolised u
...
For example:
'open'

'sharpen' 
Inside a word, we can find the above vowels acting as peaks without codas in weak syllables; for example, look at
the second syllable in each of these words:
i
...
'radio' 
iii
...
'architect' 
In the rest of this chapter we will look at the different types of weak syllable in more detail
...
7 The  vowel ("schwa")

AU1,Ex 9

The most frequently occurring vowel in English is a, which is always associated with weak syllables
...
e
...
e
...
It is
generally described as lax - that is, not articulated with much energy
...

Not all weak syllables contain , though many do
...
To do this we often have to use information that traditional phonemic theory would not accept
as relevant - we must consider spelling
...
Let us look at some examples:
i) Spelt with 'a'; strong pronunciation would have 
'attend' 

'character' 

'barracks' 

26

ii) Spelt with 'ar'; strong pronunciation would have :
'particular'  'molar' mauls
'monarchy' 
iii)
Adjectival endings spelt 'ate'; strong pronunciation would have 
'intimate' 
'accurate' 
'desolate'  (although there are exceptions to this: 'private' is usually )
iv) Spelt with 'o'; strong pronunciation would have or 
'tomorrow' 
'potato' 
'carrot' 
v) Spelt with 'or'; strong pronunciation would have 
'forget' 
'ambassador' 
'opportunity' 
vi) Spelt with 'e'; strong pronunciation would have e
'settlement'  'violet' 
'postmen' 
 Spelt with 'er'; strong pronunciation would have 
'perhaps' 
'stronger' 
'superman' 
viii) Spelt with 'u'; strong pronunciation would have 
'autumn' 
'support' 
'halibut' 
 Spelt with 'ough' (there are many pronunciations for the letter-sequence 'ough')
'thorough' 
'borough' 
 Spelt with 'ou'; strong pronunciation might have 
'gracious' 
'callous' 
1
...
In strong syllables it is comparatively easy to
distinguish i: from I or u: from u, but in weak syllables the difference is not so clear
...
There are accents of English (e
...
Welsh accents) in which
the second syllable sounds most like the i: in the first syllable of 'easy', and others (e
...
Yorkshire accents) in which
it sounds more like the I in the first syllable of 'busy'
...
There is uncertainty, too, about the corresponding close back rounded vowels
...
Again, which vowel comes in 'to' in 'I want to'?

22

One common feature is that the vowels in question are more like  or  when they precede another vowel,
less so when they precede a consonant or pause
...
Effectively, then, the two distinctions, which undoubtedly exist within strong syllables, are
neutralised in weak syllables of BBC pronunciation
...
The possibilities, using our
phoneme symbols, are the following:
'easy'
 
 

'busy'



Few speakers with a BBC accent seem to feel satisfied with any of these transcriptions
...
We can symbolise this weak vowel as i - that is, using
the symbol for the vowel in 'beat' but without the length mark
...
We can set up a
corresponding vowel u that is neither the u: of 'shoe' nor the  of 'book' but a weak vowel that shares the
characteristics of both
...
However, this need not be too serious an objection, and the fact that native
speakers seem to think that this transcription fits better with their feelings about the language is a good argument in
its favour
...
We find i
occurring:
a
...
g
...
g
...

b
...
g
...

c
...
g
...

d
...

In most other cases of syllables containing a short close front unrounded vowel we can assign the vowel to the 
phoneme, as in the first syllable of 'resist' , 'inane' ,

25

'enough' , the middle syllable of 'incident' , 'orchestra' , 'artichoke' , and the final
syllable of 'swimming' , 'liquid' , 'optic' 
...

Weak syllables with close back rounded vowels are not so commonly found
...
This vowel is also found before another vowel within a
word, as in 'evacuation' Iv{kjueISn, 'influenza' influenza
...
7 Syllabic consonants
In the above sections we have looked at vowels in weak syllables
...
In this case, a consonant, either l, r or a nasal, stands as the peak of the syllable instead of the
vowel, and we count these as weak syllables like the vowel examples given earlier in this chapter
...
It occurs after another consonant, and the way it is produced depends to
some extent on the nature of that consonant
...
The
sides of the tongue, which are raised for the preceding consonant, are lowered to allow air to escape over them (this
is called lateral release)
...
The l is a "dark l" (as explained in Chapter 2)
...
g
...
Where do we find syllabic l in the
BBC accent? It is useful to look at the spelling as a guide
...
Examples are:
i)

with alveolar consonant preceding
'cattle' k{tl
'bottle' bDtl
'wrestle' resl 'muddle' mVdl
ii) with non-alveolar consonant preceding
'couple' kVpl
'trouble' trVbl
'struggle' strAgl
'knuckle' nVkl

Such words usually lose their final letter 'e' when a suffix beginning with a vowel is attached, but the l usually
remains syllabic
...
In
the case of words such as 'bottle', 'muddle', 'struggle', which are quite common, it would be a mispronunciation to
insert a vowel between the l and the preceding consonant in the accent described here
...

We also find syllabic l in words spelt, at the end, with one or more consonant letters followed by 'al' or 'el', for
example:
'panel' 
'kernel' 
'parcel' 
'Babel' 

'petal' 
'pedal' 
'papal' 
'ducal' 

In some less common or more technical words, it is not obligatory to pronounce syllabic l and the sequence  may
be used instead, although it is less likely: 'missal'  or  'acquittal'  or 
...
When should it be pronounced?
A general rule could be made that weak syllables which are phonologically composed of a plosive or fricative
consonant plus an are uncommon except in initial position in the words
...
To pronounce a vowel before
the nasal consonant would sound strange (or at best over-careful) in the BBC accent
...
We do not usually find n after , so that for example 'sullen' must be pronounced , 'Christian' as
 (though this word may be pronounced with t followed by i or j) and 'pigeon' as 
...
In words where the syllable following a velar
consonant is spelt 'an' or 'on' (e
...
'toboggan', 'wagon') it is rarely heard, the more usual pronunciation being
, 
...
In a similar way, after velar consonants in words like
'thicken', 'waken', syllabic n is possible but an is also acceptable
...
Thus 'seven', 'heaven', 'often' are more usually , ,  than , , 
...
If n is
preceded by l and a plosive, as in 'Wilton', the pronunciation  is possible, but  is also found regularly
...
Other nasals also discourage a following plosive plus
syllabic nasal, so that for example 'Camden' is normally pronounced 
...
Both can occur as syllabic,
but only as a result of processes such as assimilation and elision that are introduced later
...
Examples of
possible syllabic velar nasals would be 'thicken'  (where  and  are also possible), and 'broken key'
 where the nasal consonant occurs between velar consonants (n or an could be substituted for )
...
The word 'particular', for example, would probably be pronounced  in careful speech by
most Americans, while BBC speakers would pronounce this word  Syllabic r is less common in BBC
pronunciation: it is found in weak syllables such as the second syllable of 'preference' 
...

There are a few pairs of words (minimal pairs) in which a difference in meaning appears to depend on whether a
particular r is syllabic or not, for example:
'hungry'  'Hungary' 
But we find no case of syllabic r where it would not be possible to substitute either non- syllabic r or  in the
example above, 'Hungary' could equally well be pronounced 
...
Examples are: 'national'  'literal' 
'visionary'  'veteran'  It is important to remember that it is often not possible to say with certainty
whether a speaker has pronounced a syllabic consonant, a non-syllabic consonant or a non-syllabic consonant plus
a
...
A BBC speaker
might instead say   or  The transcription makes it look as if the difference between these
words is clear; it is not
...
Transcription has the unfortunate tendency to make things seem simpler and more
clear-cut than they really are
...
9 I have at this point tried to bring in some preliminary notions of stress and prominence without giving a full
explanation
...
However, the subject of stress is such a
large one that I have felt it best to leave its main treatment until later
...
71); Cruttenden (7005: Section 5
...
97)
...
7 The introduction of i and u is a relatively recent idea, but it is now widely accepted as a convention in
influential dictionaries such as the Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (Wells, 7005), the Cambridge English
Pronouncing Dictionary (Jones, eds
...
Since I mention native speakers' feelings in this connection, and since I am elsewhere rather sceptical
about appeals to native speakers' feelings, I had better explain that in this case my evidence comes from the
native speakers of English I have taught in practical classes on transcription over many years
...
I am, however,
reluctant to use i:, which suggests a stronger vowel than should be pronounced (like the final vowel in
'evacuee', 'Tennessee')
...
The
Introduction to the Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (Jones, eds
...
90 and p
...

Notes for teachers
Introduction of the "schwa" vowel has been deliberately delayed until this chapter, since I wanted it to be presented
in the context of weak syllables in general
...

This chapter is in a sense a crucial point in the course
...
Most of the remaining chapters of the course are concerned with
such matters
...
Fill in the vowels,
taking care to identify which vowels are weak; put no vowel at all if you think a syllabic consonant is appropriate,
but put a syllabic mark beneath the syllabic consonant
9
...
Opening the bottle presented no difficulty
 
7 There is no alternative to the government's proposal

7 We ought to make a collection to cover the expenses

8 Finally they arrived at a harbour at the edge of the mountains


57

10 Stress in simple words

90
...
The nature of stress is simple enough: practically everyone would agree that the first syllable of words like
'father', 'open', 'camera' is stressed, that the middle syllable is stressed in 'potato', 'apartment', 'relation', and that the
final syllable is stressed in 'about', 'receive', 'perhaps'
...

We will mark a stressed syllable in transcription by placing a small vertical line (') high up, just before the
syllable it relates to; the words quoted above will thus be transcribed as follows:
'
'
'

'
'
'

'
'
'

What are the characteristics of stressed syllables that enable us to identify them? It is important to understand that
there are two different ways of approaching this question
...
In other words, we can study stress from the points of view of production and of perception; the two are
obviously closely related, but are not identical
...
Measuring muscular effort is difficult,
but it seems possible, according to experimental studies, that when we produce stressed syllables, the muscles that
we use to expel air from the lungs are often more active, producing higher subglottal pressure
...

Many experiments have been carried out on the perception of stress, and it is clear that many different sound
characteristics are important in making a syllable recognisably stressed
...
Stressed syllables are recognised as
stressed because they

57

are more prominent than unstressed syllables
...
In a sequence of identical syllables (e
...
ba:ba:ba:ba:), if one
syllable is made louder than the others, it will be heard as stressed
...

ii) The length of syllables has an important part to play in prominence
...

iii) Every voiced syllable is said on some pitch; pitch in speech is closely related to the frequency of
vibration of the vocal folds and to the musical notion of low- and high-pitched notes
...
If one syllable of our "nonsense word" is said with a pitch that is
noticeably different from that of the others, this will have a strong tendency to produce the effect of
prominence
...
To place some movement
of pitch (e
...
rising or falling) on a syllable is even more effective in making it sound prominent
...
If we change one of the vowels in our "nonsense word" (e
...
ba:bi:ba:ba:) the "odd" syllable bi:
will tend to be heard as stressed
...
We can look on stressed
syllables as occurring against a "background" of these weak syllables, so that their prominence is
increased by contrast with these background qualities
...
Generally
these four factors work together in combination, although syllables may sometimes be made prominent by means
of only one or two of them
...
Loudness and quality have much less
effect
...
7 Levels of stress
Up to this point we have talked about stress as though there were a simple distinction between "stressed"
and "unstressed" syllables with no intermediate levels; such a treatment would be a two-level analysis of stress
...
It should be remembered that in this
chapter we are dealing only with

58

stress within the word
...
However, looking at words in isolation does help us to see stress
placement and stress levels more clearly than studying them in the context of continuous speech
...
From the point of view of stress, the most important fact about the way we
pronounce this word is that on the second syllable the pitch of the voice does not remain level, but usually falls
from a higher to a lower pitch
...
The prominence that results from this pitch movement, or
tone, gives the strongest type of stress; this is called primary stress
...
The stress in these words is called secondary stress
...

We have now identified two levels of stress: primary and secondary; this also implies a third level which can
be called unstressed and is regarded as being the absence of any recognisable amount of prominence
...
However, it is worth noting that unstressed syllables
containing , , i, u, or a syllabic consonant, will sound less prominent than an unstressed syllable containing some
other vowel
...
This could be used as a basis for a further division of stress levels, giving us a third ("tertiary") level
...
To take an example, it has been
suggested that the word 'indivisibility' shows four different levels: the syllable bIl is the strongest (carrying primary
stress), the initial syllable In has secondary stress, while the third syllable  has a level of stress which is weaker
than those two but stronger than the second, fourth, sixth and seventh syllable (which are all unstressed)
...
While this may be a
phonetically correct account of some pronunciations, the introduction of tertiary stress seems to introduce an
unnecessary degree of complexity
...

90
...
Many writers have said that
English word stress is so difficult to predict that it is best to treat stress placement as a property of the individual
word, to be learned when the word itself is learned
...
However, it must also be recognised that in most cases (though
certainly not all), when English speakers come across an unfamiliar word, they can pronounce it with the correct
stress; in principle, it should be possible to discover what it is that the English speaker knows and to write it in the
form of rules
...
Nevertheless, practically all the rules have exceptions and readers
may feel that the rules are so complex that it would be easier to go back to the idea of learning the stress for each
word individually
...
e
...

ii) What the grammatical category of the word is (noun, verb, adjective, etc
...

iv) What the phonological structure of those syllables is
...
The rules for complex words are different from
those for simple words and these will be dealt with in Chapter 99
...

Point (iv) above is something that should be dealt with right away, since it affects many of the other rules that
we will look at later
...
One component of a syllable is the rhyme, which contains the syllable peak and the coda
...
Examples:
'die' 

'heart' 

'see' 

or (ii) a syllable peak which is a short vowel, one of , e, , , , , followed by at least

one consonant
...
Syllabic consonants are also weak
...
Examples:
'bi' in 'herbicide' '
'e' in 'event' '
(However, this vowel is also found frequently as the peak of stressed syllables, as in 'thinker' ', 'input' '
...
Weak syllables are always unstressed
...


AU 01, Ex 3

Two-syllable words

In the case of simple two-syllable words, either the first or the second syllable will be stressed - not both
...
We will look first at verbs
...
Thus:
'enter' '
'envy' '

'open' '
'equal' '

A final syllable is also unstressed if it contains au (e
...
'follow' ', 'borrow' ')
...
Thus:
'apply' '
'arrive' '

'attract' '
'assist' '

'rotate' '
'maintain' '

Two-syllable simple adjectives are stressed according to the same rule, giving:
'lovely' '
'even' '
'hollow' '

'divine' '
'correct' '
'alive' '

As with most stress rules, there are exceptions; for example: 'honest' ', 'perfect' ', both of which end
with strong syllables but are stressed on the first syllable
...
Thus:
'money''
'product' '
'larynx' '

'divan' '
'balloon' '
'design' '

Other two-syllable words such as adverbs seem to behave like verbs and adjectives
...
One problem is the difficulty of identifying three-syllable words which
are indisputably simple
...
Thus:
'entertain' ' 'resurrect' ,'
If the last syllable is weak, then it will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the preceding (penultimate)
syllable if that syllable is strong
...
The general tendency is for stress to fall on the first syllable unless it is
weak
...
They apply only to major categories of lexical words
(nouns, verbs and adjectives in this chapter), not to function

51

words such as articles and prepositions
...
Complex and compound words are dealt with in Chapter 99
...
g
...
Other words - which we will look at in studying
connected speech - change their stress pattern according to the context they occur in
...
Despite the exceptions, it seems better to attempt to produce
some stress rules (even if they are rather crude and inaccurate) than to claim that there is no rule or regularity in
English word stress
...
As I suggested in the notes on the previous chapter, incorrect stress
placement is a major cause of intelligibility problems for foreign learners, and is therefore a subject that needs to be
treated very seriously
...
1 I have deliberately avoided using the term accent, which is found widely in the literature on stress
- see, for example, Cruttenden (2118), p
...
This is for three main reasons:
i
...

iii
...

Different writers do not agree with each other about the way the term should be used
...
g
...
To a lesser extent we also have this
problem with the word stress, which can be used to refer to psychological tension
...
7 On the question of the number of levels of stress, in addition to Laver (9117: 896), see also Wells
(7005)
...
7 It is said in this chapter that one may take one of two positions
...
The second
(which I prefer) is to say that, difficult though the task is, one must try to find a way of writing rules
that express what native speakers naturally tend to do in placing stress, while acknowledging that there
will always be a substantial residue of cases which appear to follow no regular rules
...
More recently, Giegerich (9117) has presented a clear analysis of
English word stress (including a useful explanation of strong, weak, heavy and light syllables); see p
...
I have not adopted the practice of labelling syllables heavy and light to denote characteristics of
phonological structure (e
...
types of peak and coda), though this could have been done to avoid confusion with the
more phonetically-based terms strong and weak introduced in Chapter 1
...

There is another approach to English stress rules which is radically different
...
To anyone not familiar with this type of treatment, the presentation will
seem difficult or even unintelligible; within the generative approach, many different theories, all with different
names, tend to come and go with changes in fashion
...

The level of phonology is very abstract in this theory
...
A generative phonologist, however, would say that this phonemic representation is not
accurate; the representation in the brain of the speaker or hearer is much more abstract and is often quite different
from the 'real' sounds recognisable in the sound wave
...
You may
hear a in the first syllable of 'photography', in the second syllable of 'photograph' and in the third syllable of
'photographer', but these a vowels are only the surface realizations of underlying vowel phonemes
...
These vowel changes are brought about by rules - not the sort of
rules that one might teach to language learners, but more like the instructions that one might build into a machine
or write into a computer program
...
The principles of these rules are explained first on pp
...
61-967
...
(7002: Chapter 8),
and they present a brief account of the generative treatment of stress in section 1
...
A briefer review is given in
Katamba (9151: Chapter 99, Section 9)
...
Finding practice and
testing material for word stress is very simple, however: any modern English dictionary shows word stress patterns
as part of word entries, and lists of these can be made either with stress marks for students to read from (as in
Exercise 7 of Audio Unit 90), or without stress marks for students to put their own marks on (as in Exercise 9 of
the same Audio Unit)
...
)

17

11 Complex word stress

11
...
The words that were described were called "simple" words;
"simple" in this context means "not composed of more than one grammatical unit", so that, for example, the word
'care' is simple while 'careful' and 'careless' (being composed of two grammatical units each) are complex; 'carefully' and 'carelessness' are also complex, and are composed of three grammatical units each
...
The
majority of English words of more than one syllable (polysyllabic words) have come from other languages whose
way of constructing words is easily recognisable; for example, we can see how combining 'mit' with the prefixes
'per-', 'sub-', 'com-' produced 'permit', 'submit', 'commit' - words which have come into English from Latin
...
But we cannot automatically treat the separate grammatical units of other
languages as if they were separate grammatical units of English
...
We must accept, then, that the distinction between "simple" and "complex"
words is difficult to draw
...
g
...

We will look first at the words made with affixes
...
g
...
g
...

Affixes have one of three possible effects on word stress:

17

a) The affix itself receives the primary stress (e
...
'semi-' + 'circle' —> 'semicircle' ''-ality' +
'person' '—> 'personality' ')
...
g
...

c) The stress remains on the stem, not the affix, but is shifted to a different syllable (e
...
'magnet' ',
'magnetic' ')
...
7 Suffixes

There are so many suffixes that it will only be possible here to examine a small proportion of them: we will
concentrate on those which are common and productive - that is, are applied to a considerable number of stems
and could be applied to more to make new English words
...

One of the problems that we encounter is that we find words which are obviously complex but which, when
we try to divide them into stem + affix, turn out to have a stem that is difficult to imagine as an English word
...
So, in 'personality', we could say that the suffix '-ity' is attached to the
stem 'personal' which contains the root 'person' and the suffix 'al'
...
The suffixes are referred to in their spelling form
...
If the stem consists of more than one syllable there will be a secondary stress on one of the syllables of the
stem
...
For
example, in 'Japan' 'the primary stress is on the last syllable, but when we add the stress-carrying suffix'ese' the primary stress is on the suffix and the secondary stress is placed not on the second syllable but on the first:
'Japanese' '
 '-ee': 'refugee' '; 'evacuee''
 '-eer': 'mountaineer' '; 'volunteer' '
 '-ese': 'Portuguese' '; 'journalese' 

17

 '-ette': 'cigarette' '; 'launderette' '
 'esque': 'picturesque' '
AU99, Ex

Suffixes that do not affect stress placement
7

















'-able': 'comfort' '; 'comfortable' '
'-age': 'anchor' '; 'anchorage' '
'-al': 'refuse' (verb) '; 'refusal' '
'-en': 'wide' '; 'widen' '
'-ful': 'wonder' '; 'wonderful' '
'-ing': 'amaze' '; 'amazing' '
'-like': 'bird' '; 'birdlike' '
'-less': 'power' '; 'powerless' 's
'-ly': 'hurried' '; 'hurriedly' '
'-ment' (noun): 'punish' '; 'punishment' '
'-ness': 'yellow' '; 'yellowness' '
'-ous': 'poison' '; 'poisonous' '
'-fy: 'glory' '; 'glorify' '
'-wise': 'other' '; 'otherwise' '
'-y' (adjective or noun): 'fun' '; 'funny' '
('-ish' in the case of adjectives does not affect stress placement: 'devil' '; 'devilish' '; however,
verbs with stems of more than one syllable always have the stress on the syllable immediately
preceding 'ish' - for example, 'replenish' ', 'demolish' ')
AU99, Ex

Suffixes that influence stress in the stem
7
In these examples primary stress is on the last syllable of the stem
...
g
...
When the stem has more than one syllable, the stress
is on one of the syllables in the stem
...
If the final syllable of the stem is strong, that syllable receives the stress
...

d) Prefixes
We will look only briefly at prefixes
...
Consequently, the best treatment seems to be to say that stress in words with prefixes is governed
by the same rules as those for polysyllabic words without prefixes
...
6 Compound words

The words discussed so far in this chapter have all consisted of a stem plus an affix
...
This is called compound, and its main characteristic is that it can be analysed into two
words, both of which can exist independently as English words
...
As with many of the distinctions being made in connection with stress, there
are areas of uncertainty
...
If, however,
someone drew a graph displaying numerical information about photos, this would perhaps be called a 'photo-graph'
and the word would then be regarded as a compound
...
g
...
g
...
g
...

In this last case there would be no indication to the foreign learner that the pair of words was to be treated as a
compound
...

As far as stress is concerned, the question is quite simple
...
A few rules can be given,
although these are not completely reliable
...
The first

16

words in such compounds often have secondary stress
...
bad-'tempered
,half-'timbered
,heavy-'handed
Compounds in which the first element is a number in some form also tend to have final stress:
,three-'wheeler
,second-'class
,five-'finger
Compounds functioning as adverbs are usually final-stressed:
,head'first
,North-'East
,down'stream
Finally, compounds which function as verbs and have an adverbial first element take final stress:
,down'grade

...
ill-9'treat
11
...
Stress
position may vary for one of two reasons: either as a result of the stress on other words occurring next to the word
in question, or because not all speakers agree on the placement of stress in some words
...
Thus (using some examples from the previous section):
,bad-'tempered

but

a ,bad-tempered 'teacher


...
heavy-'handed

but

a
...
A well-known example is
'controversy', which is pronounced by some speakers as 'kQntr@v3:si and by others as k@n'trQv@si; it would be
quite wrong to say that one version was correct and one incorrect
...

11
...
There are several dozen pairs of two-syllable
words with identical spelling which differ from each other in stress placement, apparently according to word class
(noun, verb or adjective)
...
We shall treat them as a special type of word and
give them the following rule: if a pair of prefix-plus-stem words exists, both members of which are spelt
identically, one of which is a verb and the other of which is either a noun or an adjective, then the stress is placed
on the second syllable of the verb but on the first syllable of the noun or adjective
...
Looking
specifically at compounds, it is worth reading Fudge (9157: Chapter 8)
...
If you
wish to go more deeply into compound-word stress, you should first study English word formation
...
On the distinction between stem and root, see Radford et al (9111: 62-5)
...

a)
shopkeeper
f) confirmation
b)
open-ended
g) eight-sided
c)
Javanese
h) fruitcake
d)
birthmark
i) defective
e)
anti-clockwise
j) roof timber
Write the words in phonemic transcription, including the stress marks
...
We have now moved on from
looking at syllables to looking at words, and we will consider certain well-known English words that can be
pronounced in two different ways; these are called strong forms and weak forms
...
The sentence 'I like that' is pronounced 
(strong form); the sentence 'I hope that she will' is pronounced (weak form)
...
It is possible to use only strong forms in speaking, and some foreigners do this
...
Second, and more
importantly, speakers who are not familiar with the use of weak forms are likely to have difficulty understanding
speakers who do use weak forms; since practically all native speakers of British English use them, learners of the
language need to learn about these weak forms to help them to understand what they hear
...
Certain English words are shortened so
severely (usually to a single phoneme) and so consistently that they are represented differently in informal writing
(e
...
'it is' → 'it's'; 'we have' → 'we've'; 'do not' → 'don't')
...

Almost all the words which have both a strong and weak form belong to a category that may be called
function words - words that do not have a dictionary meaning in the way that we normally expect nouns, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs to have
...
, all of which are in certain circumstances pronounced in their strong forms but which are more frequently
pronounced in their weak forms
...
There are some fairly simple
rules; we can say that the strong form is used in the following cases:
i)

For many weak-form words, when they occur at the end of a sentence; for example, the word 'of has the
weak form  in the following sentence:
'I'm fond of chips' ''

900

However, when it comes at the end of the sentence, as in the following example, it has the strong form DV:
'Chips are what I'm fond of' ‘ ' '
Many of the words given below (particularly 9-1) never occur at the end of a sentence (e
...
'the', 'your')
...

ii) When a weak-form word is being contrasted with another word; for example:
'The letter's from him, not to him' ' ' '
A similar case is what we might call a co-ordinated use of prepositions:
'I travel to and from London a lot'

' ''''

'A work of and about literature'

 ''''

iii) When a weak-form word is given stress for the purpose of emphasis; for example:
'You must give me more money'
 ' ' ''
iv) When a weak-form word is being "cited" or "quoted"; for example:
'You shouldn't put "and" at the end of a sentence'
'' ' '
Another point to remember is that when weak-form words whose spelling begins with 'h' (e
...
'her', 'have')
occur at the beginning of a sentence, the pronunciation is with initial h, even though this is usually omitted in
other contexts
...

9

'the'
Weak forms:

 (before consonants)
'Shut the door' ''
di (before vowels)
'Wait for the end' ''

7

'a','an'
Weak forms:

 (before consonants)
'Read a book' ' '
 (before vowels)
'Eat an apple' ''

7

'and'
Weak form:

 (sometimes after t, d, s, z, )
'Come and see' ''
'Fish and chips' ''

909

7

'but'
Weak form:


'It's good but expensive'

8

''

'that'
This word only has a weak form when used in a relative clause; when used with a demonstrative sense it is
always pronounced in its strong form
...

Weak forms:

 (before consonants)
'Take her home'

''

 (before vowels)
'Take her out'
1

''

'your'
Weak forms:

 (before consonants)
'Take your time'

' '

(before vowels)
'On your own'

''

90 'she', 'he', 'we', 'you'
This group of pronouns has weak forms pronounced with weaker vowels than the i:, u: of their strong
forms
...
There is little difference in the
pronunciation in different places in the sentence, except in the case of 'he'
...
Number 91, 'to', is a partial exception
...
In one sense (typically, when it occurs before a countable noun,
meaning "an unknown individual") it has the strong form:
'I think some animal broke it'  ' ''
It is also used before uncountable nouns (meaning "an unspecified amount of") and before other nouns in the
plural (meaning "an unspecified number of"); in such uses it has the weak form s@m
'Have some more tea'
' ''
In final position: 
'I've got some'
'
77 'there'
When this word has a demonstrative function, it always occurs in its strong form De@ (dear before vowels);
for example:
'There it is'
'
'Put it there'
''
Weak forms:  (before consonants)
'There should be a rule'
' '
 (before vowels)
'There is'
D'
In final position: the pronunciation may be da or 
...
It is important to remember that in their negative form (i
...
combined with 'not')
they never have the weak pronunciation, and some (e
...
'don't', 'can't') have different vowels from their nonnegative strong forms
...
g
...

Weak forms:  (before consonants)
'You must try harder'

'

mst (before vowels)
'He must eat more'

' '

In final position: 
'She certainly must'
72 'do', 'does'
Weak forms:
'do'

 ''

 (before consonants)
'Why do they like it?'

' '

908

du (before vowels)
'Why do all the cars stop?'
'does'

'waI du 'O:l D@ 'ka:z 'stQp

d@z
'When does it arrive?'

'wen d@z It @'raIv

In final position: du:, dVz
'We don't smoke, but some people do' 'wi: daunt 'sm@Uk bat 'sVm pi:pl
'I think John does'

'du:

aI 'TINk 'dZQn dVz

75 'am', 'are', 'was', 'were'
Weak forms:

@m
'Why am I here?'

'waI @m aI 'hI@

@ (before consonants)
'Here are the plates'

'hI@r @ D@ 'pleIts

@r (before vowels)
'The coats are in there'

D@ 'k@Uts @r In 'De@

w@z
'He was here a minute ago'

hi w@z 'hI@r a 'mInIt @ 'g@U

w@ (before consonants)
'The papers were late'

D@ 'peIp@z w@ 'leIt

w@r (before vowels)
'The questions were easy'

D@ 'kwestS@nz w@r 'i:zi

In final position: {m, A:, WQZ, W3:
'She's not as old as I am'

SIz 'not @z '@Uld @z 'aI {m

'I know the Smiths are'

aI 'n@U D@ 'smITs A:

'The last record was'

D@ 'lA:st 'rekO:d WQZ

'They weren't as cold as we were'

DeI 'w7:nt @z 'k@Uld @z 'wi: W3:

Notes on problems and further reading
This chapter is almost entirely practical
...
Some of them give a great deal of importance to using these forms, but do not stress the importance of also
knowing when to use the strong forms, something which I feel is very important; see Hewings (7002: 75-1)
...

Written exercise
In the following sentences, the transcription for the weak-form words is left blank
...

9 I want her to park that car over there,
 

 



906

7





To come to the point, what shall we do for the rest of the week?





Has anyone got an idea where it came from?





Pedestrians must always use the crossings provided
...


8





7




7



Of all the proposals, the one that you made is the silliest
...







902

13 Problems in phonemic analysis

The concept of the phoneme was introduced in Chapter 8, and a few theoretical problems connected with phonemic
analysis have been mentioned in other chapters
...
While this is often true, we must recognise that there are
exceptions which make us consider some quite serious theoretical problems
...
However, from the point of view
of learning about the phonology of English they are too important to ignore
...
In some cases, we have difficulty in deciding on the overall phonemic
system of the accent we are studying, while in others we are concerned about how a particular sound fits into this
system
...

13
...
It is possible to treat each of the pair ,  as a single consonant phoneme; we will call this the one-phoneme
analysis of , 
...
If we adopted the two-phoneme analysis, the words 'church' and 'judge' would be
composed of five phonemes each, like this:
 



instead of the three phonemes that result from the one-phoneme analysis:
    
and there would be no separate ,  phonemes
...
Many phonologists have claimed that one should prefer the analysis which is the most
"economical" in the number of phonemes it results in
...
Further, it can be claimed that a phonological analysis is a type of scientific theory, and a scientific theory
should be stated as economically as possible
...
Why is this? There are several arguments: no single one of them is conclusive, but added together
they are felt to make the one-phoneme analysis seem preferable
...


i) One argument could be called "phonetic" or "allophonic": if it could be shown that the phonetic
quality of the t and  (or d and ) in ,  is clearly different from realisations of t, , d,  found
elsewhere in similar contexts, this would support the analysis of ,  as separate phonemes
...
This
argument is a weak one: there is no clear evidence that such phonetic differences exist, and even if
there were such evidence, it would be easy to produce explanations for the differences that did not
depend on phonemic analyses (e
...
the position of the word boundary in 'watch apes', 'what
shapes')
...
It can easily be shown that
tS, dZ are found initially, medially and finally, and that no other combination (e
...
pf, dz, ) has
such a wide distribution
...
g
...

iii) If ,  were able to combine quite freely with other consonants to form consonant clusters, this
would support the one-phoneme analysis
...
In final position in the syllable, we find that  can be followed by t
(e
...
'watched' ) and  by d (e
...
'wedged' )
...
g
...
g
...
A fairly similar situation is found if we ask if
n can precede , ; some BBC speakers have in 'lunch', 'French', etc
...
In words like 'lunge', 'flange' there seems to be no possible phonological distinction
between ,  and , 
...
There are no other possibilities for
final-consonant clusters containing , , except that the pre-final l or n may occur in
combination with post-final t, d as in 'squelched' , 'hinged' 
...

How would the two-phoneme analysis affect the syllable-structure framework that was
introduced in Chapter 5? Initial ,  would have to be interpreted as initial t, d plus post-initial ,
, with the result that the post-initial set of consonants would have to contain l, r, w, j and also , Z
- consonants which are rather different from the other four and which could only combine with t,
d
...
)
iv) Finally, it has been suggested that if native speakers of English who have not been taught
phonetics feel that ,  are each "one sound", we should be guided by their intuitions and prefer
the one-phoneme analysis
...
It would be necessary to
ask questions like this: "Would you say that the word 'chip' begins with one sound - like 'tip' and
'sip' - or with two sounds - like 'trip' and 'skip'?" But the results would be distorted by the fact that
two consonant letters are used in the spelling; to do the test properly one should use illiterate
subjects, which raises many further problems
...

For the rest of this chapter a number of other phonological problems will be discussed comparatively
briefly
...
The velar nasal , described in Chapter 2, also raises a lot of analysis problems: many
writers have suggested that the correct analysis is one in which there is no r) phoneme, and this sound is
treated as an allophone of the phoneme n that occurs when it precedes the phoneme g
...
The sound  is therefore,
according to this theory, an allophone of n
...
2 The English vowel system

The analysis of the English vowel system presented in Chapters 7 and 7 contains a large number of
phonemes, and it is not surprising that some phonologists who believe in the importance of keeping the
total number of phonemes small propose different analyses

990

which contain fewer than ten vowel phonemes and treat all long vowels and diphthongs as composed of
two phonemes each
...
Starting with a set of basic or "simple" vowel
phonemes (e
...
) it is possible to make up long vowels by using short vowels twice
...
We will use i,
: thus  could be transcribed as  as  as  as and as 
...

Another way of doing this kind of analysis is to treat long vowels and diphthongs as composed of a vowel
plus a consonant; this may seem a less obvious way of proceeding, but it was for many years the choice of
most American phonologists
...
Thus the diphthongs would be
made up like this (our usual transcription is given in brackets):






 





  





















Long vowels:




 

 

 







Diphthongs and long vowels are now of exactly the same phonological composition
...
In this analysis, the
inequality of distribution is corrected
...
The
suggested solution to this problem was to use the symbol i, which does not represent any single phoneme;
a similar proposal was made for u
...
There are many
other ways of analysing the very complex vowel system of English, some of which are extremely
ingenious
...

13
...
It has to be recognised that syllabic consonants are a

999

problem: they are phonologically different from their non-syllabic counterparts
...
We could invent the phonemes  etc
...
For a word like 'button'  or 'bottle' , it would be necessary to
add to the first post-final set; the argument would be extended to include the r in 'Hungary'
...
Another possibility is to set up a phoneme that we might
name syllabicity, symbolised with the mark Then the word 'codling' would consist of the following six
phonemes: , while the word 'coddling' would consist of the following seven phonemes:
 and simultaneously , —  — 
...

Some phonologists maintain that a syllabic consonant is really a case of a vowel and a consonant that
have become combined
...
We could then say that, for example,
'Hungary' is phonemically hVNgarI while 'hungry' is hVNgri; it would then be necessary to say that the a
vowel phoneme in the phonemic representation is not pronounced as a vowel, but instead causes the
following consonant to become syllabic
...

11
...
But, as
many writers have pointed out, it would be quite reasonable to transcribe them with b, d, g instead
...
However, in
sp, st, sk we find an unaspirated plosive, and there could be an argument for transcribing them as sb, sd,
sg
...

11
...
This has resulted in a
proposal that the phoneme symbol  should be used for representing any occurrence of  or , so that
'cup' (which is usually stressed) would be transcribed ' and 'upper' (with stress on the initial syllable)
as '
...

Other phonologists have suggested that  is an allophone of several other vowels; for example, compare
the middle two syllables in the words 'economy' 'and 'economic' ,' - it appears that
when the stress moves away from the syllable containing  the vowel becomes 
...
(This view has already been referred to in the Notes for Chapter 90, Section 7
...
7 to show the different spellings that can be pronounced with 
...
The
argument is in some ways quite an attractive one, but since it leads to a rather complex and abstract
phonemic analysis it is not adopted for this course
...
6 Distinctive features

Many references have been made to phonology in this course, with the purpose of making use of the
concepts and analytical techniques of that subject to help explain various facts about English
pronunciation as efficiently as possible
...
Within this area of what could be called "pure phonology",
problems are examined with little or no reference to their relevance to the language learner
...
The very fundamental notion of the phoneme, for example, has been treated in many
different ways
...
For example, if we consider the English d
phoneme, it is easy to show that it differs from the plosives b, g in its place of articulation (alveolar), from
t in being lenis, from s, z in not being fricative, from n in not being nasal, and so on
...

If you look carefully at this table, you will see that the combination of + and - values for each phoneme is
different; if two sounds were represented by exactly the same +'s and

997

d

b

g

t

s

z

n

alveolar

+

—

—

+

+

+

+

bilabial

—

+

—

—

—

—

—

velar

—

—

+

—

—

—

—

lenis

+

+

+

—

—

+

(+)*

plosive

+

+

+

+

—

—

—

fricative

—

—

—

—

+

+

—

nasal

—

—

—

—

—

—

+

* Since there is no fortis/lenis contrast among nasals this could be left blank
...
In the case of the limited set of phonemes
used for this example, not all the features are needed: if one wished, it would be possible to dispense with,
for example, the feature velar and the feature nasal
...
To produce a complete analysis of all the phonemes of English, other
features would be needed for representing other types of consonant, and for vowels and diphthongs
...

It has been claimed by some writers that distinctive feature analysis is relevant to the study of language
learning, and that pronunciation difficulties experienced by learners are better seen as due to the need to
learn a particular feature or combination of features than as the absence of particular phonemes
...
In
English it is not necessary to deal with vowels which are +front, +round, whereas this is necessary for
French and German; it could be said that the major task for the English-speaking learner of French or
German in this case is to learn the combination of these features, rather than to learn the individual
vowels y, Ø and (in French) œ*
...
This requires an additional
feature that most languages do not make use of, and learning this could be seen as a specific task for the
learner of English
...

13
...
We need to consider
9 The phonetic symbols represent the following sounds: y is a close front rounded vowel (e
...
the vowel in French tu, German Bühne); 0
is a close-mid front rounded vowel (e
...
French peu, German schön); œ is an open-mid front rounded vowel (e
...
French oeuf)
...
This is one criterion for judging the value of an analysis; unless one
believes in carrying out phonological analysis for purely aesthetic reasons, the only other important
criterion is whether the analysis is likely to correspond to the representation of sounds in the human brain
...

Notes on problems and further reading

The analysis of ,  is discussed in Cruttenden (7005: 959-5)
...
The "double
vowel" interpretation of English long vowels was put forward by MacCarthy (9187) and is used by
Kreidler (7007: 78-81)
...
It has the advantage of being economical on
phonemes and very "neat and tidy"
...
In
generative phonology it is claimed that, at the abstract level, English vowels are simply tense or lax
...
The quality of the first element of the diphthongs/long vowels is modified by
some phonological rules, while other rules supply the second element automatically
...
There is a valuable discussion of the interpretation of the English
vowel system with reference to several different accents in Giegerich (9117: Chapter 7), followed by an
explanation of the distinctive feature analysis of the English vowel system (Chapter 7) and the consonant
system (Chapter 8)
...

The idea that  is an allophone of many English vowels is not a new one
...
This is explained - in rather difficult terms - in Chomsky and Halle (91654990-76)
...

Note for teachers

Since this is a theoretical chapter it is difficult to provide practical work
...
Some books on phonology give exercises on the phonemic analysis of
other languages (e
...
Katamba, 9151; Roca and Johnson, 9111), but although these are useful, I do not
feel that it would be appropriate in this book to divert attention from English
...

Written exercises

All the following exercises involve different ways of looking at the phonemic interpretation of English
sounds
...

9 In this exercise you must look at phonetically transcribed material from an English accent
different from BBC pronunciation and decide on the best way to interpret and transcribe it
phonemically
...
For example, this may happen to the n in 'front': when this
happens the preceding vowel becomes nasalised - some of the air escapes through the nose
...
Nasalised vowels are found in the words
given in phonetic transcription below
...

a) 'sound'

[]

b) 'anger'

[]

c) 'can't'

[]

d) 'camper'

[]

e) 'bond'

[]

7 When the phoneme t occurs between vowels it is sometimes pronounced as a "tap": the tongue
blade strikes the alveolar ridge sharply, producing a very brief voiced plosive
...
Look at the transcriptions of the words
given below and see if you can work out (for the accent in question) the environment in which t is
found
...
In
the following exercise you must mark the value of each feature in the table for each segment listed
on the top row with either a + or -; you will probably find it useful to look at the IPA chart on p
...

p

d

s

m

z

Continuant
Alveolar
Voiced
8 In the following sets of segments (a-f), all segments in the set possess some characteristic feature
which they have in common and which may distinguish them from other segments
...
For very
limited messages, such as those of a "talking clock", this technique was usable, but for other purposes the
quality of the speech was so unnatural that it was practically unintelligible
...
In looking at connected speech it is useful to bear in mind the difference
between the way humans speak and what would be found in "mechanical speech"
...
9 Rhythm
9

AU97, Ex

The notion of rhythm involves some noticeable event happening at regular intervals of time; one can
detect the rhythm of a heartbeat, of a flashing light or of a piece of music
...
Of course, it is not suggested that the timing is as regular as a clock: the regularity of
occurrence is only relative
...
An example is given below
...

9
7
7
7
8
'Walk 'down the 'path to the 'end of the ca'nal
The stress-timed rhythm theory states that the times from each stressed syllable to the next will tend to be
the same, irrespective of the number of intervening unstressed syllables
...
g
...
g
...
Some writers have developed theories of English rhythm in which a unit of rhythm, the foot, is
used (with a parallel in the metrical analysis of verse)
...
The
example sentence given above would be divided into feet as follows:
9

7

7

7

8

'Walk 'down the 'path to the 'end of the ca 'nal
Some theories of rhythm go further than this, and point to the fact that some feet are stronger than others,
producing strong-weak patterns in larger pieces of speech above the level of the foot
...
A diagram of its rhythmical structure can be made, where s stands for "strong"
and w stands for "weak"
...
e
...
We can make our "tree diagram" grow to look like this:

If we then look at this phrase in the context of a longer phrase 'twenty places further back', and build up
the 'further back' part in a similar way, we would end up with an even more elaborate structure:

991

By analysing speech in this way we are able to show the relationships between strong and weak elements,
and the different levels of stress that we find
...
The levels in the sentence shown above can
be diagrammed like this (leaving out syllables that have never received stress at any level):
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
s
twen ty
pla
ces
fur
ther
back
The above "metrical grid" may be correct for very slow speech, but we must now look at what happens to
the rhythm in normal speech: many English speakers would feel that, although in 'twenty places' the righthand foot is the stronger, the word 'twenty' is stronger than 'places' in 'twenty places further back' when
spoken in conversational style
...
The effect is
particularly noticeable in cases such as the following, which all show the effect of what is called stressshift:
compact (adjective) 

but

compact disk ' '

thirteen 

but

thirteenth place '' 

Westminster '

but

Westminster Abbey '' 

In brief, it seems that stresses are altered according to context: we need to be able to explain how and why
this happens, but this is a difficult question and one for which we have only partial answers
...
e
...
Stress-timed rhythm is thus
perhaps characteristic of one style of speaking, not of English speech as a whole; one always speaks with
some degree of rhythmicality,

970

but the degree varies between a minimum value (arhythmical) and a maximum value (completely stresstimed rhythm)
...
Many foreign learners of English are made to practise speaking English with a
regular rhythm, often with the teacher beating time or clapping hands on the stressed syllables
...
There
are many laboratory techniques for measuring time in speech, and measurement of the time intervals
between stressed syllables in connected English speech has not shown the expected regularity; moreover,
using the same measuring techniques on different languages, it has not been possible to show a clear
difference between "stress-timed" and "syllable-timed" languages
...
However,
one ought to keep an open mind on the subject, remembering that the large-scale, objective study of
suprasegmental aspects of real speech is difficult to carry out, and much research remains to be done
...
Some languages do not have such a noticeable difference (which may, perhaps, explain
the subjective impression of "syllable- timing"), and for native speakers of such languages who are
learning English it can be helpful to practise repeating strongly rhythmical utterances since this forces the
speaker to concentrate on making unstressed syllables weak
...

97
...
A significant difference in natural connected speech is the way
that sounds belonging to one word can cause changes in sounds belonging to neighbouring words
...
Assimilation is something which varies in extent according to speaking rate and style: it is
more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow, careful speech
...
Generally speaking,
the cases that have most often been described are

979

assimilations affecting consonants
...
An example of the latter is what is sometimes called coalescence,
or coalescent assimilation: a final t, d and an initial j following often combine to form , , so that 'not
yet' is pronounced  and 'could you' is k
...

In parallel with this, we can identify assimilation of place, of manner and of voicing in consonants
...
For example, the final consonant in 'that' is alveolar t
...
Before a dental consonant, t will change to a dental plosive, for which the phonetic symbol is t,
as in: 'that thing' ; 'get those' ; 'cut through' 
...
In similar
contexts d would become b, d and g, respectively, and n would become m, n and ; examples of this
would be: 'good boy' , 'bad thing' , 'card game' , 'green paper' ,
'fine thought' , 'ten girls' 
...
It is important to note that the
consonants that have undergone assimilation have not disappeared; in the above examples, the duration of
the consonants remains more or less what one would expect for a two-consonant cluster
...

Assimilation of manner is much less noticeable, and is only found in the most rapid and casual speech;
generally speaking, the tendency is again for regressive assimilation and the change in manner is most
likely to be towards an "easier" consonant - one which

977

makes less obstruction to the airflow
...
g
...
In one particular case we find progressive assimilation of manner, when
a word-initial  follows a plosive or nasal at the end of a preceding word: it is very common to find that
the Ci becomes identical in manner to the Cf but with dental place of articulation
...

Assimilation of voice is also found, but again only in a limited way
...
If Cf is a lenis (i
...
"voiced") consonant and Ci is fortis
("voiceless") we often find that the lenis consonant has no voicing; for example in 'I have to' the final v
becomes voiceless f because of the following voiceless t in , and in the same way the z in
'cheese' becomes more like s when it occurs in 'cheesecake' 
...
However, when Cf is fortis ("voiceless") and Ci lenis ("voiced"), a context in which in
many languages Cf would become voiced, assimilation of voice never takes place; consider the following
example: 'I like that black dog' aI laIk
...
This creates a strong impression of a foreign
accent
...

However, similar effects are also observable across morpheme boundaries and to some extent also within
the morpheme
...
It could be said that this assimilation has become fixed as part of the phonological
structure of English syllables, since exceptions are almost non-existent
...
Thus:

977

'cats'



'dogs' 

'jumps' 

'runs' 

'Pat's' 

'Pam's' 

Assimilation creates something of a problem for phoneme theory: when, for example, d in 'good' 
becomes g in the context 'good girl', giving or b in the context 'good boy' , should we
say that one phoneme has been substituted for another? If we do this, how do we describe the assimilation
in 'good thing', where d becomes dental before the  of 'thing', or in 'good food', where d becomes a
labiodental plosive before the f in 'food'? English has no dental or labiodental plosive phonemes, so in
these cases, although there is clearly assimilation, there could not be said to be a substitution of one
phoneme for another
...
Traditionally, phonemes were supposed not to overlap in their
allophones, so that the only plosives that could have allophones with bilabial place of articulation were p,
b; this restriction is no longer looked on as so important
...
In 'good girl', for example, it is not a simple matter of the first word ending either in
d or in g, but rather a matter of the extent to which alveolar and/or velar closures are achieved
...
There are many other possibilities
...
It is essentially a natural phenomenon that can be seen
in any sort of complex physical activity, and the only important matter is to remember the restriction,
specific to English, on voicing assimilation mentioned above
...
3 Elision

AU14,Ex2

The nature of elision may be stated quite simply: under certain circumstances sounds disappear
...
As with assimilation, elision is typical of rapid,
casual speech
...
We will look at some
examples, although only a small number of the many possibilities can be given here
...

In words like 'potato', 'tomato', 'canary', 'perhaps', 'today', the vowel in the first syllable may
disappear; the aspiration of the initial plosive takes up the whole of the middle portion of the
syllable, resulting in these pronunciations (where h indicates aspiration in the phonetic
transcription):
' 



'

' 

' '

ii) Weak vowel + n, l, r becomes syllabic consonant (see Chapter 1 for details of syllabic
consonants)
...

It has been claimed that no normal English speaker would ever pronounce all the consonants
between the last two words of the following:
'George the Sixth's throne'



Though this is not impossible to pronounce, something like sIksTr@Un or sIksr@Un is a more
likely pronunciation for the last two words
...
A more common case is where the vowel of 'of' is lost, leaving either v in a voiced context (e
...

'all of mine' O:l v maIn) or f in a voiceless context (e
...
'best of three' best f Tri:)
...
The fact that they are regularly represented with special spelling forms makes them seem
rather different from the above examples
...
There are also vowel changes
associated with n't (e
...
'can' - 'can't' ; 'do'  - 'don't' ; 'shall'  -'shan't' );

978



'are': spelt 're, pronounced a after vowels, usually with some change in the preceding vowel (e
...

'you'  - 'you're' or , 'we' - 'we're', 'they'  - 'they're' ; linking is used when a
vowel follows, as explained in the next section
...


97
...
The most
familiar case is the use of linking r; the phoneme r does not occur in syllable-final position in the BBC
accent, but when the spelling of a word suggests a final r, and a word beginning with a vowel follows, the
usual pronunciation is to pronounce with r
...

"Linking r" and "intrusive r" are special cases of juncture; we need to consider the relationship between
one sound and the sounds that immediately precede and follow it
...
The problem lies in
deciding what the relationship is between aI and t; since we do not usually pause between words, there is
no silence to indicate word division and to justify the space left in the transcription
...
This is where the
problem of juncture becomes apparent
...
In addition to this, the aI diphthong is shorter in 'might'
...


976

Many ingenious minimal pairs have been invented to show the significance of juncture, a few of which
are given below:


'might rain'  (r voiced when initial in 'rain', shortened), vs
...

It should by now be clear that there is a great deal of difference between the way words are pronounced in
isolation and their pronunciation in the context of connected speech
...
9 English rhythm is a controversial subject on which widely differing views have been expressed
...
On the other side
there are sceptics like Crystal (9161: 969-8) who reject the idea of an inherent rhythmical pattern
...
Adams (9121) presents a review and experimental study
of the subject, and concludes that, despite the theoretical problems, there is practical value in teaching
rhythm to learners of English
...
Dauer's theory makes possible comparisons between different languages in terms of
their relative positions on a scale from maximally stress-timed to maximally syllable-timed (see for
example Dimitrova, 9112)
...
9; see, for example, Taylor (9159)
...
Hogg and McCully
(9152) give a full explanation of this, but it is difficult material
...
9) are briefer and somewhat simpler
...
James (9155)
explores the relevance of metrical phonology to language learning
...
7 Factors such as assimilation and elision are dealt with in an interesting and original way in
Shockey (7007)
...

For reading on coarticulation, which studies the influences of sounds on each other in wider and more
complex ways than assimilation, see Roach (7007), Ladefoged (7006: 65-29)
...
7 An essential part of acquiring fluency in English is learning to produce connected speech without
gaps between words, and this is the practical importance of linking
...

An important question to be asked in relation to juncture is whether it can actually be heard
...
g
...
It is interesting to note that
some phonologists of the 9180s and 9160s felt it necessary to invent a 'phoneme' of juncture in order to
be able to transcribe minimal pairs like 'grey tape' / 'great ape' unambiguously without having to refer to
grammatical boundaries; see, for example, Trager and Smith (9189)
...
My feeling is that while the practice and study of connected speech are agreed by
everyone to be very valuable, this can sometimes result in some relatively unimportant aspects of speech
(e
...
assimilation, juncture) being given more emphasis than they should
...
Perhaps the most important
consequence of what has been described in this chapter is that learners of English must be made very
clearly aware of the problems that they will meet in listening to colloquial, connected speech
...
Differences between languages have been described in terms of their articulatory settings - that
is, overall articulatory posture - by Honikman (9167)
...
The notion seems a useful one, although it is
difficult to confirm these settings scientifically
...
The main message to get across is that concentration on
selective, analytic listening will help them to recognise what is being said, and that practice usually brings
confidence
...

If a sentence starts with an unstressed syllable, leave it out of consideration - it doesn't belong in a
foot
...

b) Over a quarter of a century has elapsed since his death
...

d) Most of them have arrived on the bus
...

7 Draw tree diagrams of the rhythmical structure of the following phrases
...

Rewrite the phonemic transcription as a "broad phonetic" one so as to show likely assimilations,
elisions and linking
...
7
it was pointed out that the subject of phonology includes not just this aspect (which is usually called
segmental phonology) but also several others
...

Clearly, stress has linguistic importance and is therefore an aspect of the phonology of English that must
be described, but it is not usually regarded as something that is related to individual segmental phonemes;
normally, stress is said to be something that is applied to (or is a property of) syllables, and is therefore
part of the suprasegmental phonology of English
...
) An important part of suprasegmental phonology is intonation, and the
next five chapters are devoted to this subject
...
Only in very unusual situations do we
speak with fixed, unvarying pitch, and when we speak normally the pitch of our voice is constantly
changing
...
We describe pitch in terms of high and low, and some
people find it difficult to relate what they hear in someone's voice to a scale ranging from low to high
...
It would be
perfectly reasonable to think of pitch as ranging instead from "light" to "heavy", for example, or from
"left" to "right", and people who have difficulty in "hearing" intonation patterns are generally only having
difficulty in relating what they hear (which is the same as what everyone else hears) to this "pseudospatial" representation
...
If a speaker tries to talk
while riding fast on a horse, his or her pitch will make a lot of sudden rises and falls as a result of the
irregular movement; this is something which is outside the speaker's control and therefore cannot be
linguistically significant
...

But an individual speaker does have control over his or her own pitch,

970

and may choose to speak with a higher than normal pitch; this is something which is potentially of
linguistic significance
...
Strictly speaking, this should be used to
refer to an auditory sensation experienced by the hearer
...
However, as long as this
distinction is understood, it is generally agreed that the term "pitch" is a convenient one to use informally
to refer both to the subjective sensation and to the objectively measurable fundamental frequency
...
There is another necessary condition and that is that a
pitch difference must be perceptible; it is possible to detect differences in the frequency of the vibration
of a speaker's voice by means of laboratory instruments, but these differences may not be great enough to
be heard by a listener as differences in pitch
...
We know
how to establish which phonemes are in contrast with b in the context -in; we can substitute other
phonemes (e
...
p, s) to change the identity of the word from 'bin' to 'pin' to 'sin'
...
9 Form and function in intonation

To summarise what was said above, we want to know the answers to two questions about English speech:
i) What can we observe when we study pitch variations?
ii) What is the linguistic importance of the phenomena we observe?
These questions might be rephrased more briefly as:
i) What is the form of intonation?
ii) What is the function of intonation?
We will begin by looking at intonation in the shortest piece of speech we can find - the single syllable
...
In this chapter, then, we are going to look at
the intonation of one-syllable utterances
...

Two common one-syllable utterances are 'yes' and 'no'
...
The word we use for the overall behaviour

979

of the pitch in these examples is tone; a one-syllable word can be said with either a level tone or a
moving tone
...
Moving tones are more common
...
If they want to say 'yes?' or 'no?' in a questioning manner
they may say it with a rising tone - a movement from a lower pitch to a higher one
...
During the development of modern phonetics in the twentieth century it was for a long time
hoped that scientific study of intonation would make it possible to state what the function of each
different aspect of intonation was, and that foreign learners could then be taught rules to enable them to
use intonation in the way that native speakers use it
...
It is
certainly possible to produce a few general rules, and some will be given in this course, just as a few
general rules for word stress were given in Chapters 90 and 99
...
My treatment of intonation is
based on the belief that foreign learners of English at advanced levels who may use this course should be
given training to make them better able to recognise and copy English intonation
...
It
is perhaps a discouraging thing to say, but learners of English who are not able to talk regularly with
native speakers of English, or who are not able at least to listen regularly to colloquial English, are not
likely to learn English intonation, although they may learn very good pronunciation of the segments and
use stress correctly
...
7
...
These were: level, fall and rise
...
For example, if it were important to distinguish between a high level and low level tone for
English we could do it in this way:
High level

yes

no

Low level

_yes

_no

Although in English we do on occasions say yes or no and on other occasions _yes or _no, a speaker of
English would be unlikely to say that the meaning of the words 'yes' and 'no' was different with the
different tones; as will be seen below, we will not use the symbols for high and low versions of tones in
the description of English intonation
...
For
example, in Kono, a language of West Africa, we find the following (meanings given in brackets):
High level

bEN

Low level

_bEN ('greedy')

('uncle')

buu

('horn')

_buu ('to be cross')

Similarly, while we can hear a difference between English _yes, /yes and \yes, and between _no, /no and
\no, there is not a difference in meaning in such a clear-cut way as in Mandarin Chinese, where, for
example, ma means 'mother', /ma means 'hemp' and \ma means 'scold'
...
In addition
to the many dialects of Chinese, many other languages of South-East Asia (e
...
Thai, Vietnamese) are
tone languages; so are very many African languages, particularly those of the South and West, and a
considerable number of Native American languages
...

98
...
However, other more complex tones are also used
...
Another complex tone, much less frequently used, is
the rise-fall in which the pitch follows the opposite movement
...

One further complication should be mentioned here
...
In ordinary speech, the intonation tends to take place within
the lower part of the speaker's pitch range, but in situations where strong feelings are to be expressed it is
usual to make use of extra pitch height
...

98
...
We will now see if it is
possible to state in what circumstances the different tones are used within the very limited context of the
words 'yes' and 'no' said in isolation
...

Fall\yes\no

This is the tone about which least needs to be said, and which is usually regarded as more or less
"neutral"
...
The fall could be said to give an impression of
"finality"
...
A typical
occurrence in a dialogue between two speakers whom we shall call A and B might be the following:
A (wishing to attract B's attention): Excuse me
...
To reply instead \yes would give a feeling of "finality", of
"end of the conversation"; if A did have something to say about John Smith, the response with a fall
would make it difficult for A to continue
...

For example:
A: You start off on the ring road
...

B: /yes
A: and ours is the third house on the left
...

With 'no', a similar function can be seen
...
But a reply of /no would be an invitation to A to explain why she is looking for
Ann, or why she does not know where she is
...
For
example:
A: Do you know what the longest balloon flight was?
If B replies / no he is inviting A to tell him, while a response of \no would be more likely to mean that he
does not know and is not expecting to be told
...

Fall-rise vyes vno
The fall-rise is used a lot in English and has some rather special functions
...
Examples may make this clearer:
A: I've heard that it's a good school
...
Similarly:
A: It's not really an expensive book, is it?
B: vno
The fall-rise in B's reply again indicates that he would not completely agree with A
...
This use of intonation will be returned to in Chapter 91
...
It is not usually
considered to be an important tone for foreign learners to acquire, although it is still useful practice to
learn to distinguish it from other tones
...

B: yes
Level _yes_ no

This tone is certainly used in English, but in a rather restricted context: it almost always conveys (on
single-syllable utterances) a feeling of saying something routine, uninteresting or boring
...
Similarly, if one is being asked a series
of routine questions for some purpose - such as applying for an insurance policy - one might reply to each
question of a series (like 'Have you ever been in prison?', 'Do you suffer from any serious illness?', 'Is
your eyesight defective?', etc
...

A few meanings have been suggested for the five tones that have been introduced, but each tone may
have many more such meanings
...
This is not the same thing as saying that any tone can be
used in any context: the point is that no particular tone has a unique "privilege of occurrence" in a
particular context
...


976

98
...
In the case of polysyllabic
words, it is always the most strongly stressed syllable that receives the tone; the tone mark is equivalent to
a stress mark
...

Examples:
Fall

(usually suggests a "final" or "definite" feeling)
\stop

Rise

\ eighty

a \gain

(often suggesting a question)
/sure

/really to /night

When a speaker is giving a list of items, they often use a rise on each item until the last, which has a fall,
for example:
You can have it in / red, /blue, / green or \black
Fall-rise (often suggesting uncertainty or hesitation)
vsome

vnearly

pervhaps

Fall-rise is sometimes used instead of rise in giving lists
...
9 The study of intonation went through many changes in the twentieth century, and different
theoretical approaches emerged
...

You can read a summary of this approach in Cruttenden (9112: 75-70)
...

These two different theoretical approaches became gradually more elaborate and difficult to use
...
A good introduction to the theoretical issues is Cruttenden (9112)
...

98
...
Those whose native language is a tone language should be aware of the considerable
linguistic importance of tone in such languages; often it is extremely difficult for people who have spoken
a tone language all their life to learn to

972

observe their own use of tone objectively
...
A good introduction is Ladefoged (7006: 772-787)
...

Many analyses within the British approach to intonation include among tones both "high" and "low"
varieties
...
Some writers had high and low versions of all tones
...
9),
this is unnecessary duplication
...
If we take as an example a fall-rise without extra pitch height:

then something symbolised as  could be any of the following:

It would be possible to extend our framework to distinguish between these possibilities, but I do not
believe it would be profitable to do so
...

Note for teachers

To devote five chapters to intonation may seem excessive, but I feel that this is necessary since the
subject is difficult and complex, and needs to be explained at considerable length if the explanation is to
be intelligible
...

As explained above, some students may be perfectly well able to discriminate between tones, but have
difficulty in labelling them as "fall", "rise", etc
...
Of the remainder, a few are especially gifted and cannot
understand how anyone could find the task difficult, and most others eventually learn after a few hours of
practical classes
...

Written exercise

In the following sentences and bits of dialogue, each underlined syllable must be given an appropriate
tone mark
...

9 This train is for Leeds, York and Hull
...
Where to?
7 No! Certainly not! Go away!
7 Did you know he'd been convicted of drunken driving?
No!
8 If I give him money he goes and spends it
...

He's completely unreliable
...
1 The tone-unit

In Chapter 98 it was explained that many of the world's languages are tone languages, in which
substituting one distinctive tone for another on a particular word or morpheme can cause a change in the
dictionary ("lexical") meaning of that word or morpheme, or in some aspect of its grammatical
categorisation
...
Languages such as English are sometimes called intonation
languages
...
It could be said that someone analysing the function and
distribution of tones in a tone language would be mainly occupied in examining utterances syllable by
syllable, looking at each syllable as an independently variable item
...
However,
when we look at continuous speech in English utterances we find that these tones can only be identified
on a small number of particularly prominent syllables
...
The tone-unit is difficult to define, and one or two examples may
help to make it easier to understand the concept
...

 AU96, Exs 9 & 7
Let us begin with a one-syllable utterance:
/you
We underline syllables that carry a tone, as explained at the end of the previous chapter
...
The other two syllables
will normally be much less prominent, and be said on a level pitch
...
To summarise the
analysis of 'is it /you' so far, it is an utterance of three syllables, consisting of one tone- unit; the only
syllable that carries a tone is the third one
...
It has been mentioned several times that tonic syllables have a high degree of prominence;
prominence is, of course, a property of stressed syllables, and a tonic syllable not only carries a tone
(which is something related to intonation) but also a type of stress that will be called tonic stress
...
)
The example can now be extended:
vJohn

is it /you

A fall-rise tone is used quite commonly in calling someone's name
...
In spite of the absence of any pause, the
utterance would normally be regarded as divided into two tone-units: 'vJohn' and 'is it /you'
...

It should be possible to see now that the tone-unit has a place in a range of phonological units that are in a
hierarchical relationship: speech consists of a number of utterances (the largest units that we shall
consider); each utterance consists of one or more tone-units; each tone-unit consists of one or more feet;
each foot consists of one or more syllables; each syllable consists of one or more phonemes
...
2 The structure of the tone-unit

In Chapter 5 the structure of the English syllable was examined in some detail
...
The first thing to be done is to make more precise the role of the tonic syllable in the
tone-unit
...
Each simple tone-unit has one and only one tonic syllable; this means that the
tonic syllable is an obligatory component of the tone-unit
...
)
We will now see what the other components may be
...
Notice that the first syllable has a stress mark:
this is important
...
It follows that if there is no stressed syllable before the tonic
syllable, there cannot be a head
...
In the following example, the head consists of the first five syllables:
'Bill 'called to 'give me \these
As was said a little earlier, if there is no stressed syllable preceding the tonic syllable, there is no head
...
The syllables 'in an' form a pre-head,
which is the next component of the tone-unit to be introduced
...
Thus pre-heads are found in two main environments:
i) when there is no head (i
...
no stressed syllable preceding the tonic syllable), as in this example:
in an \hour
ii) when there is a head, as in this example:
in a 'little 'less than an \hour
In this example, the pre-head consists of 'in a', the head consists of "little 'less than an', and the tonic
syllable is '\hour'
...
Any syllables between the tonic syllable
and the end of the tone-unit are called the tail
...
The above examples should, then, be transcribed as follows:
\look at it

/what did you -say

\both of them were -here

This completes the list of tone-unit components
...
e
...
When we analyse longer stretches of speech,
it is necessary to mark the places where tone-unit boundaries occur - that is, where one tone-unit ends and
another begins, or where a tone- unit ends and is followed by a pause, or where a tone-unit begins
following a pause
...
In practice it is not usually important to mark pauses at the
beginning and end of a passage, though this is done here for completeness
...

|| and then 'nearer to the vfront || on the /left | theres a 'bit of \forest | 'coming
'down to the \waterside || and then a 'bit of a /bay ||
We can mark their structure as follows (using dotted lines to show divisions between tone- unit
components, though this is only done for this particular example):
PH

H

TS

PH

TS

PH

and then 'nearer to the vfront on the /left theres a
H

TS T

H

TS

'bit of \for est coming 'down to the \wa
PH

H

T
terside

TS

and then a 'bit of a /bay
The above passage contains five tone-units
...
This example shows clearly how the
units of phonological analysis can sometimes be seen to differ from those of grammatical analysis
...
3 Pitch possibilities in the simple tone-unit

It has been said several times in this chapter that tone is carried by the tonic syllable, and it is now
necessary to examine this statement more carefully
...

In a one-syllable utterance, the single syllable must have one of the five tones described in Chapter 98
...
If the tonic syllable
is the final syllable, the tone will not sound much different from that of a corresponding one-syllable
tone-unit
...
e
...
If a tail follows a tonic syllable that has a
rising tone, it will almost always be found that the syllable or syllables of the tail will continue to move
upwards from the pitch of the tonic syllable
...
In such cases, the tonic syllable is
the syllable on which the pitch movement of the tone begins, but that pitch movement is completed over
the rest of the tone-unit (i
...
the tail)
...

We find a similar situation with the falling tone
...
In the case of a level tone, syllables following in the tail will continue at the same level; since level
tone is to be treated as a rather unusual type of tone, we will not examine it in more detail at this stage
...

Notes on problems and further reading

It would not be useful (unless you are doing research on the subject) to go into all the different ways in
which English intonation has been represented, but it is worth noting that simpler approaches have been
used in the past
...
In more modern work,
we can see that it is possible to represent intonation as a simple sequence of tonic and non-tonic stressed
syllables, and pauses, with no higher-level organisation; an example of this is the transcription used in the
Spoken English Corpus (Williams, 9116)
...
Most contemporary British
analyses, however, use a unit similar or identical to what I call a tone-unit divided into components such
as pre-head, head, tonic syllable and tail
...
Good background reading on this is Cruttenden (9112: 76-88)
...
More difficult exercises with more natural
speech follow later (Audio Units 95 and 91)
...
Add a number of extra syllables (as specified by the number
in brackets) to make a tail
...
)
7 Now expand the following tonic syllables by putting heads in front of them, containing the
number of stressed syllables indicated in brackets
...
Draw underneath them a diagram
of the pitch movements, leaving a gap between each syllable
...
Examples
were given to show how this happens in the case of rising and falling tones
...

17
...
Fall-rise and rise-fall tones, howl theory,
it seems unlikely that it would be more useful to learners of English than the traditional analysis presented
in this book
...
This is necessary since no complete analysis of intonation can be done
without having studied
t敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨″敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨
敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨
椠 愠 ㈮ 湯 捥 㨷 ㄨ 敤 瑴 湩 汢 瀠 琠  潩 湡 硥 汣
摮 Ⱙ㌠ 楴 匠 㤹 
湥 䌠 敨浥 潲 敨 景 瑡 汰 敨慥 ⁡敨椠 敨 ⱳ敩 摮 戠 湵 琠
敲 琠 牡 畯 瑩 敨湯 湏
桴 据 楶 敬 愠 癩 ⤰ 㠹 污 攠 潲 祢 獩 湅 獩 潣 景 摵 ⁁ ⤷ 敨〲 㤶 ⠠污 祲 湩 楡 搠 潭
敨 敤 攠 灭 獥 朠 ㄨ ⁹ 湷 䈠 敨 汧 敨 瑴 匠 ⁹ 瑳
› 㤱 瑳 䌠 
瑥 敲 
wollof s牥 牷 浯 敨歯 瑸  椠 楮 敮 敨愠 楴 摩 琠 慥 愠 渠 愠 楬 慥 湩 瑩 敨湯 瑡
瑩 敨 匍 潢 整 獴 甭 潴 祦 湥 
祳 敨 瑯 敲 敦 
爠 敨 湵 琠
ot )ylevitcepser( refer ot )"sT eerht" eht( yticinot dna ytilanot ,enot smret eht gnisu ni )2619( yadillaH
elpmaxe rof ees ;elballys cinot eht fo tnemecalp eht ot dna stinu-enot otni hceeps fo noisivid eht ot ,enot
I os ,hcihw si hcihw rebmemer ot tluciffid ti dnif elpoep ecneirepxe ym nI
...
smret eseht esu t'nod
There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...

sis of perhaps the most difficult aspect: that of recognising fall-rise and rise-fall tones when they are
extended over a number of syllables
...
)6007( slleW ,)6119( hcneT

...

On declination, see Cruttenden (9112: 979-7)
...
This is necessary since no complete analysis of intonation can be
done without having studied
t敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨″敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨
敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨
椠 愠 ㈮ 湯 捥 㨷 ㄨ 敤 瑴 湩 汢 瀠 琠  潩 湡 硥 汣
摮 Ⱙ㌠ 楴 匠 㤹 
湥 䌠 敨浥 潲 敨 景 瑡 汰 敨慥 ⁡敨椠 敨 ⱳ敩 摮 戠 湵 琠
敲 琠 牡 畯 瑩 敨湯 湏
桴 据 楶 敬 愠 癩 ⤰ 㠹 污 攠 潲 祢 獩 湅 獩 潣 景 摵 ⁁ ⤷ 敨〲 㤶 ⠠污 祲 湩 楡 搠 潭
敨 敤 攠 灭 獥 朠 ㄨ ⁹ 湷 䈠 敨 汧 敨 瑴 匠 ⁹ 瑳
› 㤱 瑳 䌠 
瑥 敲 
wollof s牥 牷 浯 敨歯 瑸  椠 楮 敮 敨愠 楴 摩 琠 慥 愠 渠 愠 楬 慥 湩 瑩 敨湯 瑡
瑩 敨 匍 潢 整 獴 甭 潴 祦 湥 
祳 敨 瑯 敲 敦 
爠 敨 湵 琠
ot )ylevitcepser( refer ot )"sT eerht" eht( yticinot dna ytilanot ,enot smret eht gnisu ni )2619( yadillaH
elpmaxe rof ees ;elballys cinot eht fo tnemecalp eht ot dna stinu-enot otni hceeps fo noisivid eht ot ,enot
I os ,hcihw si hcihw rebmemer ot tluciffid ti dnif elpoep ecneirepxe ym nI
...
smret eseht esu t'nod
There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...

敨 潲 浥
瀠 汢 敨湩 瑴 敤 ㄨ 㨷
䌠 湥 
㤹 敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨›敨敨敨
愠 渠 愠 楬 慥 湩 瑩 敨湯 瑡 敨据 楶 敬 愠 癩 ⤰ 㠹 污 攠 潲 祢 獩 湅 獩 潣 景 摵 ⁁
瑯 敲 敦 
爠 敨 湵 琠 桴 敤 攠 灭 獥 朠 ㄨ ⁹ 湷 䈠 敨 汧 敨 瑴 匠 ⁹ 瑳
,enot smret eht gnisu ni )2619( yadillaH wollof s牥 牷 浯 敨歯 瑸  椠 楮 敮 敨愠 楴 摩 琠 慥
瑩 敨 匍 潢 整 獴 甭 潴 祦 湥 
祳 敨
-enot otni hceeps fo noisivid eht ot ,enot ot )ylevitcepser( refer ot )"sT eerht" eht( yticinot dna ytilanot
ym nI
...
smret eseht esu t'nod I os ,hcihw si hcihw rebmemer ot tluciffid ti dnif elpoep ecneirepxe

975

There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...

ㄨ 㨷
㤹 敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨›敨敨敨
愠 渠 愠 楬 慥 湩 瑩 敨湯 瑡 敨据 楶 敬 愠 癩 ⤰ 㠹 污 攠 潲 祢 獩 湅 獩 潣 景 摵 ⁁
瑯 敲 敦 
爠 敨 湵 琠 桴 敤 攠 灭 獥 朠 ㄨ ⁹ 湷 䈠 敨 汧 敨 瑴 匠 ⁹ 瑳
,enot smret eht gnisu ni )2619( yadillaH wollof s牥 牷 浯 敨歯 瑸  椠 楮 敮 敨愠 楴 摩 琠 慥
瑩 敨 匍 潢 整 獴 甭 潴 祦 湥 
祳 敨
-enot otni hceeps fo noisivid eht ot ,enot ot )ylevitcepser( refer ot )"sT eerht" eht( yticinot dna ytilanot
ym nI
...
smret eseht esu t'nod I os ,hcihw si hcihw rebmemer ot tluciffid ti dnif elpoep ecneirepxe
There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...

敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨敨›敨敨敨
愠 渠 愠 楬 慥 湩 瑩 敨湯 瑡 敨据 楶 敬 愠 癩 ⤰ 㠹 污 攠 潲 祢 獩 湅 獩 潣 景 摵 ⁁
瑯 敲 敦 
爠 敨 湵 琠 桴 敤 攠 灭 獥 朠 ㄨ ⁹ 湷 䈠 敨 汧 敨 瑴 匠 ⁹ 瑳
,enot smret eht gnisu ni )2619( yadillaH wollof s牥 牷 浯 敨歯 瑸  椠 楮 敮 敨愠 楴 摩 琠 慥
瑩 敨 匍 潢 整 獴 甭 潴 祦 湥 
祳 敨
-enot otni hceeps fo noisivid eht ot ,enot ot )ylevitcepser( refer ot )"sT eerht" eht( yticinot dna ytilanot
ym nI
...
smret eseht esu t'nod I os ,hcihw si hcihw rebmemer ot tluciffid ti dnif elpoep ecneirepxe
There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...

敨潴 甭 獴  整 潢 敨匍 敨牷 牥 follow Halliday (9162) in using the terms tone, tonality
敮 楮 椠 瑸 歯 浯 瑩 s
and tonicity (the "three Ts") to refer (respectively) to tone, to the division of speech into tone-units and to
the placement of the tonic syllable; see for example Tench (9116), Wells (7006)
...

There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...


牷 牥 follow Halliday (9162) in using the terms tone, tonality and tonicity (the "three Ts") to refer
瑩 s
(respectively) to tone, to the division of speech into tone-units and to the placement of the tonic syllable;
see for example Tench (9116), Wells (7006)
...

There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...

For reading on autosegmental analysis (often given the name ToBI, which stands for Tones and Break
Indices), a good introduction is Cruttenden (9112: 86-62)
...
A short account of the
problems found in trying to compare this approach with the traditional British analysis is given in Roach
(9117)
...

Note for teachers
I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an hour
of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)

opportunity

d) (rise-fall)

magnificent

b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

980

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


989

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

h the traditional British analysis is given in Roach (9117)
...

Note for teachers
I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an hour
of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)
opportunity
d) (rise-fall)
magnificent
b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

987

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


987

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

sh analysis is given in Roach (9117)
...

Note for teachers
I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an hour
of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)
opportunity
d) (rise-fall)
magnificent
b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

987

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


988

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

analysis is given in Roach (9117)
...

Note for teachers
I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an hour
of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)
opportunity
d) (rise-fall)
magnificent
b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

986

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


982

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

is essentially a computer-based transcription system,??and more information about it is provided
on this book's website
...
For beginners it is best to start on slow, careful speech - such as that
of newsreaders - before attempting conversational speech
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...

Note for teachers
I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an hour
of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)
opportunity
d) (rise-fall)
magnificent
b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

960

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


969

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

ter-based transcription system,??and more information about it is provided on this book's website
...
For beginners it is best to start on slow, careful speech - such as that
of newsreaders - before attempting conversational speech
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...

Note for teachers
I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an hour
of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)
opportunity
d) (rise-fall)
magnificent
b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

967

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


968

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

??and more information about it is provided on this book's website
...
For beginners it is best to start on slow, careful speech - such as that
of newsreaders - before attempting conversational speech
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...

Note for teachers
I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an hour
of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)
opportunity
d) (rise-fall)
magnificent
b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

965

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


961

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

ers it is best to start on slow, careful speech - such as that of newsreaders - before attempting
conversational speech
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
One can
learn more about intonation in an hour of this work than in days of
reading 桴 橢 ⱴ愠 漠 猧 瑮 獥 愠 摮 瑳 楤 漠 潥 楴  牰 敬 戠 浯 洠 潭 瀠 潦
敨畳 捥 摮 敮 椠 牥 ⁹湩 摮 牥 湡 杮 敨桴 敲 慣 扯 獭 捥 獥 捵 敲 潲 湵
敨圍 瑴 攠 捲 獥 吉 映 潬 杮 湥 据 愠 朠 湥 瑩 潴 楴
楲 湥 數 獩 ㄍ 敨 汯 楷 猠 整 獥 敲 癩 眠 敨湩 慮 敨敨敨敨
湯 慥 ⼠ 琠 眠 楨 ऩ 愌 敬 汬 敨捡 湥 瑥 灡 愠 楶 氠 潬 敨敮 敨桴 楨 眠 瑩 敨 档 歓
⁹ 档 敨 獡 档 圧 മ 扡 祳 攠 敷 戠 朠 杮 慥 ⱷ 敢 楬 
瑩 档 瀠 琠 瑥
⁹湳 ✠敲 吉 敨獵 癢 敨慷 椠 杵 琮 癡 摬 眠 匬 挍 椠 獡  琠 慷 祬 ✠䤉 敨祡 ⁹潹 楤
慷 敨 ⥤ 潩 潖 ⁹ 瑨 潨 敨 栠 畯 敨 ऩ ൴ 整 瑶 瑮 ✠ 湯 ⥢
玖 敨 敨
牡 浩 獩 獩 數 獩 ठ ㈍ 洠 敩 锠 ⁹潹 汩 睯 ठ ⥥ 敨敳 栭 桴 椠 敲 敨漠 敩 ⁡  敶 畢 敲
汩 猠 敨 捲 攠 桔 敨 敶 氠 敢 
眠 乜
畯 敨 
摡 扜 散 瀧
攧 ⁹敨
礠 are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...

a) (rise)
opportunity
d) (rise-fall)
magnificent
b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

927

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


927

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

careful speech - such as that of newsreaders - before attempting conversational speech
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the
ou
lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
You must draw an appropriate pitch movement between the lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...


a) (rise)

opportunity

d) (rise-fall)

magnificent

b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

956

95 Functions of intonation 9
The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


952

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

ment between the lines
...
Perhaps the best way to start is to ask ourselves what would be lost if we were to speak
without intonation: you should try to imagine speech in which every syllable was said on the same level
pitch, with no pauses and no changes in speed or loudness
...
To put it in the broadest possible terms, we
can see that intonation makes it easier for a listener to understand what a speaker is trying to convey
...
Among the most often proposed are the following:
i) Intonation enables us to express emotions and attitudes as we speak, and this adds a special kind of
"meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
This is the sort of speech that would be produced by a "mechanical speech"
device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made sentences by putting together recordings
of isolated words
...
The ways in which intonation does this are very
complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


910

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

h that would be produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of
Chapter 97) that made sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many
suggestions have been made for ways of isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


919

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

that would be produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97)
that made sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made
for ways of isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


917

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


917

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

nd many suggestions have been made for ways of isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


917

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

many suggestions have been made for ways of isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular
lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


918

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

a special kind of "meaning" to spoken language
...

ii) Intonation helps to produce the effect of prominence on syllables that need to be perceived as stressed,
and in particular the placing of tonic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs
as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular lexical
item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


912

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

ic stress on a particular syllable marks out the word to which it belongs as the most important in
the tone-unit
...
This
has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
In this case,
intonation works to focus attention on a particular lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


911

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

rks out the word to which it belongs as the most important in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual
function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
In this case, intonation works to focus
attention on a particular lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


709

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

portant in the tone-unit
...
This has been called the accentual function of intonation
...
This has been called the grammatical function of
intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
In this case, intonation works to focus attention on a particular lexical item or
syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said by
using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and statements, and
the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


707

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

ation may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


707

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

matical function of intonation
...
Such functions??are examples of
intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the listener
what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when the
speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation,
can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


706

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

the listener what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest
when the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in
conversation, can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


702

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

nd what is already "given", can suggest when the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or
link with material in another tone-unit and, in conversation, can convey to the listener what kind of
response is expected
...


705

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

what is already "given", can suggest when the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with
material in another tone-unit and, in conversation, can convey to the listener what kind of response is
expected
...


701

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

an convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


790

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

??are examples of intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...


797

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although??it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
9 The attitudinal function of intonation
Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful",f marking intonation, however, the mark' (black type) indicates a stressed syllable in a high
head and the mark , indicates a stressed syllable in a low head
...
When the high and low marks ' and , are being used to indicate
intonation, it is no longer possible to mark two different levels of stress within the word
...

e examples of intonation's discourse function
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
In the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it
is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is
closely linked to the presentation of "new" information, while the question/statement distinction and the
indication of contrast seem to be equally important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they
overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important if one does not insist on defining watertight
boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
In
the case of the other three functions, it will be argued that it is difficult to see how they could be treated as
separate; for example, the placement of tonic stress is closely linked to the presentation of "new"
information, while the question/statement distinction and the indication of contrast seem to be equally
important in grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they overlap with each other to a large degree is not so
important if one does not insist on defining watertight boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
In the case of
the other three functions, it will be argued that it is difficult to see how they could be treated as separate;
for example, the placement of tonic stress is closely linked to the presentation of "new" information,
while the question/statement distinction and the indication of contrast seem to be equally important in
grammar and discourse
...
The fact that they overlap with each other to a large degree is not so important
if one does not insist on defining watertight boundaries between them
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...

95
...
In practice this is not usually found
confusing as long as one is aware of whether one is marking stress levels or intonation, and the colour
difference helps to distinguish them
...
However, when
looking at speech at the level of the tone-unit we are not usually interested in this; a much more important
difference here is the one between tonic stress (marked by underlining the tonic syllable and placing
before it one of the five tone-marks) and non-tonic stressed syllables (marked ' or , in the head or • in the
tail)
...
Remember that the additional information given in the examples above by drawing pitch levels
and movements between lines is only included here to make the examples clearer and is not normally

798

given with our system of transcription; all the important information about intonation must, therefore, be
given by the marks placed in the text
...
3 Problems in analysing the form of intonation

The analysis of intonational form presented in this chapter and in Chapters 98 and 96 is similar in most
respects to the approaches used in many British studies of English
When a high head is followed by a rise the stressed syllables tend to move downwards, as one would
expect, towards the beginning pitch of the tone:

796

intonation
...

Identifying the tonic syllable

It is often said that the tonic syllable can be identified because it is the only syllable in the tone-unit that
carries a movement in pitch; this is in fact not always true
...
In addition, it has been claimed
that one of the tones is the level tone, which by definition may not have any pitch movement
...

In addition, it sometimes seems as if some tone-units (though only a small number, known as compound
tone-units) contain not one but two tonic syllables, almost always with the first syllable having a fall on it
and the other a rise
...

Ive

\seen /him

i)
In this example there seems to be equal prominence on 'seen' and 'him'
...
Since 'him' has
greater prominence in (i), it cannot occur in its weak form Im, but must be pronounced hIm, whereas in
(ii) the pronunciation is likely to be aIv vsi:n Im
...
Version (i) might be said in conversation on hearing someone's name, as in this example:
A: 'John 'Cleese is a 'very 'funny\actor
B: 'Oh \yes | Ive \seen /him
In version (ii), on the other hand, the word 'seen' is given the greatest prominence, and it is likely to sound
as though the speaker has some reservation, or has something further to say:
A: 'Have you 'seen my /father -yet
B: Ive vseen him I but I 'havent had 'time to \talk to him
The same is found with 'her', as in:

792

Ive \seen /her
 \ /
compared with:
Ive vseen her

This is a difficult problem, since it weakens the general claim made earlier that each tone- unit contains
only one tonic syllable
...
In a similar way, in suprasegmental phonology it is claimed that utterances may be
divided up into tone-units, and that one can identify on phonetic or phonological grounds the places
where one tone-unit ends and another tone-unit begins
...
Two principles
are usually mentioned: one is that it is possible in most cases to detect some sudden change from the pitch
level at the end of one tone-unit to the pitch level that starts the following tone-unit, and recognition of
the start of the following tone-unit is made easier by the fact that speakers tend to "return home" to a
particular pitch level at the beginning of a tone-unit
...
Both the above principles are useful
guides, but one regularly finds, in analysing natural speech, cases where it remains difficult or impossible
to make a clear decision; the principles may well be factually correct, but it should be emphasised that at
present there is no conclusive evidence from instrumental study in the laboratory that they are
...
For example, other tones such as fallrise-fall or rise-fall-rise are occasionally found
...
After ,one of the 'worst 'days of my vlife
It can also happen that a speaker is interrupted and leaves a tone-unit incomplete - for example, lacking a
tonic syllable
...
Similarly,

795

although there are inevitably problems and exceptions, we continue to treat the tone-unit as something
that can be described, defined and recognised
...
4 Autosegmental treatment of intonation

In recent years a rather different way of analysing intonation, sometimes referred to as autosegmental,
has become quite widely used, especially in American work
...
In the autosegmental approach, all intonational
phenomena can be reduced to just two basic phonological elements: H (high tone) and L (low tone)
...
Individual stressed
("accented") syllables must all be marked as H or L, or with a combination marking a pitch movement,
and with an asterisk * following the syllable
...
A
major tone-unit boundary (equivalent to what we have been marking with ||) is given the symbol %, but it
must also be given a H or a L tone
...


its time to leave
Instead of marking a falling tone on the word 'leave', the high-pitched part of the word is shown by the H
and the low part by the L associated with the boundary %
...
There must always be one of these boundaries marked before a % boundary
...
looked at the /sky | and 'saw the \clouds
and in this way using autosegmental transcription:
L*

L*H- H* H* L-L%

we looked at the sky and saw the clouds
How would this approach deal with complex tones spread over several syllables?
H*
vmost

L-H%

of them could be transcribed most of them

Although this type of analysis has some attractions, especially in the way it fits with contemporary
phonological theory, it seems unlikely that it would be more useful to learners of English than the
traditional analysis presented in this book
...
This is necessary since no complete analysis of intonation can be done
without having studied these "extended tones"
...
On tone-unit boundaries, there is a
clear explanation of the problems in Cruttenden (9112: Section 7
...
A study of Scottish English by Brown et al
...

Some writers follow Halliday (9162) in using the terms tone, tonality and tonicity (the "three Ts") to
refer (respectively) to tone, to the division of speech into tone-units and to the placement of the tonic
syllable; see for example Tench (9116), Wells (7006)
...

There has recently been a growth of interest in the comparative study of intonation in different languages
and dialects: see Cruttenden (9112: Chapter 8); Hirst and di Cristo (9115); Ladd (9116: Chapter 7)
...

For reading on autosegmental analysis (often given the name ToBI, which stands for Tones and Break
Indices), a good introduction is Cruttenden (9112: 86-62)
...
A short account of the
problems found in trying to compare this approach with the traditional British analysis is given in Roach
(9117)
...

Note for teachers

I would like to emphasise how valuable an exercise it is for students and teachers to attempt to analyse
some recorded speech for themselves
...
One can learn more about intonation in an
hour of this work than in days of reading textbooks on the subject, and one's interest in and understanding
of theoretical problems becomes much more profound
...
Sketch the pitch within the lines below,
leaving a gap between each syllable
...
thought it was Vobvious

d)

There 'wasnt 'even a 'piece of \bread in the -house

e)

\Now will you be • lieve me

7

This exercise is similar, but here you are given polysyllabic words and a tone
...


a) (rise)

opportunity

d) (rise-fall)

magnificent

b) (fall-rise)

actually

e) (rise)

relationship

c) (fall)

confidently

f) (fall-rise)

afternoon

779

18 Functions of intonation 1

The form of intonation has now been described in some detail, and we will move on to look more closely
at its functions
...
This is the sort of speech that would be
produced by a "mechanical speech" device (as described at the beginning of Chapter 97) that made
sentences by putting together recordings of isolated words
...
The
ways in which intonation does this are very complex, and many suggestions have been made for ways of
isolating different functions
...
This is often called the attitudinal function of intonation
...
In this case, intonation works to focus
attention on a particular lexical item or syllable
...

iii) The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic structure of what is being said
by using the information contained in the intonation; for example, such things as the placement of
boundaries between phrases, clauses or sentences, the difference between questions and
statements, and the use of grammatical subordination may be indicated
...

iv) Looking at the act of speaking in a broader way, we can see that intonation can signal to the
listener what is to be taken as "new" information and what is already "given", can suggest when
the speaker is indicating some sort of contrast or link with material in another tone-unit and, in
conversation, can convey to the listener what kind of response is expected
...


777

The attitudinal function has been given so much importance in past work on intonation that it will be
discussed separately in this chapter, although it should eventually become clear that it overlaps
considerably with the discourse function
...
What seems to be common
to accentual, grammatical and discourse functions is the indication, by means of intonation, of the
relationship between some linguistic element and the context in which it occurs
...

The rest of this chapter is concerned with a critical examination of the attitudinal function
...
1 The attitudinal function of intonation

Many writers have expressed the view that intonation is used to convey our feelings and attitudes: for
example, the same sentence can be said in different ways, which might be labelled "angry", "happy",
"grateful", "bored", and so on
...
Here are some examples (without punctuation):
9 Fall
Finality, definiteness:

That is the end of the \news
Im absolutely \ certain
Stop \talking

7 Rise
Most of the functions attributed to rises are nearer to grammatical than attitudinal, as in the first
three examples given below; they are included here mainly to give a fuller picture of intonational
function
...
Not surprisingly, it has often been said that foreign learners of English
need to learn English intonation
...
This
misleading view of intonation must have caused unnecessary anxiety to many learners of the language
...
One possibility
would be for the analyst to invent a large number of sentences and to try saying them with different
intonation patterns (i
...
different combinations of head and tone), noting what attitude was supposed to
correspond to the intonation in each case; of course, the results are then very subjective, and based on an
artificial performance that has little resemblance to conversational speech
...
To overcome this
difficulty, one could ask the members of the group to choose among a small number of adjectives (or
"labels") given by the analyst; the results would then inevitably be easier to quantify (i
...
the job of counting the different responses would be simpler) but the results would no longer represent the listeners' free
choices of label
...
The results of such experiments are usually very variable and difficult to interpret, not least
because the range of acting talent in a randomly selected group is considerable
...
Many
problems remain, however
...
The choice of material is much less free for someone studying natural
speech
...

The notion of "expressing an emotion or attitude" is itself a more complex one than is generally realised
...
Second,
an attitude that is expressed could be an attitude towards the listener (e
...
if I say something in a
"friendly" way), towards what is being said (e
...
if I say something in a "sceptical" or "dubious" way) or
towards some external event or situation (e
...
"regretful" or "disapproving")
...
To
understand this point you should imagine (or even actually perform) your pronunciation of a sentence in a
number of different ways: for example, if the sentence was 'I want to buy a new car' and you were to say
it in the following ways: "pleading", "angry", "sad", "happy", "proud", it is certain that at least some of
your performances will be different from some others, but it is also certain that the technique for
analysing and transcribing intonation introduced earlier in the course will be found inadequate to
represent the different things you do
...
You may have used
your pitch range (see Section 98
...
It is
very likely that you will have used different facial expressions, and even gestures and body movements
...

If we accept the importance of these factors it becomes necessary to consider how they are related to
intonation, and what intonation itself consists of
...

Sequential
These components of intonation are found as elements in sequences of other such elements occurring one
after another (never simultaneously)
...

These have all been introduced in previous chapters
...
The most important are:
i) width of pitch range;
ii) key;
iii) loudness;
iv) speed;
v) voice quality
...
Different speakers have their own typical pitch range, loudness, voice quality, etc
...

Each of these prosodic components needs a proper framework for categorisation, and this is an interesting
area of current research
...
7, when "extra pitch height" was introduced, and the "rhythmicality" discussed
in Section 97
...
Prosodic components should be
regarded as part of intonation along with sequential components
...
People who study human
behaviour often use the term body language for such activity
...
These paralinguistic effects are obviously relevant to the act of speaking
but could not themselves properly be regarded as components of speech
...

95
...
We have looked at some basic examples earlier in this chapter
...
Similarly, within the area of prosodic components most generalisations tend to be
rather obvious: wider pitch range tends to be used in excited or enthusiastic speaking, slower speed is
typical of the speech of someone who is tired or bored, and so on
...
In short, of the rules and generalisations that
could be made about conveying attitudes

776

through intonation, those which are not actually wrong are likely to be too trivial to be worth learning
...
Sometimes an intonation mistake can cause a
difference in apparent grammatical meaning (something that is dealt with in Chapter 91)
...
What is being claimed here is that,
although it is of great importance, the complexity of the total set of sequential and prosodic components
of intonation and of paralinguistic features makes it a very difficult thing to teach or learn
...
The attitudinal use of
intonation is something that is best acquired through talking with and listening to English speakers, and
this course aims simply to train learners to be more aware of and sensitive to the way English speakers
use intonation
...
At the beginning of this chapter I list
four commonly cited functions
...

For general introductory reading on the functions of intonation, there is a good survey in Cruttenden
(9112: Chapter 7)
...
(9150: 15-907) and Crystal (91614757705)
...
Few people have carried out experiments on
listeners' perception of attitudes through intonation, probably because it is extremely difficult to design
properly controlled experiments
...
There are many different views about the meaning of the term
"paralinguistic"
...
Crystal (9161) defines paralinguistic features as "vocal effects
which are primarily the result of physiological mechanisms other than the vocal cords, such as the direct
results of the workings of the pharyngeal, oral or nasal cavities" but this does not seem to me to fit the
facts
...
I would therefore treat prosodic variables as linguistic - and consequently part of intonation while I would treat vocal effects like laughs or sobs as non-linguistic vocal effects to be classed with
gestures and facial expressions
...

The term "voice quality" needs comment, as it tends to be used with different meanings: sometimes the
term is used to refer to the personal, "background" characteristics that make one person's voice
recognisably different from another, mainly as a result of the complex interaction of laryngeal and
supralaryngeal features (Crystal, 9161: 900-7; Laver, 9150, 9117); for some writers, however, "voice
quality" is the auditory result of different types of vocal fold vibration
...

Note for teachers

Audio Unit 95 consists of extracts from a recording of spontaneous dialogue
...

Written exercise

In the following bits of conversation, you are supplied with an "opening line" and a response that you
must imagine saying
...
As usual in
intonation work in this book, punctuation is left out, since it can cause confusion
...
lost my \ ticket

youre silly then (stating the obvious)

7 You 'cant 'have an 'ice \cream

oh please (pleading)

8 'What 'times are the /buses

seven oclock seven thirty and eight (listing)

6 She got 'four \A-levels

four (impressed)

2 'How much \work have you
...
)

5 'Will the vchildren -go

some of them might (uncertain)

775

51

Functions of intonation 2

In the previous chapter we looked at the attitudinal function of intonation
...

13
...
When writers say that intonation has accentual function they imply that the placement of
stress is something that is determined by intonation
...

970) it was said that "intonation is carried entirely by the stressed syllables of a tone-unit"
...
However, one particular aspect of stress could be regarded as part of intonation: this is the
placement of the tonic stress within the tone- unit
...
Some older pronunciation handbooks refer to this function as "sentence stress", which is not
an appropriate name: the sentence is a unit of grammar, while the location of tonic stress is a matter
which concerns the tone unit, a unit of phonology
...
The most common position for
this is on the last lexical word (e
...
noun, adjective, verb, adverb as distinct from the function words
introduced in Chapter 97) of the tone-unit
...
It is frequently said that the placement of the tonic syllable indicates the
focus of the information
...
want to
...
)
ii) (I 'dont want to 'know 'where hes 'travelling vfrom)
I
...
know
...
travelling \to
i) She was 'wearing a 'red \dress
ii) (She 'wasnt 'wearing a vgreen -dress) I She was
...
There are quite a few situations where it is normal for
the tonic syllable to come earlier in the tone-unit
...
e
...
e
...
There are many examples similar to (ii);
perhaps the best rule to give is that the tonic syllable will tend to occur on the last lexical word in the
tone-unit, but may be placed earlier in the tone-unit if there is a word there with greater importance to
what is being said
...
e
...
A question that
remains, however, is whether one can and should treat this matter as separate from the other functions
described below
...
7 The grammatical function of intonation

The word "grammatical" tends to be used in a very loose sense in this context
...
A typical example is the sentence 'Those who
sold quickly made a profit'
...
made a \profit

770

The difference caused by the placement of the tone-unit boundary is seen to be equivalent to giving two
different paraphrases of the sentences, as in:
i) A profit was made by those who sold quickly
...

Let us look further at the role of tone-unit boundaries, and the link between the tone- unit and units of
grammar
...
I 'dont \like it
In sentences with a more complex structure, tone-unit boundaries are often found at phrase and clause
boundaries as well, as in:
In vFrance | where
...
tend to be vsmaller | the 'subsidies are 'more im\portant
It is very unusual to find a tone-unit boundary at a place where the only grammatical boundary is a
boundary between words
...
Tone-unit boundary placement can, then, indicate
grammatical structure to the listener and we can find minimal pairs such as the following:
i) The Con'servatives who vlike the pro-posal I are \pleased
ii) The Convservatives I who vlike the pro-posal I are \pleased
The intonation makes clear the difference between (i) "restrictive" and (ii) "non-restrictive" relative
clauses: (i) implies that only some Conservatives like the proposal, while (ii) implies that all the
Conservatives like it
...
One example that is very familiar is the use of a rising tone with questions
...
This is, in fact, not used very much by itself in the variety of English being described
here, where questions are usually grammatically marked
...
It would be quite acceptable in some dialects of English
(e
...
many varieties of American English) to ask a question like this:

779

(Why do you want to buy it now?) The /price is going -up
But speakers in Britain would be more likely to ask the question like this:
(Why do you want to buy it now?) 'Is the /price going -up
It is by no means true that a rising tone is always used for questions in English; it is quite usual, for
example, to use a falling tone with questions beginning with one of the "wh-question-words" like 'what',
'which', 'when', etc
...

i) 'Did you 'park the /car
ii) 'Where did you 'park the \ car
However, the fall in (ii) is certainly not obligatory, and a rise is quite often heard in such a question
...

The intonation of question-tags (e
...
'isn't it', 'can't he', 'should she', 'won't they', etc
...
In the
following example, the question-tag is 'aren't they'; when it has a falling tone, as in (i), the implication is
said to be that the speaker is comparatively certain that the information is correct, and simply expects the
listener to provide confirmation, while the rising tone in (ii) is said to indicate a lesser degree of certainty,
so that the question-tag functions more like a request for information
...

Certainly there is overlap between these two functions
...
7 The discourse function of intonation

If we think of linguistic analysis as usually being linked to the sentence as the maximum unit of grammar,
then the study of discourse attempts to look at the larger contexts in which sentences occur
...

A: They were talking about putting it later
...

Each sentence could be studied in isolation and be analysed in terms of grammatical construction, lexical
content, and so on
...
g
...
g
...

If we consider how intonation may be studied in relation to discourse, we can identify two main areas:
one of them is the use of intonation to focus the listener's attention on aspects of the message that are
most important, and the other is concerned with the regulation of conversational behaviour
...

In the case of "attention focusing", the most obvious use has already been described: this is the placing of
tonic stress on the appropriate syllable of one particular word in the tone-unit
...
Tonic stress will tend to be placed on words with high information content, as suggested above
when the term focus was introduced
...
9:
i) Ive 'got to 'take the \dog for a -walk
ii) Ive 'got to 'take the 'dog to the wet
The word 'vet' is less predictable (has a higher information content) than 'walk'
...
For
example, in messages like:
Your coat's on fire

The wing's breaking up

The radio's gone wrong

Your uncle's died

probably the majority of English speakers would place the tonic stress on the subject noun, although it is
difficult to see how this is more important than the last lexical word in each of the sentences
...

We can see at least two other ways in which intonation can assist in focusing attention
...
For example, in the following
sentence:
'Since the vlast time we
...
The final tone-unit, however, does present new
information
...

Another use of intonation connected with the focusing of attention is intonational subordination; we
can signal that a particular tone-unit is of comparatively low importance and as a result give
correspondingly greater importance to adjacent tone-units
...
pect youve \heard I theyre 'only ad'mitting e\mergency -cases
ii) The 'Japavnese I for ,some ,reason or /other I 'drive on the \left I like \us
In a typical conversational pronunciation of these sentences, the first tone-unit of (i) and the second and
fourth tone-units of (ii) might be treated as intonationally subordinate; the prosodic characteristics
marking this are usually:
i) a drop to a lower part of the pitch range ("low key");
ii) increased speed;
iii) narrower range of pitch; and
iv) reduced loudness, relative to the non-subordinate tone-unit(s)
...
Native
speakers can usually still understand what is said, if necessary by guessing at inaudible or unrecognisable
words on the basis of their knowledge of what the speaker is talking about
...

We now turn to the second main area of intonational discourse function: the regulation of conversational
behaviour
...
Intonation is also important in the conversational
interaction of two or more speakers
...
In such material it is comparatively easy to identify what each speaker is actually
doing in speaking - for example, questioning, challenging, advising, encouraging, disapproving, etc
...
In a more general way, it can be seen that speakers use various prosodic components to
indicate to others that they have finished speaking, that another person is expected to speak, that a
particular type of response is required, and so on
...
986), where
the difference between falling and rising intonation on question-tags is supposed to indicate to the listener
what sort of response is expected
...
We can observe many examples in non-linguistic

777

behaviour of the use of signals to regulate turn-taking: in many sports, for example, it is necessary to do
this - footballers can indicate that they are looking for someone to pass the ball to, or that they are ready
to receive the ball, and doubles partners in tennis can indicate to each other who is to play a shot
...

91
...
Practically all the separate functions
traditionally attributed to intonation (attitudinal, accentual and grammatical) could be seen as different
aspects of discourse function
...
It is still too early to say how useful the discourse approach will
be, but even if it achieves nothing else, it can at least be claimed to have shown the inadequacy of
attempting to analyse the function of intonation on the basis of isolated sentences or tone-units, removed
from their linguistic and situational context
...
Within generative phonology there has been much
debate about whether one can determine the placing of tonic ("primary") stress without referring to the
non-linguistic context in which the speaker says something
...
For more recent accounts,
see Couper-Kuhlen (9156: Chapters 2 and 5) and Ladd (9116: 779-78)
...
Readers unfamiliar with the study of discourse may find some initial difficulty in
understanding the principles involved; the best introduction is Brazil et al
...
I have not been able to do more than suggest
the rough outline of this approach
...
The basic philosophy is the same, however, in that both views
illustrate the fact that there is in intonation some organisation at a level higher than the isolated tone-unit;
see Fox (9127)
...
It

778

seems likely that a considerable amount of valuable new research on pronunciation will grow out of the
study of discourse
...
It is meant primarily to give a reminder that English spoken at
something like full conversational speed is very different from the slow, careful pronunciation of the early
Audio Units
...

a) Id 'like you to \help me

(right) can I do the shopping for you

b) I 'hear youre 'offering to 'do the \shopping
for someone

(right) can I do the shopping for you

c) 'What was the 'first' thing that\ happened

first the professor explained her theory

d) 'Was the 'theory ex'plained by the /students

(no) first the professor explained her theory

e) 'Tell me 'how the \theory was pre-sented

first she explained her theory

f) I 'think it 'starts at 'ten to\three

(no) ten past three

g) I 'think it 'starts at 'quarter past \three

(no) ten past three

h) I 'think it 'starts at 'ten past\four

(no) ten past three

The following sentences are given without punctuation
...

a) (he wrote the letter in a sad way) he wrote the letter sadly
b) (it's regrettable that he wrote the letter) he wrote the letter sadly
c) four plus six divided by two equals five
d) four plus six divided by two equals seven
e) we broke one thing after another fell down
f) we broke one thing after another that night

776

25 Varieties of English pronunciation

In Chapter 9 there was some discussion of different types of English pronunciation and the reasons for
choosing the accent that is described in this book
...

70
...
When two accents differ
from each other only phonetically, we find the same set of phonemes in both accents, but some or all of
the phonemes are realised differently
...
As an example of phonetic differences at the segmental level, it is
said that Australian English has the same set of phonemes and phonemic contrasts as BBC pronunciation,
yet Australian pronunciation is so different from that accent that it is easily recognised
...
Such a difference is, again, a phonetic one
...
g
...

Phonological differences are of various types: again, we can divide these into segmental and
suprasegmental
...
Many
speakers with northern English accents, for example, do not have a contrast between a and u, so that 'luck'
and 'look' are pronounced identically (both as ); in the case of consonants, many accents do not have
the phoneme h, so that there is no difference in pronunciation between 'art' and 'heart'
...
On the other hand, some
accents differ from others in having more phonemes and phonemic contrasts
...
Words like
'eight', 'reign' are pronounced eIt, reIn, while 'late', 'rain' (with no 'g' in the spelling) are pronounced le:t,
re:n
...
The clearest example is r, which is restricted to occurring in pre-vocalic
position in BBC pronunciation, but in many other accents is not restricted in this way
...
In BBC pronunciation we can find the following:
'pew' , 'tune' , 'queue' 
...
In Norwich,
and other parts of East Anglia, we find many speakers who have no consonant + j clusters at the
beginning of a syllable, so that 'music' is pronounced  and 'beautiful' as 
...
For example, in many accents of the Midlands and north-western
England a particular set of words containing a vowel represented by 'o' in the spelling is pronounced with
a in BBC but with Q in these other accents; the list of words includes 'one', 'none', 'nothing', 'tongue',
'mongrel', 'constable', but does not include some other words of similar form such as 'some'  and 'ton'

...
e
...
In my own pronunciation when I was young,  had  instead of a in these words, so
that 'won' was pronounced  and 'one' as won, 'nun' as  and 'none' as ; this has not completely
disappeared from my accent
...
We do not yet
know enough about the phonological functions of stress and intonation, and not enough work has been
done on comparing accents in terms of these factors
...
Since
some younger speakers seem not to distinguish between the noun 'protest' and the verb 'protest',
pronouncing both as , we could say that in their speech a phonological distinction in stress has
been lost, but this is a very limited example
...

70
...
Dialectology in its traditional form
is therefore principally interested in

775

geographical differences; its best-known data-gathering technique was to send researchers (usually called
"field workers") mainly into rural areas (where the speakers were believed to be less likely to have been
influenced by other accents), to find elderly speakers (whose speech was believed to have been less
influenced by other accents and to preserve older forms of the dialect) and to use lists of questions to find
information about vocabulary and pronunciation, the questions being chosen to concentrate on items
known to vary a lot from region to region
...
More recent research has tended to be
carried out within the framework of sociolinguistics, and has tried to cover urban speech with a balanced
coverage of ages and social classes
...
A word of
caution should be given here: it is all too easy to talk about such things as "Scottish English", "American
English", and so on, and to ignore the variety that inevitably exists within any large community of
speakers
...

American

In many parts of the world, the fundamental choice for learners of English is whether to learn an
American or a British pronunciation, though this is by no means true everywhere
...
It is said that the majority of
American speakers of English have an accent that is often referred to as General American (GA); since
it is the American accent most often heard on international radio and television networks, it is also called
Network English
...
Accents in America different from GA are mainly found
in New England and in the "deep south" of the country, but isolated rural communities everywhere tend to
preserve different accents; there is also a growing section of American society whose native language is
Spanish (or who are children of Spanish speakers) and they speak English with a pronunciation
influenced by Spanish
...
e
...
Thus where
BBC pronounces 'car' as  and 'cart' as , GA has  and 
...
We can make the following comparisons:
BBC

GA

'car'





'more'





'fear'





'care'





'tour'





American vowels followed by r are strongly "r-coloured", to the extent that one often hears the vowel at
the centre of a syllable as a long r with no preceding vowel
...
Similarly,
the short "schwa" in GA may be r-coloured and symbolised as in 'minor' 
...

One vowel is noticeably different: the Q of 'dog', 'cot' in BBC pronunciation is not found in GA
...
In this case, we have a phonological difference, since one phoneme that is
present in BBC pronunciation is absent in American accents
...
The
pronunciation of t is very different in American English when it occurs at the end of a stressed syllable
and in front of an unstressed vowel
...
This is sometimes called "voiced t", and it is usually represented with the symbol 
...
"
Scottish

There are many accents of British English, but one that is spoken by a large number of people and is
radically different from BBC English is the Scottish accent
...
Like the American accent
described above, Scottish English pronunciation is essentially rhotic and an 'r' in the spelling is always
pronounced; the words 'shore'

770

and 'short' can be transcribed as and 
...

It is in the vowel system that we find the most important differences between BBC pronunciation and
Scottish English
...
The distinction between long
and short vowels does not exist, so that 'good', 'food' have the same vowel, as do 'Sam', 'psalm' and
'caught', 'cot'
...

This brief account may cover the most basic differences, but it should be noted that these and other
differences are so radical that people from England and from parts of lowland Scotland have serious
difficulty in understanding each other
...

70
...

Age

Everybody knows that younger people speak differently from older people
...
We can look at how younger people speak and guess at how the pronunciation of the
language will develop in the future, but such predictions are of limited value: elderly professors can safely
try to predict how pronunciation will change over the coming decades because they are not likely to be
around to find themselves proved wrong
...
This seems to be true in all cultures, and is usually described by older speakers as
"sloppy" or "careless"
...

There is an aspect of intonation that has often been quoted in relation to age differences: this is the use of
rising intonation in making statements, a style of speaking that is sometimes called "upspeak" or "uptalk"
...
In the food section
...
I just had to buy
some
...
It is widely believed that this style of intonation arose from
copying young actors in Australian and American soap operas
...
It is, I believe, a passing fashion that will
not last long
...
In addition, various situational factors influence pronunciation,
such as the social relationship between speaker and hearer, whether one is speaking publicly or privately,
and the purposes for which one is using language
...

Style

Many linguists have attempted to produce frameworks for the analysis of style in language
...
Probably their teachers speak to them in this style, although what the learners are
likely to encounter when they join in conversations with native speakers is a "rapid, casual" style
...
Speaking to
one's own children, for example, is a very different activity from that of speaking to adults that one does
not know well
...
Some politicians change their pronunciation to suit the
context: it was often noticed that Tony Blair, when he was prime minister, would adopt an "Estuary
English" style of pronunciation when he wanted to project an informal "man of the people" style, but a
BBC accent when speaking on official state occasions
...
I
can't remember any other prime minister doing this
...
Casual speech, as well as being less rhythmical and faster, tends to include a lot of "fillers" such as hesitation noises (usually written 'um' or 'er') or exaggeratedly long vowels to cover a hesitation
...
The choice of a slow, careful style is made for the sake of convenience and simplicity;
learners of English need to be aware of the fact that this style is far from being the only one they will
meet, and teachers of English to foreigners should do their best to expose their students to other varieties
...
9 For general reading about sociolinguistics and dialectology, see Trudgill (9111); Foulkes and
Docherty (9111); Spolsky (9115)
...
7 There are some major works on geographical variation in English pronunciation
...
For a brief overview, with recorded examples, see Collins
and Mees (7005: Section C)
...
6
...
6
...
In a more practical way, it can be useful to
compare the accounts of American and British pronunciation in pronunciation dictionaries such as Jones
(eds
...

70
...
1); Cruttenden (9112: 971-970)
...
Shockey (7007) shows the great variation between formal and informal
styles of speech
...
The model accent for pronunciation practice is almost
always that of middle-aged English people
...
I regret this, but I can't change it
...
At first
hearing it seems very difficult, but when worked on step by step it is far from impossible
...

Written exercise

Phonological differences between accents are of various types
...

9 'sing' 

'finger' 

'sung' 

'running' 

'singing' 

'ring' 

7 'day' 

'you' 

'buy' 

'me' 

'go' 

'more' 

'now' 

'fur' 

'own' 

'eight' 

7 'mother' 

'father' 

'think' 

'breath' 

'lip' 

'pill' 

'help' 

'hill'

7 'mother' 

'father' 

'car' 

'cart' 

'area' 

'aerial' 

'idea' 

'ideal' 

'India' 

'Norma' 

8 'cat' 

'plaster' 

'cart' 

'grass' 

'calm' 

'gas' 

777

Recorded exercises

These exercises are mainly intended for students whose native language is not English; however, those
exercises which involve work with transcription (exercises 9
...
7, 7
...
8, 7
...
8, 8
...
7, 6
...
6,
1
...
9, 90
...
8, 97
...
9, 97
...
7, all of Audio Unit 97 and Exercise 91
...

Each Audio Unit corresponds to a chapter of this book
...

In some of the exercises you are asked to put stress or intonation marks on the text
...

As with the chapters of the book, these exercises are intended to be worked through from first to last
...
Pronouncing isolated words in this way
is a very artificial practice, but the recorded exercises are designed to lead the student towards the study
of comparatively natural and fluent speech by the end of the course
...

You will also need to stop the recording to check your answers
...

Audio Unit 1 Introduction

To give you practice in using the audio exercises in this book, here are two simple exercises on English
word stress
...
Listen
to each word and repeat it
...
After each word, write down the stress pattern using the two symbols used
above
...

Audio Unit 2 English short vowels

The exercises in this Unit practise the six short vowels introduced in Chapter 7
...

Exercise 0 Repetition

Listen and repeat:

bit 

bid 

hymn 

miss 

bed 

hen 

mess 

bad 

ham 

mass 

bud 

bun 

bus 

e
bet 

bat 

cut 

pot 

cod 

loss 

Tom 

u
put 

wood 

pull 

push 

Exercise 2 Identification

Write the symbol for the vowel you hear in each word
...

Exercise 3 Production

When you hear the number, pronounce the word (which is given in spelling and in phonetic symbols)
...

Example:

9 'mad'

9 mad 

7 bet 

7 mud 

8 cut 

7 bit 

6 cot 

776

2 put 

90 man m{

5 pot 

99 fun 

1 men 

97 fan 

Exercise 0 Short vowels contrasted

Listen and repeat (words given in spelling):
 and
bit
tin
fill
built
lift
 and
dug
cup
rub
stuck
luck

e
bet
ten
fell
belt
left

dog
cop
rob
stock
lock

e and
hem
set
peck
send
wreck
 and
lock
cod
pot
shock
crock


ham
sat
pack
sand
rack

look
could
put
shook
crook

 and
lack
bad
fan
stamp
flash


luck
bud
fun
stump
flush

Exercise 6 Repetition of sentences with short vowels

Listen and repeat:
l Six fat men stopped



7 That bus is full



7 Tim hid Jan's bag



7 This dog gets cats mad



8 Bring back ten cups



6 Tom picked up twelve books 
2 What bad luck



5 Ken pushed Sam's truck



Audio Unit 1 Long vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs
Long vowels
Exercise 0 Repetition

Listen and repeat:

beat 

bead 

bean 

beef 

hard 

harm 

hearth 

cord 

corn 

course 


heart 

caught 

772


root 

rude 

room  roof 

hurt 

heard  earn 

earth 

Exercise 2 Production

When you hear the number, pronounce the word
...

9 heard 

6

7 bean 

2 cord 

7 root 

5

7 hearth 

1 rude 

8 caught 

90 earn 

heart 
beef 

Exercise 3 Transcription

Write the symbol for the vowel you hear in each word
...

Exercise 0 Long-short vowel contrasts

Listen and repeat (words in spelling):
 and



 and



 and



feel

fill

calm

come

part

pat

bead

bid

cart

cut

lard

lad

steel

still

half

huff

calm

Cam

reed

rid

lark

luck

heart

hat

bean

bin

mast

must

harms

hams

 and



 and



 and



 and



pool

pull

hurt

hut

dark

dock

caught cot
stork

stock suit

soot

turn

ton

part

pot

short

shot

Luke

look

curt

cut

lark

lock

cord

cod

wooed

wood

girl

gull

balm

bomb

port

pot

fool

full

bird

bud

large

lodge

Exercise 5 Transcription

Write the symbol for the vowel (long or short) you hear in each word
...

Diphthongs
Exercise 1 Repetition

Listen and repeat, making sure that the second part of the diphthong is weak
...
(9-97) Check your answers
...
Listen and repeat:
paw 

care 

tea 

two 

car 

key 

pie 

tar 

toe 

pay 

771

INITIAL LENIS b, d, g
Each word begins with a lenis plosive; notice that there is practically no voicing of the plosive
...
Listen and repeat:
spy 

score 

store 

spear 

ski 

stay 

spare 

sky 

steer 

spar 

Exercise 2 Repetition of final plosives

In the pairs of words in this exercise one word ends with a fortis plosive and the other ends with a lenis
plosive
...
Listen to each pair and repeat:
FORTIS FOLLOWED BY LENIS
mate made



rope robe



leak league



cart card



back bag



LENIS FOLLOWED BY FORTIS
code coat



bid bit



lobe lope



heard hurt



brogue broke 
Exercise 3 Identification of final plosives

a) You will hear the twenty words of Exercise 7
...
You must choose whether
the word is the one ending with a fortis plosive or the one ending with a lenis plosive
...
You
will then hear the correct answer and the word will be said again for you to repeat
...
Write the symbol for each plosive when you hear
the word
...
(9-90)
Check your answers
...
They are given in spelling and in transcription
...
You will
then hear the correct pronunciation, which you should repeat
...
)

789

Audio Unit 6 Revision
Exercise 0 Vowels and diphthongs

Listen and repeat:
 and 

 and 

 and 

barn

burn

fade fed

life laugh

are

err

sale sell

tight tart

fast

first

laid led

pike park

cart

curt

paste pest

hide hard

lark

lurk

late let

spike spark

 and 

 and 

 and 

toy

tore

phone fawn

fear fee

coin

corn

boat bought

beard bead

boil

ball

code cord

mere me

boy

bore

stoke stork

steered steed

foil

fall

bowl ball

peer pea

 and 

 and 

 and 

dare

day

fare fear

poor paw

stared

stayed

pair pier

sure shore

pairs

pays

stare steer

moor more

hair

hay

air ear

dour door

mare

may

snare sneer

tour tore

Exercise 2 Triphthongs

Listen and repeat:


player





tyre





loyal





mower





shower



Exercise 3 Transcription of words

You should now be able to recognise all the vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs of English, and all the
plosives
...
Each
word will be said twice
...
When you hear the word, write it with phonemic symbols
...

Exercise 0 Production

The following are all English words; they are given only in phonemic transcription
...
You will then hear the correct pronunciation,

787

which you should repeat
...

9 

99



7 

97



7 

97



7 

97



8 

98



6 

96



2 

92



5 

95



1 

91



90 

70



Exercise 5 Fortis / Lenis discrimination

When you hear the word, say "fortis" if you hear it as ending with a fortis consonant, and "lenis" if you
hear it as ending with a lenis consonant
...

Fortis
9 right 
7 bat 

Lenis
ride 

7 bet 
7 leak 

bed 

8 feet 
6 right 

feed 

2 tack 
5 rope 

tag 

1 mate 
90 beat 

made 

bad 
league 
ride 
robe 
bead 

Audio Unit 1 Fricatives and affricates
Exercise 0 Repetition of words containing fricatives

Listen and repeat (words given in spelling and transcription):
 fin 

offer 

laugh 

vat 

over 

leave 

 thing 

method 

breath 

these 

other 

breathe 

 sad 

lesser 

moss 

zoo 

lazy 

lose 

 show 

washing 

rush 

787

Z
h hot 

measure 
beehive 

rouge 

Exercise 2 Identification

Write the symbol for the fricative you hear in each word
...

Exercise 3 Production

When you hear the number, pronounce the word, giving particular attention to the fricatives
...

9  these

6  fifth

7  faith

2  shivers

7  heather

5  behave

7  seashore

1  seizure

8  feathers

90  lashes

Exercise 0 Repetition of fricative and affricate pairs

Listen and repeat:
a) Initial  and 
 (shop, chop)
(sheet, cheat)
 (shoes, choose)
b) Medial  and 
 (leashes, leeches)
 (washing, watching)
 (bashes, batches)
c) Final  and 
 (mash, match)
 (cash, catch)
 (wish, witch)
d) Medial  and 
 (leisure, ledger)
 (pleasure, pledger)
 (lesion, legion)
Exercise 3 Discrimination between fricatives and affricates

You will hear some of the words from Exercise 7
...
You will then hear the correct answer and the word
will be said again for you to repeat
...

 



 

















Exercise 2 Velar nasal with and without g

WORDS OF ONE MORPHEME Listen and repeat:


finger



anger

 Bangor
 hunger


angle

788

WORDS OF TWO MORPHEMES
Listen and repeat:


singer



hanger



longing



ringing



banger

Exercise3 "Clear"and "dark"]

"CLEAR l" BEFORE VOWELS
Listen and repeat:
 lie
 low
 loose  loud
 leak  law
"DARK l" BEFORE PAUSE
Listen and repeat:
fill
 pale
 bell  mile
 kneel  kill
"DARK l" BEFORE CONSONANTS
Listen and repeat:
 help  failed
 filth  milk
belt  Welsh
Exercise 0 r

Listen and repeat, concentrating on not allowing the tongue to make contact with the roof of the mouth in
pronouncing this consonant:
 airing

 rarer

 rewrite

herring

 terrorist

 mirror

 arrow

 roaring

Exercise 8 j and w

Listen and repeat:
 you

way

 yawn

 war

 year

win

 your

 wear

786

Exercise 1 Dictation of words

When you hear the word, write it down using phonemic symbols
...
(9-97)
Check your answers
...

Listen and repeat:
play

tray

 clear

 pray

 twin

 cry

pew

 tune

 queue

Exercise 2 Repetition of initial clusters

TWO CONSONANTS
Listen and repeat:
 spot

 plough

 stone

 twist

 skate

 cream



 pure

sphere

 smile

 flame

 snow

 shrink

 slam

 view

 switch

 thwart

THREE CONSONANTS
Listen and repeat:
 splay



stray

 screw

 spray



stew

squash

spew

 skew

782

Exercise 3 Final plosive-plus-plosive clusters

a) When one plosive is followed by another at the end of a syllable, the second plosive is usually the
only one that can be clearly heard
...

Listen and repeat:
 packed

 rigged

bagged

 duct

 dropped

 leapt

 robbed

grabbed

b) It is difficult to hear the difference between, for example, 'dropped back' and 'drop back', since in
the normal pronunciation only the last plosive of the cluster (the b of b{k) is audibly released
...

Listen and repeat:
A

B

 grabbed both



grab both



liked them



like them




hopped back

 

hop back

 looked forward



look forward

 pegged down



peg down

 whipped cream



whip cream

Exercise 0 Recognition

Look at the items of Exercise 7(b) above
...
You will then hear the correct
answer and the item will be said again for you to repeat
...
You will then hear the correct pronunciation, which you should
repeat
...
)
Exercise 2 Repetition of sentences with consonant clusters

Listen and repeat:
9 Strong trucks climb steep gradients 
7 He cycled from Sloane Square through Knightsbridge    

7 Old texts rescued from the floods were preserved       

7 Six extra trays of drinks were spread round 
8 Thick snowdrifts had grown swiftly 
6 Spring prompts flowers to grow 
Audio Unit 3 Weak syllables
Exercise 0 "Schwa" 

TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS WITH WEAK FIRST SYLLABLE AND STRESS ON THE SECOND
SYLLABLE
Listen and repeat:
Weak syllable spelt 'a'
about 

ahead 

again 

Spelt 'o'
obtuse '

oppose '

offend '

support '

suggest '

Spelt 'u'
suppose '
Spelt 'or'
forget '

forsake '



forbid '

Spelt 'er'
perhaps '

per cent '

perceive '

surprise '

survey (verb) '

Spelt 'ur'
survive '

TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS WITH WEAK SECOND SYLLABLE AND STRESS ON THE FIRST
SYLLABLE
Listen and repeat:
Weak syllable spelt 'a'
ballad '

Alan '

necklace '

Spelt 'o'
melon 'n

paddock '

purpose '

781

Spelt 'e'
hundred '
Spelt 'u'
circus '
Spelt 'ar'
tankard '
Spelt 'or'
juror '
Spelt 'er'
longer '
Spelt 'ure'
nature ' 
Spelt 'ous'
ferrous '
Spelt 'ough'
thorough '
Spelt 'our'
saviour '

sullen '

open '

autumn '

album '

custard '

standard '

major '

manor '

eastern '

mother '

posture '

creature '

vicious '

gracious '

borough '
succour '

colour '

THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS WITH WEAK SECOND SYLLABLE AND STRESS ON THE FIRST
SYLLABLE Listen and repeat:
Weak syllable spelt 'a'
workaday '

roundabout '

Spelt 'o'
customer '

pantomime '

Spelt 'u
perjury '

venturer '

Spelt 'ar'
standardise '

jeopardy '

Spelt 'er'
wonderland '

yesterday '

Exercise 2 Close front vowels

WEAK INITIAL SYLLABLES
Listen and repeat:
excite '

resume

'

'

relate

'

inane '

effect

'

device '

ellipse



exist

760

WEAK FINAL SYLLABLES
Listen and repeat:
city

'



funny '
easy

'

busy

many '
lazy

'

only

'

lady



'

'

Exercise 3 Syllabic I

Listen and repeat:
bottle

'

bottled

'

muddle

'

muddled '

muddling '

tunnel

'

tunnelled '

tunnelling '

wrestle

'

wrestled

bottling

' 



'

wrestling '

Exercise 0 Syllabic n

Listen and repeat:
burden

'

burdened '

burdening '

frighten

'

frightened '

frightening'

listen

'

listened

' 

listening

'

Exercise 3 Transcription

Transcribe the following words when you hear them, giving particular attention to the weak syllables
...
If you need more time for writing, pause the CD and restart it when you are
ready for the next word
...

Audio Unit 10 Word stress
Exercise 0 Stress marking

When you hear the word, repeat it, then place a stress mark (') before the stressed syllable
...

Exercise 2 Pronouncing from transcription

The following are British place names
...
You will then hear the correct pronunciation, which you should repeat
...
)
Exercise 3 Placing stress on verbs, adjectives and nouns

When you hear the number, pronounce the word with the appropriate stress
...

TWO-SYLLABLE WORDS
VERBS
9  deceive

6  object

7  sharpen

2 conquer

7  collect

5  record

7  pronounce

1  polish

8 copy

90  depend

ADJECTIVES
9  easy

6  yellow

7  complete

2  early

7  major

5  sublime

7  alone

1  heavy

8  below

90  alive

NOUNS
9  bishop

6  office

7  aspect

2 array

7  affair

5  patrol

7 carpet

1  dentist

8 defeat

90  autumn

THREE-SYLLABLE WORDS
VERBS
9  entertain

6

 elicit

7  resurrect

2

 commandeer

7  abandon 5

 imagine

7  deliver

1

 determine

8  interrupt

90

 separate

767

ADJECTIVES
9 

important

6  

insolent

7 

enormous

2 

fantastic

7 

derelict

5 

negative

7 

decimal

1 

accurate

8 

abnormal

90 

unlikely

9 

furniture

6 

cathedral

7 

disaster

2 

holocaust

7 

disciple

5 

transistor

7  ambulance

1 

accident

8 

90 

tomato

NOUNS

quantity

Audio Unit 11 Complex word stress
Exercise 0 Stress-carrying suffixes

a) When you hear the number, pronounce the word with stress on the suffix
...

9 -ain:

entertain

' 

7 -ese:

7 -ee:

refugee

'

8 -ette: cigarette

'

7 -eer:

mountaineer '

6 -esque: picturesque

'

Portuguese

'

b) When you hear the stem word, say the word with the given suffix, putting the stress on that suffix
...

employ+- ee

absent+-ee

engine+-eer (engineer)

profit+-eer

Sudan+-ese

Pekin+-ese

usher+-ette

statue+-ette (statuette)

Exercise 2 Neutral suffixes

When you hear the stem word, add the suffix, without changing the stress
...

advantage+-ous

injure+-ious (injurious)

photo+-graphy

tranquil+-ity (tranquillity)

proverb+-ial

reflex+-ive

climate+ -ic (climatic)

embryo+-logy

Exercise 0 Compound words

When you hear the number, say the item
...
Stress the second syllable if it is a verb; stress
the first syllable if it is a noun or adjective
...
)
her

1 her eyes



your

99 your uncle

for

97 for Alan

there 98 there aren't

90 her nose



 

97 your friend



 

97 for Mike



 

96 there couldn't 



are

92 these are ours 

95 these are mine 

were

91 you were out 

70 you were there 

Exercise 3 Transcription

(Note: this exercise is a long one, and it is possible to go directly to Exercise 7 if you wish
...

9 'Leave the 'rest of the 'food for 'lunch
7 'Aren't there some 'letters for her to 'open?
7 'Where do the 'eggs 'come from?
7 'Read his 'book and 'write some 'notes
8 At 'least we can 'try and 'help
Now correct your transcription, using the version in the answers section
...
When you hear the number, say the sentence, giving
particular attention to the weak forms
...
When you hear the number, say the word,
making sure that the stress is correctly placed
...

9 '
7 '
7 '
7 '
8 '
6 '
2 '
5 '
1 '
90 '
Exercise 2 Transcription of unfamiliar words

The following are also place names
...
(9-90)
Now check your transcriptions with the correct version
...
For
example, given the sentence 'I think I'll be late for work' you should mark the words 'think', 'late' and
'work' like this:
I 'think Ill be 'late for 'work
____________________________________
* Spelling is given in the Answers section
...

Exercise 0 Pronunciation of stressed syllables

When you hear the number, say the sentence from the list in Exercise 7, taking care to stress the correct
syllables
...
(9-8)
Exercise 5 Weak forms

In the following sentences, those words which are not stressed must be pronounced in their weak forms
...
Put a stress mark ' on each stressed syllable, then divide the sentences
into feet by placing a dotted line I at each foot boundary
...
e
...
The
examples are extracted from dialogues between speakers who are discussing differences between two
similar pictures
...
You must transcribe each item, using phonemic
symbols so that the elision can be seen in the transcription
...
You can use the h symbol to indicate a devoiced weak vowel, as in
'potato' 
...

This is a difficult exercise, but explanatory notes are given in the answers section
...

Audio Unit 16 Tones
Exercise 0 Repetition of tones
Listen and repeat:

Fall:

\yes

\no

\well

\four

Rise:

/yes

/no

/well

/four

Fall-rise:

vyes

vno

vwell

vfour

Rise-fall:

yes

no

well

four

Level:

_yes

_no

_well

_four

Exercise 2 Production of tones

When you hear the number, say the syllable with the tone indicated:
9 /them
7 \why
7 vwell

765

7 \John
8 /what
6 no
2 \here
5 /you
1 /now
90 \end
Exercise 3 Identification

You will hear each syllable twice
...
(9-90) Now check your answers
...

Hello, is that 669029?

/yes

Do you know any scientists?

vsome

Keep away from that road!

\why

How many dogs have you got?

\two

Have you ever heard such a terrible thing?

no

What colour is your car?

\red

Do you want my plate?

/please

Don't you like it?

vyes

You haven't seen my watch, have you?

/no

What was the weather like?

\wet

Audio Unit 11 The tone-unit
Exercise 0 Identifying the tonic syllable

Listen and repeat, then underline the tonic syllable
...

Exercise 2 Pronouncing the tonic syllable

When you hear the number, say the item with the tonic syllable in the place indicated, using a falling
tone:
9

Dont do that

7

Dont do that

7

Dont do that

7

Write your name

8

Write your name

6

Write your name

2

Heres my pen

5

Heres my pen

1

Heres my pen

90

Why dont you try

99

Why dont you try

97

Why dont you try

97

Why dont you try

Exercise 7 Repetition of tone-units
Listen and repeat, trying to copy the intonation exactly; no transcription is given
...

b) Identify the tone (in these items the only tones used are fall and rise) and place the appropriate
tone mark before the tonic syllable
...

You may need to pause the CD to allow enough time to complete the analysis of each item
...


Exercise 5 Reading intonation transcription
When you hear the number, read the sentence with the intonation indicated by the transcription
...
When you hear the number, say the item with the tone that
is marked
...
Listen and repeat:
'Taxes have 'risen by 'five per \ cent

...
risen by
...
Havent you
...
boss for /more
We 'dont have 'time to 'read the \paper
We
...
time to
...
Wouldnt you
...
read it on the / train

729

Exercise 7 Transcription of tone-units
Each item will be pronounced as one tone-unit, and will be heard three times
...

b) Decide which tone it carries (only \, / and v are used in this exercise) and put the appropriate tonemark before the tonic syllable
...

d) Listen for stressed syllables in the tail and mark them (if there are any) with a raised dot (•)•
You will probably need to pause the CD to complete the transcription of each item
...
If there is time, you will find it useful to go back to the start of Exercise 7
and practise repeating the items while looking at the transcriptions
...
Each
extract will be heard three times, with four or five seconds between repetitions
...
In addition, for
numbers 90-96 you will need to use the vertical line | to separate tone-units
...
it looks like a French magazine
7
...
does your colander have a handle
7
...
you tell me about yours
6
...
more than halfway

727

5
...
a sort of Daily Sketch format newspaper
TWO TONE-UNITS
90
...
well theyre on alternate steps theyre not on every step
97
...
and a ladys handbag hanging on a nail on the wall
97
...
were being very particular but we just havent hit upon one of the differences yet
THREE TONE-UNITS
96
...

Audio Unit 13 Further practice on connected speech
Exercise 0 Dictation

You will hear five sentences spoken rapidly
...
Write each sentence down in
normal spelling
...

Exercise 2 Transcription

Now skip backwards on the CD and listen to the above sentences again; this time transcribe what you
hear, using mainly phonemic symbols but also using raised h (h) to indicate a weak voiceless vowel, as in
'potato' phteIt@U
...
(9-8)
Exercise 3 Reading intonation

When you hear the number, say the sentence with the intonation indicated
...

9
...
thought you were on \holiday this -week
7
...
round to
...
There were a \lot | 'not just 'one or vtwo
7
...
'Leave it till 'after youve 'had some /tea |
...
too
...

They're building wind farms all over the area where we live
...
They only build them where there's plenty of wind, obviously
...
You could say the landscape's been transformed, but most people don't seem
to mind
...

b) Add intonation transcription to each tone-unit
...

Audio Unit 20 Transcription of connected speech

Listen to the recording on which this exercise is based:
it was rather frightening because there there are scores of these bicycles and er you really have to
have your wits about you all the time because the you know they stop suddenly and it's awkward
because the traffic regulations are more honoured in the breach than the observance I'm not in not
really sure what regulations there are er for instance the er traffic lights red red lights do not apply
if you're turning right erm which means that if you're coming up to a traffic light and there's erm
someone stopped who wants to go straight on or turn left and you want to turn right then you pull
out overtake them and then cut across in front
The above passage will now be heard divided up into 72 tone-units, each of which will be heard three
times
...
The main object of the exercise
is to transcribe the intonation; however, for a harder exercise taking more time, you can also write a
transcription using phonemic symbols plus any non-phonemic symbols you may need
...

it was rather frightening
because there there are scores
of these bicycles
you really have to
have your wits about you
all the time
because the you know they stop suddenly
its awkward
because the traffic regulations
are more honoured in the breach
than the observance
Im not in not really sure what
regulations there are
for instance
the er traffic lights
red red lights

727

do not apply
if youre turning right
which means that
if youre coming up to a traffic light
someone stopped
who wants to go straight on
or turn left
and you want to turn right
then you pull out
overtake them
and then cut across
in front
Now check your transcription
...
BBC (BBC Pronunciation); ii) RP (Received Pronunciation); iii) GB (General British)
7
...

7
...
a) three ()
d) five ()

b) three ()
e) two ()

c) four

Chapter 2

9 a) Soft palate or velum
b) Alveolar ridge
c) Front of tongue
d) Hard palate
e) Lower lip
7 a) Close back rounded
b) Close-mid front unrounded
c) Open front unrounded
d) Close front unrounded
e) Close-mid back rounded
7

7 a) 

e) 

b) 

f) 

c) 

g) 

d) 

h) 

726

()

Chapter 1

9

7 a) 

d) 

g) 

b) 

e) 

h) 

c) 

f) 

i) 

7 a) 

d) 

g) 

b) 

e) 

h) 

c) 

f) 

i) 

Chapter 6

9 You will obviously not have written descriptions identical to the ones given below
...

a) goat
Starting from the position for normal breathing, the back of the tongue is raised to form a closure
against the velum (soft palate)
...
The vocal folds begin
to vibrate, and the back of the tongue is lowered to allow the compressed air to escape
...
The tongue blade is raised to make a closure against
the alveolar ridge, the vocal folds are separated and voicing ceases
...

b) ape
The tongue is moved slightly upward and forward, and the vocal folds are brought together to
begin voicing
...
Then the
lips are pressed together, making a closure, and at the same time the vocal folds are separated so
that voicing ceases
...

7 a) 

d) 

g) 

b) 

e) 

h) 

c) 

f) 

i) 

722

Chapter 6

a) speed

 





b) partake







c) book









d) goat

 





e) car









f) bad

 





g) appeared

 





h) toast

 





i) stalk

 





Chapter 1

9 a) 

e) 

b) 

f) 

c) 

g) 

d) 

h) 

7 Starting from the position for normal breathing, the lower lip is brought into contact with the
upper teeth
...
The tongue moves to the position for I
...
Then the tongue blade is
raised to make a fairly wide constriction in the post-alveolar region and the vocal folds are
separated to stop voicing; the flow of air causes fricative noise
...
The tongue blade is then raised against the alveolar ridge,
forming a constriction which results in fricative noise
...
Finally, the tongue is lowered from the alveolar constriction, the vocal folds
are separated and normal breathing is resumed
...
)

e) 

g) 

f) 

h) 

7 a) The soft palate is raised for the b plosive and remains raised for 
...

b) The soft palate remains lowered during the articulation of m, and is then raised for the rest of
the syllable
...
It is then raised for the g plosive
and remains raised for the l
...
)

Chapter 3

9 
7 

721

7 
7 
8 
Chapter 10

'



b) '

'



c) '

'



d) '

'



e) '

'



f) '

'



g) 

'



h) '

'

'

'



b) '

'



c) '

'



d) '

'



e) '

'



f) '

'



g) '

'

'

9 a) '

9 a) '

h) ' '

'

Chapter 11

9 and 7
a) 'shop,keeper

'

b) ,open 'ended

'

c) Java'nese

'

d) 'birthmark

'

e) ,anti'clockwise

'

f) ,confir'mation

'

g) ,eight'sided

'

h) 'fruitcake

'

i) de'fective

'

j) 'roof
...

So all phonetic 97 consonants are phonemic n
...

7
P

d

s

m

z

Continuant

-

-

+

+

+

Alveolar

-

+

+

-

+

Voiced

-

+

-

+

+

8 a) All the vowels are close or close-mid (or between these heights)
...

c) None of these requires the raising of the tongue blade - all are front or back articulations
...

e) All are rounded or end with lip-rounding
...

Chapter 41
9 a) A | bird in the | hand is worth | two in the | bush |
b) | Over a | quarter of a | century has e | lapsed since his | death |

759

c) Com | puters con | sume a con j siderable a | mount of | money and | time |
d) | Most of them have a | rrived on the j bus |
e) | Newspaper | editors are in | variably | under | worked |

(the stress levels of 'Rolls' and 'Royce' are exchanged to avoid "stress clash" between 'Royce' and 'ra-'
...
)
Chapter 16

9 This train is for /Leeds /York and \Hull
7 Can you give me a /lift
vPossibly

7 \No

Where \to
Certainly \not

Go a \ way

7 Did you know hed been convicted of drunken / driving
8 If I give him /money he goes and \spends it
If I lend him the /bike he \loses it
Hes completely unre\liable

757

No

Chater 51
9 (This is an exercise where there is more than one correct answer
...
place

Chapter 13

9 a) 'Which

b) I

c) ,She

d) There

was

'only

the

'want

would

/cheap

to

have

‘wasn’t ‘even

one

vtaste

,thought

a

did

you

-say

it

it

‘place

was

of

757

obvious

\bread

in

the


...
live

me

7 a) ,opp ort /un it y

b) vac tua lly

c) \con fid ent ly

d) mag ni fi cent

e) re /la tion ship

f) ,af ter vnoon

Chapter 18

(The following are possible intonation patterns, but others could be correct
...
Its 'rather vcold
7
...
Youre \silly then
7
...
Seven o/clock | ,seven/thirty | and \eight
6
...
Ive ,got to ,do the /shopping
5
...
This accent has a distribution for r) similar to BBC pronunciation (i
...
a case can be made for a N
phoneme), except that in the case of the participial '-ing' ending n is found instead of N
...
This accent has two additional long vowels (e:, O:) and, correspondingly, two fewer diphthongs
(eI, @U)
...

7
...

This accent has w where BBC pronunciation has "dark l"
...

7
...
The accent is rhotic, so where there is an 'r' in the spelling (as
in 'mother') an r is pronounced: where the spelling does not have 'r', an l sound is added, resulting
in the loss of distinctiveness in some words (cf
...

8
...
) an additional long vowel a: is used
...


758

Answers to recorded exercises
Audio Unit 1
Exercise 2

9
...
emigration • • • •
7
...
disability • • • • •
8
...
'' 

6 ''

2
...
'' 



5 ''

7
...
'' 

90 ''

Audio Unit 1
Exercise 3

9
...
in  'dark'

2 in  'curt'

7
...
 in  'fought'

1 n  'need'

8
...
''

2 ''

7
...
''

1 ''

7
...
'' 

99 ''

6
...
 'harp'

6  'ache'

7
...
'eight'

5  'rip'

7
...
 'mob'

90  'feet'

Exercise 3

9
...
'copied'

2 'dedicated'

7
...
'cuckoo'

1 'boutique'

8
...
 'gate'
7
...
 'bit'

97  'car'

7
...
 'beat'

15  'gut'

6
...
 'cart'

92  'toad'

5
...
 'power'

91  'pair'

90
...
'keep'

99 'duck'

7
...
'cup'

97 'dog'

7
...
'bike'

98 'bake'

6
...
'gate'

92 'beard'

5
...
'tired'

91 'bug'

90
...
 'usual'

2  'violence'

7
...
 'exercise'

1  'gently'

7
...
 'urgent'

99  'typewriter'

6
...
'scraped'

8 'crunched'

7
...
'clothes'

2 'plunged' -

7
...
 'gardener'

6 ' 'sudden'

7
...
' 'handles'

5 ' 'threatening'

7
...
' 'pretend'

90 ' 'puzzle'

Audio Unit 10
Exercise 0

9
...
'

2 '

7
...
'

1 '

8
...
Shrewsbury

6 Birmingham

7
...
Aberdeen

5 Dundee

7
...
Aberystwyth

90 Basingstoke

Audio Unit 12
Exercise 3

9
...
'''
7
...
''''
8
...
Colchester

7 Scunthorpe

7
...
Hereford

6 Holyhead
751

7
...
Southend

90 Inverness

Exercise 2

9
...
' (Dunfermline)

2 ' (Huddersfield)

7
...
'

(Penzance)

1 '

(Wilmslow)

8
...
'James de'cided to 'type the 'letter him'self
7
...
'Try to 'see the 'other 'persons 'point of 'view
7
...
In a 'short 'time the 'house was 'full of 'children
Audio Unit 16
Exercise 0

9
...
A | 'bout | 'three | 'hundred | 'soldiers were | 'lined | 'up |
7
...
| 'All the | 'people who I 'came to the | 'wedding were from | 'England !
8
...
Some problems, points of interest and alternative
possibilities are mentioned
...
 (Careful speech would have had bju:tIfl

or bju:tIfUl
...
 (Careful speech would have ,  or ;
notice that this speaker uses a glottal stop at the end of 'definite' so that the transcription - phonetic
rather than phonemic —  would be acceptable
...
In addition, the  loses its friction - which is always weak - and becomes a dental nasal,
so that this could be transcribed phonetically as )
7
...
)

710

7
...
)
8
...
)
6
...
)
2
...
)
5
...
)
1
...
)
90
...
)
99
...
)
97
...
)
97
...
)
Audio Unit 16
Exercise 3

9
...


6 /six

7
...
/three

5 vyou

7
...
\five

90 /us

Audio Unit 11
Exercise 0

9
...
Of course its broken

7 How much is the biggest one

719

7
...
It was too cold 1 We could go from Manchester
8
...
'What 'time will they/come
7
...
The 'North \Pole would be warmer
7
...
I re'corded them on ca\ssette
Audio Unit 13
Exercise 0

9
...
You ,didnt say
...
A ,few
...
'No one could 'say the 'cinema was vdead
8
...
'Have you 'ever con'sidered / writing
2
...
what he vclaimed to be
5
...
But I \never -go there -now
90
...
wouldnt be
...
There are several places where other
transcriptions would be acceptable, and suggestions about alternative possibilities are given with some
items, in addition to a few other comments
...
it 'looks like a 'French maga\zine (slight hesitation between 'looks' and 'like')
7
...
'does your 'colander have a \handle ('does' possibly not stressed)
7
...
'you tell me about /yours (narrow pitch movement on 'yours'; 'tell' may also be stressed)
6
...
more than
...
but er 'not in the \other -corners
1
...
sort of
...
'on the\top I 'on the \hd (both pronunciations of 'on' might be unstressed)
99
...
'what about the went I at the \back
97
...
hanging on a
...
'you do the \left hand -bit of the -picture I and
...
were being 'very par vticular I but we 'just haven't 'hit upon 'one of the \differ- ences-yet (stress on
'just' is weak or absent)
96
...
I suppose the best thing's to try later
...
If he's coming today there ought to be a letter around
...
The world's greatest lawn tennis festival begins on Monday
...
We've fixed for the repair man to come and mend it under guarantee
...
The number's been engaged for over an hour
...

7
...

7
...

Exercise 0

''''
'''''''
'''
'''
Audio Unit 20

Note: Transcription of natural speech involves making decisions that have the effect of simplifying
complex phonetic events
...

'


'

717


'





'



'



'''
'


'
'

'


717

Recommendations for general reading

References to reading on specific topics are given at the end of each chapter
...
I would consider it very desirable that any
library provided for students using this book should possess most or all of the books listed
...

English phonetics and phonology

The best and most comprehensive book in this field is A
...
Gimson's book originally titled Introduction
to the Pronunciation of English, now in its Seventh Edition edited by A
...
All writers on the pronunciation of British
English owe a debt to Daniel Jones, whose book An Outline of English Phonetics first appeared in 9195
and was last reprinted in its Ninth Edition (Cambridge University Press, 9128), but the book, though still
of interest, must be considered out of date
...
O
...
W
...
A
...
H
...
I would also recommend
Practical Phonetics and Phonology by B
...
Mees (Second Edition, London: Routledge,
7005)
...
There are many good
introductory books at a more advanced level: I would recommend P
...
Ashby and J
...
Also
recommended is Phonetics: The Science of Speech by M
...
Rahilly (London: Edward Arnold,
9111)
...
Abercrombie, Elements of General Phonetics (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 9162)
is a well-written classic, but less suitable as basic introductory reading
...
C
...
Ashby, Speech Sounds (Second Edition,
London: Routledge, 7008)
...
Laver, Principles of Phonetics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
9117) is a very comprehensive and advanced textbook
...
F
...
Covering both this area and the previous
one in a readable and comprehensive way is J
...
Yallop and J
...
A lively and interesting course in
phonology is I
...
Johnson, A Course in Phonology (Oxford: Blackwell, 9111)
...
Odden's Introducing Phonology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
7008)
...
Chomsky and M
...

Accents of English

The major work in this area is J
...
Wells, Accents of English, 7 vols
...
A shorter and much easier introduction is A
...
Trudgill and D
...
See also P
...
Docherty, Urban
Voices (London: Edward Arnold, 9111) and P
...

Teaching the pronunciation of English

I do not include here books which are mainly classroom materials
...
Celce-Murcia, D
...
Goodwin, Teaching
Pronunciation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 9116), C
...
Seidlhofer,
Pronunciation (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 9117) and J
...
M
...
A
...
C
...

Pronunciation dictionaries

Most modern English dictionaries now print recommended pronunciations for each word listed, so for
most purposes a dictionary which gives only pronunciations and not meanings is of limited value unless it
gives a lot more information than an ordinary dictionary could
...
One is the Seventeenth Edition of the Cambridge English Pronouncing
Dictionary, originally by Daniel Jones, edited by P
...
Hartman and J
...
Jones' work was the main reference work on English pronunciation
for most of the twentieth century; I was the principal editor for this new edition, and have tried to keep it
compatible with this book
...
Another dictionary is J
...
Wells, Longman
Pronunciation Dictionary (Third Edition, London: Longman, 7005)
...
Upton, W
...
Konopka (eds
...
A
useful addition to the list is L
...
Sangster, The Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation
(Oxford: Oxford University Press, 7006), which makes use of the BBC Pronunciation Research Unit's
database to suggest pronunciations of difficult names, words and phrases
...
Cruttenden, Intonation (Second Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 9112), J
...
Wells, English Intonation (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 7006)
and E
...
D
...
Ladd,
Intonational Phonology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 9116) is much more difficult, but
covers contemporary theoretical issues in an interesting way
...
Fudge, English Word Stress (London:
Allen and Unwin, 9157) is a useful textbook on word stress
...
(9162) Elements of General Phonetics, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press
...
(9119) 'RP today: its position and prospects', in D
...
75-87
...
(9121) English Speech Rhythm and the Foreign Learner, The Hague: Mouton
...
(7008) Speech Sounds, 7nd edn
...

Ashby, M
...
(7008) Introducing Phonetic Science, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
...
and Rahilly, J
...

Bauer, L
...

Bolinger, D
...
75, pp
...

Brazil, D
...

Brazil, D
...
and Johns, C
...

Brown, G
...

Brown, G
...
and Kenworthy, J
...

Brown, G
...
(9157) Teaching the Spoken Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
C
...

Catford, J
...
(9155) A Practical Introduction to Phonetics, Oxford: Oxford University Press
...
, Brinton, D
...
(9116) Teaching Pronunciation, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press
...
(9120) 'Vowel length variation as a function of the voicing of the consonant environment',
Phonetica, vol
...
971-81
...
and Halle, M
...

Clark, J
...
and Fletcher, J
...
,
Oxford: Blackwell
...
and Mees, I
...
, London: Routledge
...
(9156) An Introduction to English Prosody, London: Edward Arnold
...
(9112) Intonation, 7nd edn
...

Cruttenden, A
...
) (7005) Gimson's Pronunciation of English, 2th edn
...

Crystal, D
...

Crystal, D
...
, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
and Quirk, R
...

Dalton, C
...
(9117) Pronunciation, Oxford: Oxford University Press
...
(9157) 'Stress-timing and syllable-timing reanalysed', Journal of Phonetics, vol
...
89-67
...
(9161) 'English stops after initial Is/', English Studies, vol
...
779-5
...
(9112) 'Bulgarian speech rhythm: stress-timed or syllable-timed?', Journal of the
International Phonetic Association, vol
...
72-77
...
and Docherty, G
...
) (9111) Urban Voices, London: Arnold
...
T
...
(9127) 'Tone sequences in English', Archivum Linguisticum, vol
...
92-76
...
A
...
) (9125) Tone: A Linguistic Survey, New York: Academic Press
...
(9161) 'Syllables', Journal of Linguistics, vol
...
787-56
...
(9157) English Word Stress, London: Allen and Unwin
...
(9111) 'Words and feet', Journal of Linguistics, vol
...
727-16
...
(9117) English Phonology: An Introduction, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
C
...
Abercrombie et al
...
) In
Honour of Daniel Jones, London: Longman, pp
...

Goldsmith, J
...
(9110) Autosegmental and Metrical Phonology, Oxford: Blackwell
...
A
...
(9162) Intonation and Grammar in British English, The Hague: Mouton
...
(9117) English Sound Structure, Oxford: Blackwell
...
(7007) Pronunciation Practice Activities, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
(7002) English Pronunciation in Use; Advanced, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
and di Cristo, A
...
) (9115) Intonation Systems, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
and McCully, C
...


711

Honikman, B
...
Abercrombie et al
...
) In Honour of Daniel Jones,
London: Longman, pp
...

Hughes, A
...
and Watt, D
...
, London: Edward
Arnold
...
(9128) Phonology: Theory and Analysis, New York: Holt, Rinehart
...

Jakobson, R
...
(9167) 'Tenseness and laxness', in D
...
(eds
...
16-909
...
R
...

Jenkins, J
...

Jones, D
...
76, pp
...

Jones, D
...
, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (first
published 9101)
...
(9128) An Outline of English Phonetics, 1th edn
...

Jones, D
...

Jones, D
...
Roach, P
...
and Setter, J
...

Katamba, F
...

Kenworthy, J
...


-■

Knowles, G
...

Kreidler, C
...
, Oxford: Blackwell
...
R
...

Ladefoged, P
...
, Oxford; Blackwell
...
(7006) A Course in Phonetics, 8th edn
...

Laver, J
...

Laver, J
...

Lee, W
...
(9185) English Intonation: A New Approach, Amsterdam: North Holland
...
(9122) 'Isochrony reconsidered', Journal of Phonetics, vol
...
787-67
...
(9120) 'Supraglottal air pressure in the production of English stops', Language and Speech, vol
...
798-70
...
A
...
(9187) English Pronunciation, 7th edn
...
McMahon, A
...

Mitchell, T
...
(9161) Review of Abercrombie (9162), Journal of Linguistics, vol
...
987-67
...
(9115) Weak Forms in Present-Day English, Oslo: Novus Press
...
D
...
F
...
, London:
Longman
...
D
...
(9167) 'The perceptibility of certain word boundaries', in D
...
) In Honour of Daniel Jones, pp
...

O'Connor, J
...
and Trim, J
...
(9187) 'Vowel, consonant and syllable: a phonological definition', Word,
vol
...
907-77
...
(7008) Introducing Phonology, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
and Sangster, C
...
) (7006) The Oxford BBC Guide to Pronunciation, Oxford: Oxford
University Press
...
L
...

Pike, K
...
(9178) The Intonation of American English, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
...
L
...

Pike, K
...
(9175) Tone Languages, Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press
...
K
...
(9116) Phonetic Symbol Guide, 7nd edn
...

Radford, A
...
, Britain, D„ Clahsen, H
...
(9111) Linguistics: An Introduction,
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
...
J
...
and Harris, K
...

Roach, P
...
(9157) 'On the distinction between "stress-timed" and "syllable-timed" languages', in D
...
) Linguistic Controversies, London: Edward Arnold
...
J
...
98, pp
...

Roach, P
...
(7007) Phonetics, Oxford: Oxford University Press
...
J
...
77
...
771-76
...
J
...
and Przedlacka, J
...
) English Pronunciation Models: a Changing Scene, pp
...

Roca, I
...
(9111) A Course in Phonology, Oxford: Blackwell
...
(9178) 'Sound patterns in language', Language, vol
...
72-89
...
(9126) Aspects of English Sentence Stress, Austin: University of Texas Press
...
(7007) Sound Patterns of Spoken English, Oxford: Blackwell
...
(9115) Sociolinguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press
...
S
...
91, pp
...

Tench, P
...

Trager, G
...
(9189) An Outline of English Structure, Washington: American Council of
Learned Societies
...
(9111) The Dialects of England, 7nd edn
...


709

Upton, C
...
and Konopka, R
...
) (7009) Oxford Dictionary of
Pronunciation, Oxford: Oxford University Press
...
C
...
Wells, J
...
(7006) English Intonation, Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press
...
C
...
, London: Longman
...

(9116) 'The formulation of a transcription system for British English', in Rnowles, G
...
and
Alderson, P
...


707

Index

accents 7-7, 969-5
American 7, 91, 80, 20, 988-6, 967, 967-9,
962
Australian 969, 967
Canadian 967
Irish 8
London 7, 65
New Zealand 967
northern English 7, 969
Northern Irish 969
Norwich 967
Scottish 8, 91, 80, 977, 969, 967-8, 962
southern English 76967
Spanish 967, 967
Welsh 66, 969
Yorkshire 66
Adam's Apple 77
affixes 57-8
affricates 71-70, 77
one-phoneme analysis 12, 15-1
two-phoneme analysis 12-1
age variation 968-6, 962-5
airstream 77-8
egressive pulmonic 77-8
subglottal pressure 78
allophones 77
allophonic transcription 77
alphabet 79-7
Cyrillic 72
alveolar ridge 1
alveolar sounds 1, 76, 79676
ambisyllabic consonants 67
American English 7691, 80, 20, 988-6, 967,
967-7, 962
analphabetic notation 72
approximants 75-89
articulators 5-90
articulatory phonetics 5
articulatory settings 992
arytenoid cartilages 77
aspiration 72-5
assimilation 990-97
coalescent 999

progressive 999
regressive 999
attitude 976, 972-87, 986
Australian 9696967
BBC pronunciation 7, 7-8, 91, 76-2
BBC Pronunciation Research Unit 8
bilabial sounds 90, 76, 72676
Blair, Tony 966
body language 980, 981
body movement 971, 980
brackets 77
breathing 77-8
breathy voice 77
Britain 7
cardinal vowels 97-97
cartilage 77-7
centralisation 77
Chinese (Mandarin) 90, 977
clear 975-1
coalescence 999
coarticulation 997
coda 86, 81, 60, 26-2
complementary distribution 77
compound words 57, 58-6
connected speech 902-95
consonant clusters 82-606909
consonants 90-99, 97, 87
affricates 71-70, 77
ambisyllabic 67
approximants 75-89
continuant 71
fortis 75-70, 77-8
fricatives 77, 71^97, 78
glottal 7, 77, 77, 76, 77
lenis 75-70
nasals 76-5, 89, 87-7, 61-20
palatal 1, 77678
plosives 76-706909
post-alveolar 79-7, 71-80

707

fundamental frequency 970
GA (General American) 91, 967-7
GB (General British) 8
generative phonology 50-9, 907, 981
gesture 9716980
glide vowels 92-91
glottal fricatives 77677
glottal plosives/stops 7, 77, 76
glottalisation 77-8
glottis 77-7
goals 6
grammar 9, 977, 97669726987-6
Greek 57
hard palate 1
heads 979
high 975-70
low 975-70
hesitation 962
homorganic 71—70
IATEFL6
information 976, 982-5
initial consonants 76-2, 82
intelligibility 27, 21
intensity 78
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) xii, 77, 72
International Phonetic Association (IPA) xii, 97, 77672
intonation 7, 76667, 991-75, 971-78, 976-78 accentual
function 976, 9726987-7
attitudinal function 976, 972-87, 986
autosegmental treatment 9776977
contrastive 987
discourse function 9766972, 986-60
emphatic 987
form 970
function 970-9, 977-8, 976-60
grammatical function 976, 972, 987-6
listing 976, 972
suprasegmental variables 971-80, 989-7
tone 28, 979-6, 972-5, 977
tone-units 976, 971-78, 976-77
transcription 979, 971, 977, 977, 970
intonation languages 971
intonational subordination 985, 981
intrusive r 998
IPA see International Phonetic Alphabet; International
Phonetic Association
jaws 90
juncture 998-96, 992
key 971, 985 Kono 977

consonants (continued)
retroflex 71
syllabic 60, 67, 65-296900-9
continuant consonants 71
contoids 97
contractions 516997-98
contrasts 970
conversational interaction 985-1
cover terms 71-70
cricoid cartilage 77
dark 9 75-1, 967
declination 970
deletion 997
dental sounds 1, 70-9, 78
devoicing 89
diacritics 77, 72
dialectology 967-7
dialects 7
diphthongs 92-95, 706900
centring 92, 95
closing 92695
discourse 976, 972, 986-60
distinctive feature analysis 907-76907
distribution 99, 77
elision 676997-986968
emotion 971
emphasis 987
England 7
English as an International Language 6
Estuary English 7, 8, 65, 966
extra pitch height 972
facial expression 971, 980
final consonants 76, 75, 81-60
flapped r 967
focus 987-7, 982-5
foot 905, 970
force of articulation 71-70
fortis 75-70677-8
frequency 786970
fricatives 71, 70-7
alveolar 79
dental 70-9, 78
glottal 77677
labiodental 70, 79
palatal 77, 78
post-alveolar 79-7
voiceless 77677-7, 78
friction 97
function words 51

707

labiodental sounds 90, 70679
larynx 5, 90, 77-7, 78
lateral approximant 75-1
lateral release 65
Latin 57
length mark 96
lenis 75-70
level tone 979-76978
linguistics 9
linking r 998-96
lip-position 97
lip-rounding 97, 92, 77, 80
lips 90
loudness 276980
lungs 77-8
Mandarin Chinese 906977
manner of articulation 71
maximum onsets principle 69
metrical analysis 905
minimal pairs 89, 87
minimum syllables 86
models 6
morphemes 72
morphology 72, 57
mouth 5
muscles 5
nasal cavity 5, 90
nasal consonants 76-5, 89, 87-7, 61-20
Network English see GA (General American)
neutralisation 626900
non-rhotic accents 80 nose 90
nuclear stress see tonic stress nucleus see tonic
syllables
onsets 86, 82, 60
oral cavity 5
palatal consonants 1,77, 78
paralinguistics 980, 989-7
pause 977
peak 60, 26-2, 50
pharynx 5-1
phonation 78
phonation type 987
phonemes 7, 79-7, 126970
phonemic symbols x-xi, 7, 8691-70, 77-8
phonemic system 77, 77, 76
phonemic transcription 77-8
phonetic symbols xii, 77, 77-8, 72
phonetic transcription 77-8
phonetic variation 969

phonetics 9, 5, 78
phonological variation 969-7
phonology 9, 78-6, 907, 991, 969-7 see also
generative phonology phonotactics 82, 67
pitch 27, 991-70, 977-7, 976-70
high 991, 972
low 991, 972
movement 276977
perception 970
pitch level 976
pitch range 977-76980
narrow 971
wide 971
place of articulation 71, 70, 87
plosion 76
plosives 77, 76-70, 909
closing phase 76
compression phase 76
post-release phase 76
release phase 76
post-alveolar approximant 71-80
post-alveolar fricatives 79-7
post-final consonants 81
post-initial consonants 82, 85
pre-final consonants 81
pre-fortis clipping 75 pre-head 979
pre-initial consonants 82, 85
prefixes 57, 58
prepositions, co-ordinated 10
primary cardinal vowels 97
primary stress 28
prominence 27-76970, 979
pronunciation 9, 7-6, 969-5
age variation 968-6, 962-5
geographical variation 967-8, 962
phonetic variation 969
phonological variation 969-7
social and class differences 966
style 966-2
Pronunciation Teaching Paradox 962-5
prosodic phonology 991
prosodic variables 980, 989-7
prosody 991
Public School Pronunciation 8
question-tags 986
questions 988-6
realisation 77, 997
Received Pronunciation (RP) 7, 8, 91, 70

708

retroflex consonants 71
rhotic accents 80, 20, 967-8
rhyme 60, 26-2, 972
rhythm 902-90, 996-92, 980, 962
stress-timed 9026905-90
syllable-timed 902-5
root (tongue) 1
root (word) 57
schwa 97, 68-6, 29-7, 909-7, 907, 967
Scottish English 8, 91, 80, 977, 969, 967-8, 962
secondary cardinal vowels 97
secondary stress 28
segmental phonology 991, 969
segments 79
semivowels 80
sentence stress 987
slant brackets 77
sociolinguistics 967
soft palate 1
sonority 67
Spanish 990, 967, 967
speed 971
spelling 7
Spoken English Corpus 977
square brackets 77
stem 57, 57
stress 7, 76, 67, 27-59, 987
complex words 26, 57-5
levels 27-8
perception 27-7
placement 28-2
primary 28
production 27
secondary 28
sentence stress 987
tertiary 28
three-syllable words 25-1
tonic stress 970, 987-7, 982, 981
transcription 27, 28
two-syllable words 22-5
variable 56-2
word-class pairs 52
stress-shift 901
stress-timed rhythm 902, 905-90
strictures 78
style 966-2
subglottal pressure 78
suffixes 57, 57-8
suprasegmental phonology 76, 991

suprasegmental variables paralinguistic 980, 989-7
prosodic 980, 989-7
sequential 971
syllabic consonants 60, 67, 65-29, 900-9
syllabicity 909
syllable-timed rhythm 902-5
syllable-timing 990
syllables 76, 86-67, 970
coda 86, 60, 50
division 60-7
heavy 21-50
length 27
light 21-50
loudness 27
minimum 86
onsets 86, 82, 60
peak 60, 26-2, 50
sonority theory 67
strong 67, 26
structure 82-60, 67-7
tonic 970, 977, 976-5, 979-7, 987
unstressed 28
weak 67-27, 22
symbols 72
phonemic x-xi, 7, 8, 91-70, 77-8
phonetic xii, 77, 77-8, 72
tail 979-7, 977-7 teeth 1
tertiary stress 28 TESOL 6
thyroid cartilage 77
ToBi 977
tonal rhyme 972
tonality 977
tone 28, 979-6, 972-5, 977
falling 979, 977, 976, 972, 986, 985
fall-rise 977, 977-8, 976, 976-2, 972, 985
fall-rise-fall 972
level 979, 978
moving 979
rise-fall 977, 978, 976, 972-5, 975
rise-fall-rise 972
rising 979, 977-7, 976, 972, 988-6, 985
tone languages 977, 976-2, 971
tone-units 976, 971-78, 976-77
anomalous 977-7
boundaries 977, 977, 988
heads 979, 975-70
pitch possibilities 977-9, 976-70
pre-head 979

706

structure 970-7
tail 979-7, 977-7
tonic syllables 97069776976-56979-7, 987
transcription 979, 971, 977
tongue 1
tongue position 99-97, 75-80, 65
tonic stress 970, 987-7, 982, 981
tonic syllables 970, 9776976-56979-7, 987
tonicity 977, 981
trachea 77
transcription allophonic 77
broad phonetic 77
from dictation 77
intonation 9796971, 97769776970
narrow phonetic 77
phonemic 77-8
phonetic 77-8
stress 27, 28
from written text 77-7
triphthongs 95-91, 70, 900
turn-taking 981
United Kingdom 7
unstressed syllables 28
upspeak/uptalk 968-6, 962
utterances 970, 970
velar consonants 1, 76, 72676
velar nasal consonant 76, 89, 87—7
velum 1
vocal apparatus 5-90
vocal cords 77-7
vocal effects 980, 9896987
vocal folds 77-7
vibration 77-7, 786970
vocal tract 5
vocoids 97
voice quality 971, 9806987
voiced t 967

voiceless glottal fricatives 77677
voiceless palatal fricatives 77, 78
voiceless w 77-7678
voicing 78
vowels 90-98, 96-79
back 97
cardinal 97-97
close 99, 66-5
diphthongs 92-95, 70, 900
front 97
glide 92-91
lax 916907
long 96-92, 900
open 99 pure 92
quadrilateral 97
quality 78, 27
schwa 97, 68-6, 29-7, 909-7, 907, 967
short 97-97 tense 91, 907
triphthongs 95-91, 70,900
websites 7 'wh' 77-7, 78
"wh-question words" 986
whispered speech 980
words
boundaries 999-97, 998-96
complex 26, 57-5
compound 57, 58-6
contracted forms 51, 997-98
function words 51
polysyllabic 22-1, 57
simple 26
stress 27-59, 57-5, 987
strong forms 51-10, 17-8
weak forms 51-16
zero coda 81
zero onset 82
zero realisation 997

702



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