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Chapter for Language Standardisation in Europe, ed
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The students reported lower frequencies for these features in public CMC contexts, while differences by gender were rather insignificant
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The play’s dialogues were now carried
out on facebook walls, with the protagonists’ entries sprinkled with emoticons such as ‘ :-/ ’,
laughter acronyms such as rotfl (‘rolling on the floor laughing’), expressive punctuation, and
the like
...
These anecdotal observations suggest that certain new features of written language are part of the usage of a generation sometimes called the ‘digital natives’, and subject to mediatised stylisation and popular representation
...
It lacks embedding into a broader picture of sociolinguistic change, which
would consider written language in its own right, deconstruct the very notion of ‘language’
into various domains of language practice, and distinguish potential trajectories of change
within online written usage, from digital to non-digital written language, or to spoken usage
...
Its prototypical empirical domain is variably
called CMC, computer-mediated discourse or ‘interactive written discourse’ (Ferrara, Brunner
and Whittemore 1991)
...

All networked writing is carried out on digital technologies that enable private or public,
asynchronous or near-synchronous exchange among individuals and groups on various applications or platforms
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These properties set the frame for a prototype of new
writing, which first materialised in pre-web applications such as personal emails, newsgroups
and chat channels, then carrying on to forums, texting and instant messaging
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-2-

However, the reach of CMC has for some time outgrown these conditions, and the relevant literature is full of discrepancies between early and contemporary accounts, visionary
scenarios and empirical evidence
...
’1 Projections of this kind
often surface in public discourse, their frequent dystopian versions motivated by ‘a deeper
concern: that Internet language is corrupting the way we craft traditional writing or even
speak face-to-face’ (Baron 2008: 176)
...

This chapter offers a critical synthesis of research literature as a backdrop against which to
develop a perspective on digital media as sites of sociolinguistic change
...
Moving to language innovation and change within CMC, three main themes are discussed: the mingling of
spoken and written features, strategies of economy, and compensatory means for prosodic and
visual cues
...
I
argue that digital media enable an expansion of vernacular writing into new domains of practice, and therefore a diversification of writing styles and pluralisation of written language
norms
...
In public
discourse, however, new media language is discursively constructed as a homogenous and
distinct language variety against the backdrop of a technological determinism ideology
...
But from a research viewpoint, ‘when it comes to
speech, the potential effects of the Internet (at least as of now) are negligible at best’ (Baron
2008: 180)
...
Apart
from that, evidence for effects of CMC on spoken language are restricted to lexis, an area
often neglected by researchers in Internet linguistics
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g
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1
Original: ‘(D)ie Geschichte der Vernetzung kann noch nicht geschrieben werden, aber es ist nicht unwahrscheinlich, dass die neuen Entwicklungen durchaus die Auswirkungen erreichen können, die dem Buchdruck zu
Beginn der Neuzeit oder der Fernübertragungstechnik im Anfang des 20
...
’ (Wichter
1991: 89, my translation
...

2

The extensive use of German-language literature in this chapter reflects the fact that German scholarship addressed relations of digital communication and language change from early on, and in considerable detail
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-3-

In languages other than English, the link between technological innovations and Anglicisation
was also made early on (e
...
Königer 1997)
...
However, these accounts do not specifically distinguish between broader
changes and the more specific phenomenon of net neologisms, that is, ‘words that have arisen
directly as a result of the Internet’ (Crystal 2011: 58)
...
He discusses examples of lexical creativity around twitter and blogs, with cautions as to their persistence: ‘Most of these are likely to have a short linguistic life’ (2011:
59)
...
She developed a computeraided analysis comparing blog data with the British National Corpus and the Webster online
dictionary, followed by manual verification
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Such comparisons can help to understand the spread of lexical innovations across domains
of written usage
...
A
google search yields 216,000 hits for this item (as per 28 July 2011), but a search in the largest corpus of public written German3 yields only one hit for the infinitive form (set in quotation marks) and seven hits for the participle, ergoogelt
...
But it does not solve its cross-mode actuation: did this new word
first occur in networked typing, or traditional writing, or maybe in talk among net experts?
This question can be raised for each of the numerous net neologisms documented in vernacular lexicography projects such as Urban Dictionary
...
On the other hand, the modality of actuation does not predict
the cross-media propagation of a net neologism, i
...
the paths and trajectories of its spread
across domains of spoken and written usage, and the mediatisation chains that might lead to
its eventual codification
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Consider expressions such as facebook stalking (the practice of following someone’s activities on facebook)
or the verbs befriend, unfriend, and defriend
...
ids-mannheim
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Ergoogeln is also discussed in the forums of the widely used translation dictionary leo (http://www
...
org/)
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For example a search for the word googletowngirl, which is listed in Urban
Dictionary as a common noun, produced only a few pages of results, with the word featuring as dictionary entry
or user nickname
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New lexis of that sort is successful precisely because it lexicalises people’s social practices with digital technology
...
The idea that pupils might use ‘netspeak’ or text-message style
in their school essays is a widely publicised linguistic myth on CMC (Thurlow 2007)
...
Most linguists are very cautious with claims of this sort, but the fact is that robust evidence against them is missing
...
Called ‘How youth write’ (Dürscheid
and Wagner 2010), it was carried out in German-speaking Swiss schools and compared pupils’ school essays to their out-of-school digital writing, based on 1148 digital texts, 953
school essays, and questionnaires to pupils (N=754) and teachers (N=47)
...
The digital texts are analysed for ‘salient features’ at the levels of punctuation,
orthography, morphosyntax, lexicon, and textual organisation, and compared to the school
essays
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The results suggest that out-of-school digital writing does
not have any influence on institutional language production
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Conversely, an orientation to standard language in informal
digital writing does not imply normative writing at school
...
Young people’s writing is diverse
and quite individualised, but ‘interferences’ from informal to institutional writing are not part
of the picture
...
The use of emoticons in private hand-written texts is sometimes reported, but there certainly are predecessors to such practice, as personal letters were always
subject to multimodal enrichment (see e
...
Kataoka 2003)
...

Such purposeful stylisations of CMC landmarks can be understood as instances of language
crossing, with CMC features indexing some (positive or negative, affirmative or distanced)
orientation to stereotyped digital-media users and practices, thereby drawing on emerging
popular ideologies of new media language
...

An even more inclusive approach would centre on the effects of computer-based writing
as opposed to earlier forms of written language production
...
Clearly, scholarship on language
change has concentrated on level (b), to which we now turn
...
Thanks to
Sali Tagliamonte for discussion on these verbs
...
What has moved researchers since the mid 1980s was innovation and change in
CMC language itself
...
They generally belonged to the ‘first wave’ of CMC linguistics scholarship, focusing on the effect of digital technologies on language (Androutsopoulos 2006; Herring 2003)
...
The most obvious benchmark, as some researchers have
pointed out, would be non-digital vernacular writing, such as private letters or note-taking
(Elspaß 2004; Quasthoff 1997; Ferrara et al
...
Others have opted for large corpora of
written or spoken language (Yates 1996; Jucker 2006)
...
While these frameworks differ by language
and country,6 they share ‘the analytical foundation of a strong distinction between spoken and
written language’ (Squires 2010: 462), leading to a certain idealisation (and implicit normativity) of typical spoken and written language properties, setting a benchmark against which
CMC could be conceptualised as a blend or hybrid of written and spoken aspects of language
...
g
...
g
...
To offer a brief summary: conceptual orality includes all
aspects reminiscent of casual spoken language in written discourse
...
The second theme, the semiotics of compensation, includes any ‘attempt to compensate
for the absence of facial expressions or intonation patterns’ (Baron 1984: 125) by the standardised means of keyboard and typeface
...
The third theme, linguistic economy, includes any strategy of
shortening the message form
...
Its counterpart, implicit in the preceding two themes, is the
economy of expressiveness, the tendency to contextualize exchanges as informal, engaged
and jointly accomplished, drawing on means that often run counter to linguistic economy
...
He observes simplifications,
conversational ellipses, representations of colloquial pronunciation, expressive iterations of
letters and punctuation signs, and a ‘playful relationship between the phonematic and the graphematic level’
...
89)
...

(1997) featured a classification of grammatical, lexical and discourse innovations from Ger                                                        
6

In the English-language literature, the categories used by Crystal are based on Chafe, while Biber’s framework
has also been used
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-6-

man mailing lists and newsgroups
...
Some of their features directly fit the three themes
introduced above
...
They also identify economy strategies such as a proliferation of clippings and acronyms,
and simplifications in punctuation and orthography, such as lack of noun capitalisation or
‘sloppy’ punctuation
...

Beside  these  Internet  language  evergreens,  their  classification  includes  phenomena 
that seem ephemeral and restricted from today’s viewpoint
...
Features like these
seem contingent on particular user groups, which at that particular empirical point happened
to be among the technology experts that made up a large part of early Internet users
...
e
...
Such usage again seems characteristic of early Internet users who explored the creative possibilities offered by the reallocation or recontextualisation of particular technology
affordances
...
The authors note that new conventions for salutation emerge in newsgroups and
chat channels
...
g
...
These observations are on new ways of
meaning making, creating coherence, and contextualising digitally mediated interaction
...
Writers use the
resources afforded by a given technology in order to build up and sustain dialogical context,
create joint deictic anchoring, and develop appropriate framing
...

Haase et al
...

More recently, researchers working with larger corpora have pointed out that contrary to
popular perception, the frequency of typical ‘netspeak’ features can be rather low
...
This discrepancy between metadiscourse and empirical evidence is independently confirmed by Squires (2010)
...
 

-7-

lar culture (Baron 2008; Bergs 2009; Elspaß 2004; Shortis 2009), conclude that the novelty of
digital writing is often exaggerated or lacks historical depth
...
While the implicit assumption seems to
be that digital language innovations are here to stay, ‘rise and fall’ patterns are just as possible
...
g
...
Originating in US comics translated into German, inflectives
emerged as a feature of youth language in the 1980s, used as exclamations outside the clause
structure
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Inflectives can be reduplicated or abbreviated, and compound verbs or even verb constructions can be turned into an
inflective construction (Schlobinski 2001)
...
Like other popular inflectives, grins can be clipped to g, which is then again elaborated by iteration, ggg, or
typographic mark-up, *g*, and expanded through complements, as in *frechgrins* (‘cheekygrin’, p
...
Based on 24-hour samples from four chat channels and four time slices, from
2002 to 2009, they distinguish three phases in its usage: an early consolidation of chatspecific conventions; then a reorientation toward standard-language usage; and a decline of
chat usage
...
This finding seems to echo the sociolinguistic pattern of
age grading, in which the linguistic behaviour of young speakers becomes more standardoriented as they grow older
...
It is therefore not possible to tell whether the decline
of inflectives indexes a change of usage by the same writers over time, or a change of activities in the channel, or even a change of participants altogether
...
Inflectives are important means of enhancing sociability and indexing engagement in a chat room, and the emergence of new grammatical structure can be expected from
linguistic items that are important to the communicative practice of a social network
...

‘GRAPHOSTYLISTICS’, ‘NEOGRAPHY’, ‘RESPELLING’: CONCEPTUALISING
VARIABILITY IN SPELLING
There is agreement across a number of studies that the grapheme structure of written language
(Crystal 2011:67 uses the term graphology) gains importance as a level of linguistic variation
in CMC
...
Some observations to this effect focus on conformity
to or deviation from orthographic norms
...
Here I argue for a wider perspective on the diversity of spelling practices in this domain of partially regulated (Sebba 2009) or ‘unregimented’ (Shortis 2009) writing
...
In order to represent spoken and vernacular forms, simulate prosody
or shorten the message, writers must handle spelling in ways that go beyond normative or-

-8-

thography
...
The outcome is a distinctively visual variability, which draws on difference from normative orthography, rather than representation of spoken variation, as a source
of indexical meaning
...

Terms that have been proposed to account for spelling variability in CMC include ‘graphostylistics’ (a term originating in stylistics), ‘neography’ (a term coined by the late French
linguist Jacques Anis), and ‘respelling’
...
Examples include homophonous graph-by-graph substitutions (e
...

for in websites by the extreme right in Germany) or word-by-graph substitutions, which
at the same time can be analysed as economy strategies, such as for ‘see you’
...
The three main ‘neographic processes’
are logograms (such as <@> for at, for female, <+> for plus); syllabograms or rebus-like
spellings (such as for before); and phonetic spellings including numerous subcategories:
single phonetic spellings such as to (e
...
ke for ‘que’) or to (komen for
‘comment’); simplification of digrams and trigrams (e
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aussi > oci; nouveau > nouvo); substitution of digrams (moi > mwa); deletion of silent letters; and consonantal skeletons, e
...

for vous
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Spelling variants produced through different procedures can occur (e
...
demain, dem1, 2main
or 2m1), and polyvalent forms may represent different full variants and are disambiguated in
context, as in , which can stand for tu, te or tes
...
These constraints are economic, technological, ‘psychosocial’, communicative or linguistic ones
...
Their usage varies by the degree of synchronicity afforded
by CMC modes, the social relation between interlocutors, and the genres they engage with
...

Like Anis, Shortis views respelling as a resource whose use is subject to a variety of factors, including users’ ‘technoliteracy’, their considerations of audience and purpose, and
physical constraints of message production
...
While respelling ‘remains bound to its relationship with the standard orthographic iteration’ (p
...
CMC respellings introduce new indexicalities by virtue of their continuity with
spelling practices in other domains: popular culture, ICT, trade names, and specialized shorthand
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-9-

While these accounts have not yet produced a unified theoretical framework, they represent attempts to conceptualise change in spelling at a higher level beyond simple insecurity or
normative deviation
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Spelling is becoming a deployment of choices from a range of options (…) It is a matter of appropriacy and identity rather than a matter of rectitude and uniformity
...
Romanisation started out as a vernacular response to technological
necessity at a time where the Internet was restricted to a small set of Roman-only characters at
the exclusion of Roman diacritics and all other scripts, and continues today despite the fact
that current CMC enables the representation of (practically) any script
...
e
...
e
...
Romanisation has been noticed for the language-ideological debates it triggers, whereas its implications for literacy development in diaspora wait to be explored
...

THE ELABORATION OF VERNACULAR WRITING: TOWARDS AN INCLUSIVE
CONCEPTUALISATION OF CHANGE
If we assume that ‘the study of media and language change can benefit from CMC research’
(Herring 2003: 8), then the implications of this discussion for an adequate conception of language change in digital media must be considered
...
Second, what is new in ‘new media language’ is not just a
number of innovative constructions or structures, but new resources and strategies for written
language production and meaning making, from graphology to discourse structure
...
I therefore argue that networked writing questions the adequacy of the feature-based approach and spoken language bias that have dominated conceptions of language change in sociolinguistics
...

One such alternative, I suggest, is to view language change in digital media as an elaboration of vernacular writing
...
Its elements include: a change of scale in
the volume and publicness of vernacular writing; a diversification of old and new vernacular
patterns; an extension of written language repertoires, and a concomitant pluralisation of written language norms
...

It seems useful to clarify the notion of elaboration by referring to a related sociolinguistic
concept, Ausbau
...
 

-10-

increasingly abstract and technical written prose (see Haarmann 2004 for an overview)
...
However, the development of networked digital writing differs from a
traditional understanding of Ausbau in a number of points
...
9 Ausbau extends the
written use of a language beyond the field of ‘everyday prose’; but the elaboration of vernacular writing is located precisely within that field, which is now being extended and reconfigured by means of digital media
...

Metaphors of scale (see e
...
Blommaert 2010) are useful in conceptualising the new dimensions of vernacular writing in the digital era
...
As an outcome of higher literacy rates, more
people write than ever before
...
Therefore, networked writing is different
from ‘traditional views of writing as a non-involved, solitary activity lacking a copresent
audience‘ (Ferrara et al
...
CMC created a need to make written language suitable for
social interaction, and the three main themes of innovation and change discussed above, i
...

orality, semiotic compensation, and economy, can be viewed as responses to that need
...

At the same time, vernacular writing experiences an unprecedented scale of publicness
...

Mass media content is of course still subject to editing and correcting
...
Public vernacular writing is thus intertwined with professionally crafted, institutionally framed language (see also
Androutsopoulos 2010)
...
These are sociolinguistic manifestations of the intermingling of the private and the
public that characterises late modernity
...
It seems useful to roughly distinguish old from new vernacular written usage
...
‘New’ vernaculars are patterns of difference to elaborated written standards without being rooted in local speech
...
Examples are the hyper-expressive uses of punctuation found on teenage
homepages or the typographic play in female Hebrew blogs discussed by Vaisman (2011)
...
Consider again leet speak or the non-standard usage associated with Lolcats (in Eng                                                        
9 This point would require modification with regard to non-European sociolinguistic contexts
...
10
With the development of networked writing, written language repertoires at the individual
and societal level are extended and reconfigured
...
Evidence in support of this
comes from research that has shown style differences for genres on the same website, styleshifting for contextualisation purposes, and users’ awareness of writing styles that are deemed
suitable for different modes and genres (consider also the anecdotal survey mentioned in the
introduction)
...
I would rather
argue that we are witnessing written language repertoires extending to approximate the stylistic range available in spoken language, at least on the axis of formality
...
12
Repertoire extension implies a reconfiguration of written language norms and the emergence of new indexical regimes
...
Written language norms are pluralised to the extent that different styles of writing
can be deemed appropriate in different environments and genres and to different user groups
...
They are localised in the more
specific sense of being limited to particular online communities or networks
...

In domains of unregimented writing, stylistic appropriateness is opened up to localised negotiation, for example with regard to spelling and punctuation or the representation of regional
dialects (Shortis 2009, Sebba 2009)
...
In this process, the meaning of vernacular writing extends beyond traditional indexical values of region or class
...

The elaboration of vernacular writing is linked to processes of destandardisation, a notion
with various definitions in sociolinguistics
...
In a second
sense, which Auer discusses in more detail, destandardisation is a process of horizontal convergence between regional dialects from adjacent areas, leading to the emergence of larger                                                        
10 No published linguistics research on Lolcats seems to be available; I thank Robin Queen for her hints on this

issue
...
and M
...
Both terms are explained on Wikipedia
...
He finds that the tendency to spell out these allegro forms is lower in the moderated part
of the session and higher in the subsequent, non-moderated portions of the same chat session
...
It seems that expressive punctuation with iterative use
of or becomes increasingly expected as a default case, whereas ‘normal’ punctuation is presumably
reinterpreted as index of distance or indifference
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scale regional varieties or dialect koiné
...
A formal standard still exists, particularly in (orthoepic) pronunciation, but is losing its relevance for most institutional contexts, with educated and professional speakers shifting to supra-regional colloquial standard or to regional standards
...
De-standardisation is a language-ideological shift, whereby formerly stable indexical meanings are neutralised or reconfigured in particular contexts (p
...

Neither Auer nor Coupland specifically consider written language; however, a concept of
destandardisation focused on status/value change suits well the processes discussed here
...
However, the normative claim of standardised written language, particularly in orthography and punctuation, is partially replaced by smaller-scale conventions, often limited to
particular networked groups and their online platforms
...
This process is most obvious in
spelling and punctuation, i
...
the written materiality of language online
...
According to Barton, ‘whateverism’ manifests in ‘a marked indifference to the need for consistency in linguistic usage’ (2008: 169)
...
Indeed, pluralisation of written usage in a post-standardised
era presupposes that networked users themselves accept that written language online entails
much more variability than standard language ideology is prepared to acknowledge
...
Indifference (or tolerance) to
written language variation does not prevent networked writers from focusing on contextualised norms of limited reach, readjusting their written language repertoire according to their
digital media usage
...

Media representations of new media language are predominantly shaped by concerns over
the future of language, technological determinism, and a narrow view of ‘newness’
...
News reports and other genres construct language online
as a distinct language that may be indecipherable, thus raising a need for explanation that can
then be served by glossaries and related products
...
Effect and influence scenarios directly follow from that, as they assume media agency on language, separating the two
from each other and from discourse practice
...
Thus the diversity of networked writing is ‘lost in the translation’ into popular, and perhaps also some expert construc-

-13-

tions of new media language
...
Besides stigmatisation of vernacular writing, the Internet offers ample opportunities for what Gorham (2009) calls ‘democratic norm negotiations’, which include folk-linguistic practices that mimic and parody top-down language policies
...
Metaphors of ‘effect‘ and ‘influence’ have been common in both discourses, and the
aim ‘to understand the way CMC might affect our language’ (Smyk-Bhattacharjee 2006: 69)
has been a legitimate scholarly approach
...
Such an alternative
might be a view of digital media not as containers that determine the language they contain,
but as resources for social practices, which do constrain, but do not determine the shapes and
styles of network writing
...

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Title: Digital Media and Language Change
Description: Digital Media and Language Change is the main topic of this note. It discusses how Social Media affected Language

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