Notesale: Turn your study into money

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OXFORD a n d OXFORD ENGLISH

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© Oxford University Press 1994
First published 1994
Seventh impression 2002

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...

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otherwise circulated without the publisher's prior consent
in any form of binding or cover other than that in which it is
published and without a similar condition including this
condition being imposed on the subsequent purchaser
...
The emphasis is
on meanings and how they govern the choice of grammatical pattern
...
It will be found equally suitable for quick reference to details and for the
more leisured study of broad grammar topics
...

Language changes all the time
...
There are sometimes disagreements
about what is correct English and what is incorrect
...
Does that make it acceptable? Where there is a difference
between common usage and opinions about correctness, I have pointed this out
...
In some situations it may be safer for
them to use the form which is traditionally seen as correct
...
To help learners to use language which is appropriate for a
given occasion, I have frequently marked usages as formal, informal, literary
and so on
...
In addition, there is a summary at
the beginning of each chapter which gives a bird's eye view, with examples, of the
grammar covered in the chapter as a whole and gives references to the individual
sections which follow
...

We are also grateful to John Algeo, Sharon Hilles and Thomas Lavelle for their
contributions to the chapter on American English and to Rod Bolitho, Sheila
Eastwood and Henry Widdowson for their help and advice
...

There are instances where we have been unable to trace or contact copyright
holders before our printing deadline
...


IX

Key to symbols
Phonetic symbols
tea
sit
ten
had
car
dog
ball
book
fool
cup
(r) four

bird
away
pay
so
cry
now
boy
dear
chair
sure

put
best
tell
day
cat
good
cheese
just

first
van
three
this
sell
zoo
ship
pleasure

house
must
next
song
love
rest
you
will

linking r, pronounced before a vowel but (in British English) not
pronounced before a consonant
four apples
four bananas

stress follows, e
...
about
falling intonation

rising intonation

Other symbols
The symbol / (oblique stroke) between two words or phrases means that either is
possible
...

We also use an oblique stroke around phonetic symbols, e
...
tea
Brackets ( ) around a word or phrase in an example mean that it can be left out
...

discussion means
The symbol
means that two things are related
...

The symbol ~ means that there is a change of speaker
...
For example, (2) means part 2 of the same section;
65 means section 65; and 229(3) means part 3 of section 229
...

Word classes • 3
The main word classes are these: verb, noun, adjective, adverb, preposition,
determiner, pronoun and conjunction
...

Sentence elements • 5
The sentence elements are these: subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial
...

Word order is very important in English
...

There are many idioms with prepositions
...
On behalf of British Island Airways, Captain
Massey and his crew welcome you on board the Start Herald Flight to
Southampton
...
'
(from M
...
Barr Listeners)

The grammatical units of English are words, phrases, clauses and sentences
...

NOTE For word-building, e
...
air + ways= airways, • 282
...
Here is an example
...


Here the noun phrase our flight time is the subject of the clause
...
There can be other phrases, too
...

Adverbial
Subject
Verb
Object
Object
(prepositional phrase) (noun phrase) (verb phrase) (noun phrase) (noun phrase)
On behalf of the airline

we

wish

you

a pleasant flight
...

For subject, object, complement and adverbial, • 5
...


3 Sentences
A sentence can be a single clause
...

A written sentence begins with a capital letter (On) and ends with a mark such as a
full stop
...
For example, we can
use and to link the clauses
...

For details about sentences with more than one clause, • 238
...
The word
come is a verb, letter is a noun and great is an adjective
...
For example, test can be a noun or a verb
...
(noun)
He had to test the machine
...

Verb:
climb, eat, welcome, be
Noun:
aircraft, country, lady, hour
Adjective:
good, British, cold, quick
Adverb:
quickly, always, approximately
Preposition:
to, of, at, on
Determiner:
the, his, some, forty-five
Pronoun:
we, you, them, myself
Conjunction: and, but, so
NOTE There is also a small class of words called 'interjections'
...


3

Verbs, nouns, adjectives and adverbs are 'vocabulary words'
...

Prepositions, determiners, pronouns and conjunctions belong to much smaller
classes
...


4

Most word classes can be divided into sub-classes
...

1

Verb phrase: come, had thought, was left, will be climbing
A verb phrase has an ordinary verb (come, thought, left, climbing) and may also
have an auxiliary (had, was, will)
...
A noun phrase can also be a pronoun (we)
...


4

Adverb phrase: quickly, almost certainly
An adverb phrase has an adverb, sometimes with an adverb of degree (almost)
...


1 ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PAGE 4

5 Sentence elements
1

Each phrase plays a part in the clause or sentence
...

Subject

Verb

Adverbial

is leaving

shortly
...

a pilot
...

Two stewards served
lunch
...

next week
...

Subject

Noun phrase: the flight, I, two stewards

Verb

Verb phrase: is, served, must book

Object

Noun phrase: a newspaper, lunch

Complement

Adjective phrase: very good
Noun phrase: a pilot

Adverbial

Adverb phrase: shortly
Prepositional phrase: at three o'clock
Noun phrase: next week

NOTE

a The verb is central to the sentence and we use the word 'verb' for both the sentence
element - 'The verb follows the subject' - and for the word class - 'Leave is a verb
...

b The word there can be the subject
...


6 English compared with other languages
1 Endings
Unlike words in some other languages, English words do not have a lot of different
endings
...


PAGE 5

6 English compared with other languages

Verbs take a few endings such as ed for the past (started), but they do not take
endings for person, except in the third person singular of the present tense
(it starts)
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
Pronouns (e
...
lime) have fewer forms than in
many languages
...
As nouns do not have endings for subject
or object, it is the word order that shows which is which
...

The man
loved the woman
...
)
(He loved her
...


3 Verb phrases
A verb phrase can have a complex structure
...

I climbed up the ladder
...

We shall be climbing to an altitude of eight thousand feet
...


4 Prepositions
The use of prepositions in English can be a problem
...

We left at two o'clock
...

They were waiting for the flight
...

There are many expressions involving prepositions that you need to learn as items
of vocabulary
...

AN UNLUCKY THIEF

A man walked into a hotel, saw a nice coat, put it over his arm and walked out
again
...
While he was waiting, he put the
coat on
...
It was carrying forty detectives
on their way home from a conference on crime
...
He recognized the coat
...
He had left it in the hotel,
and it had gone missing
...
The inspector
arrested him
...
He thought himself
rather unlucky
...
They are subject, verb, object,
complement and adverbial
...


Subject

Transitive verb

Object

The detective

arrested

the thief
...

an inspector
...

every year
...


Call, put etc •11
Subject

Verb

Object

Complement

They
The thief

called
thought

the inspector
himself

sir
...


Subject

Verb

Object

Adverbial

He

put

the coat

over his arm
...
The
elements that come after the verb depend on the type of verb: for example,
whether it is transitive or not
...
For
example, think can come in these three patterns
...

Transitive (with an object):
Yes, I thought the same
...

Extra adverbials • 12
We can always add an extra adverbial to a clause
...

One day a man walked casually into a hotel
...

The inspector and the thief got out of the coach
...

Our neighbour Mr Bradshaw is a policeman
...

The man was waiting at the side of the road
...

The man runs along the beach every morning
...

A verb can be intransitive in one meaning and transitive in another
...

He runs his own business
...

The man stole a coat
...

The driver saw the hitch-hiker at the side of the road
...

Transitive verbs can express not only actions (stole) but also feelings (enjoyed),
perception (saw) and possession (had)
...

The man opposite was reading (a book)
...

A woman was driving (the coach)
...

The following verbs can also be without an object if the context is clear: begin,
choose, decide, hear, help, know, notice, see, start
...

The committee discussed the problem
...


3

Many verbs can be either transitive or intransitive
...

He opened the door
...

Someone rang the bell
...

The door opened
...

The bell rang
...
The transitive sentence has as its
subject the agent, the person who made the event happen (the driver)
...

Here are some common verbs that can be transitive or intransitive:
alter
begin
bend
boil
break
burn
change
close
cook
combine
continue
crash

develop
divide
drive
dry
end
finish
fly
freeze
hang
harden
hurt
improve

increase
join
melt
mix
move
open
pour
ring
roll
sail
separate
shake

NOTE

Raise is transitive, and rise is intransitive
...

The price of oil will rise
...


shine
shut
slide
smash
soften
sound
spread
stand
start
stop
strengthen
swing

tear
turn
weaken
unite

PAGE

9

9 Linking verbs

9 Linking verbs
1 Linking verb + complement
A complement is an adjective phrase or a noun phrase
...
Between
the subject and complement is a linking verb, e
...
be
...

The thief seemed depressed
...

It's getting dark
...

These are the most common verbs in this pattern
...
g
...

We can use some linking verbs in other patterns
...

Intransitive:
We looked at the exhibition
...

The woman seemed to be Lord Melbury's secretary
...


But we can leave out to be when the noun phrase gives other kinds of information
...

For American usage, • 303(1)
...

We arrived exhausted
...

I came home really tired one evening
...
We can express the same meaning
in two clauses: We were exhausted when we arrived
...
An
adverbial after a linking verb relates to the subject
...

The coat was here
...

The drawings lay on the table
...

Joan Collins lives in style
...

Linking verbs with adverbials are be, go, lie, live, sit, stand and stay
...
There are some examples in this conversation, which takes place in a
department store
...

I understand I can claim back the tax I pay
...
Have you filled in a form?
Customer: Yes, and I've got the receipts here
...
Now, when you go through British Customs, you give the customs
officer the form with the receipts
...
They'll give you one copy back and keep one themselves
...

Clerk: Now I'll give you this envelope
...

Customer: I post it to you
...

Customer: And how do I get the money?
Clerk: Oh, we send you a cheque
...


1 Two objects
When the verb has two objects, the first is the indirect object and the second is the
direct object
...

a cheque
...

a seat
...


2 Object + adverbial
Instead of an indirect object, we can use a prepositional phrase with to or for
...


Prepositional
phrase
to the Customs
...

for the woman
...


PAGE

11

10

Give, send etc

3 Which pattern?
In a clause with give, send etc, there is a choice of pattern between give the customs
officer the form and give the form to the customs officer
...
The new information goes at the end of the clause
...

In the conversation Claiming back tax, this envelope is the point of interest, the
new information, so it comes at the end
...

He left his children five million pounds
...
)
He left all his money to a dog's home
...
)
NOTE

a The adverbial or indirect object is often necessary to complete the meaning
...

But sometimes it is not necessary to mention the person receiving something
...

(It is obvious that you show it to the ticket inspector
...

(You don't want to say who you are writing to
...

The man said nothing (to the police)
...
• 266
The man told the police nothing
...

We send you a cheque
...

When there are two pronouns after the verb, we normally use to or for
...

I've got a ticket for Wimbledon
...


5 To or for?
Some verbs go with to and some with for
...

Tom got drinks for everyone
...

With for: bring, buy, cook, fetch, find, get, keep, leave, make, order, pick, reserve,
save, spare
...

b For meaning 'to help someone' can go with very many verbs
...
(She can't write
...

Subject

Subject
complement

The driver was
tired
...


Object

Object
complement

The journey made the driver tired
...


The subject complement relates to the subject of the clause; • 9
...
In both patterns tired relates to
the driver, and president relates to he/him
...

The thief thought himself rather unlucky
...

The court found him guilty of robbery
...

I prefer my soup hot
...

With adjective or noun phrase: believe, call, consider, declare, find, keep, leave, like,
make, paint, prefer, prove, think, want
With adjective: drive, get, hold, pull, push, send, turn
With noun phrase: appoint, elect, name, vote

2 Verb + object + adverbial
The adverbial in this pattern typically expresses place
...

We keep the car in the garage
...

The path led us through trees
...

I left my umbrella at home
...

b Lay (past: laid) comes in the same pattern as put
...

Lie (past: lay) is a linking verb which takes an adverbial
...


12 Extra adverbials
1

Look at these clause patterns
...


Subject Verb

Object

He

the coat over his arm
...
They are necessary to complete the sentence
...

At last a coach stopped
...

He had recently become a detective inspector
...

At once the thief gave the inspector his coat
...

He casually put the coat over his arm
...
They are not necessary to complete the
sentence
...
An extra adverbial does not
affect the word order in the rest of the sentence, and the subject-verb order stays
the same
...

NOTE

Another extra element is the name or description of the person spoken to
...

You're in trouble, my friend
...
Here are some examples with
noun phrases
...

The man, the woman and the child were waiting
...

Wednesday, Thursday or Friday would be all right
...


2

We can use and and or with other kinds of words and phrases
...
(adjective)
He waited fifteen or twenty minutes
...
(adverb phrase)
NOTE

a We can use two adjectives together without a linking word, e
...
a cold, windy day
...

The book has become famous and a best-seller
...

The hotel was quiet and well back from the road
...

He stole a hat and a coat
...

In the first sentence and links two noun phrases (a hat, a coat); in the second it
links two nouns (hat, coat)
...

He stole a hat and a typewriter
...
(belonging together)
NOTE

a And, or (and but) can link verb phrases and also whole clauses
...


2 THE SIMPLE SENTENCE

PAGE 14

14 Phrases in apposition
Two noun phrases are in apposition when one comes after the other and both
refer to the same thing
...

Joseph Conrad, the famous English novelist, couldn't speak English until
he was 47
...

When the second phrase identifies the first one, we do not use a comma
...

Pretty 25-year-old secretary Linda Pilkington has shocked her friends and
neighbours
...

We can also use apposition to add emphasis
...

The man is a fool, a complete idiot
...

The place is miles away, much too far to walk
...


PAGE 15

Statements, questions, imperatives
and exclamations
15 Summary
There are four sentence types: statement, question, imperative and exclamation
...

Main use
Statements • 16

You took a photo
...


to give information

Questions • 18

Did you take a photo?

to ask for information

The imperative • 19

Take a photo
...
For example, we can use
a statement to ask for information (I'd like to know all the details); a question form
can be an order or request (Can you post this letter, please?); an imperative can
express good wishes (Have a nice time)
...


2 Use
This conversation contains a number of statements
...

Adrian: Uh-huh
...

Stella: I've got to go out tonight
...

Adrian: Well, I'll video the programme for you
...
It's at eight o'clock
...

Adrian: We can watch it together when you get back
...


3 STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC

PAGE 16

The basic use of a statement is to give information: There's a programme about
wildlife on the telly tonight
...

When Adrian says I'll video the programme for you, he is offering to video it
...
And
We can watch it together is a suggestion to which Stella agrees
...
Here are some examples
...

Expressing sympathy:
It was bad luck you didn't pass the exam
...

Asking for information:
I need to know your plans
...

In some situations we can use either a statement or another sentence type
...
All these are used to ask for
information
...

Promising:
I promise to be good
...
I apologize
...

Requesting:
You are requested to vacate your room by 10
...

These are performative verbs: accept, admit, advise, agree, apologize, blame,
confess, congratulate, declare, demand, deny, disagree, forbid, forgive, guarantee,
insist, object, order, predict, promise, propose, protest, recommend, refuse, request,
suggest, thank, warn
...
This usually makes the
statement less direct and so more tentative, more polite
...

Insisting: I must insist we keep to the rules
...

Some typical examples are: must admit, would advise, would agree, must
apologize, must confess, must disagree, can guarantee, have to inform you, must
insist, must object, can promise, must protest, would suggest, must warn
...
I promise to be good is a more emphatic
promise than I'll be good, and 7 suggest we watch it together is more emphatic than We can
watch it together
...

I order/request you to leave the building
...

c With a few verbs we can use the present continuous
...

We propose/We are proposing a compromise
...

FRANKENSTEIN

In 1818 Mary Shelley wrote a famous book called 'Frankenstein'
...
Frankenstein was not the
name of the monster but the name of the person who created the monster
...

Another mistake is to talk of 'Doctor Frankenstein'
...
Mary Shelley's hero did not study medicine - he studied science and
mathematics at the university of Ingolstadt in Bavaria
...
There is also a place called Frankenstein, which might or might
not have given the author the idea for the name
...
In general, we use negative statements to inform
someone that what they might think or expect is not so
...
We write the auxiliary and n't together as one word
...

The monster wasn't called Frankenstein
...


b

There must be an auxiliary before not
...

I don't like horror films
...

The hero did not study medicine
...

Be on its own also has not/n't after it
...

These shoes aren't very comfortable
...

Positive

Negative
Full form

Negative
Short form

was called
have read
might have given
like/do like
studied/did study

was not called
have not read
might not have given
do not like
did not study

wasn't called
haven't read
mightn't have given
don't like
didn't study

We cannot use no to make a negative verb form
...
NOT The bus no came
...

I ordered tea, not coffee
...
~ It's blue, not green
...

Not can also come before a noun phrase with an expression of quantity (many) or
before a phrase of distance or time
...

There's a cinema not far from here
...

NOTE

a Instead of (= in place of) and rather than have a negative meaning
...

They should build houses, not office blocks
...

I drink tea, not coffee
...
g
...

Beggars are a not unusual sight on the streets of London
...

c For not standing for a whole clause, e
...
7 hope not, • 43(3)
...

Meaning
no

none
no one, nobody

...

The patient is no better
...

We wanted tickets, but there were
none left
...

I saw nothing suspicious
...

Few people were interested
...

He was never a doctor
...

Mrs Adams no longer lives here
...
In fact, we've
hardly/scarcely started
...

~ Neither/Nor can I
...
)

not a/not any
not any
(opposite of yes)
not any
not anyone
not anything
not anywhere
not many
not much
not ever
not often
not any longer
not really, only just
not either

PAGE

19

17 Negative statements

NOTE

a The verbs fail, avoid, stop, prevent and deny have a negative meaning
...

(= You have not reached the necessary standard
...

A lock could stop/prevent others from using the telephone
...

(= The player said he/she had not broken the rules
...

Lots of people were without a ticket
...
)
c For negative prefixes, e
...
unusual, disagree, • 284(2)
...

I didn't see anyone
...

That will never happen
...

We've hardly started
...

In non-standard English, a double negative means the same as a single negative
...
(non-standard)
(= I didn't see anyone
...
)
In standard English a double negative has a different meaning
...
I saw one of my friends
...
)
We can't do nothing
...
)
NOTE

We sometimes use a negative after I wouldn't be surprised if/It wouldn't surprise me if
...

The speaker expects that it will rain
...

Frankenstein did not study medicine
...
g
...

Frankenstein didn't study medicine
...

Frankenstein wasn't the name of the monster at all
...

Here are some other phrases with a similar meaning
...

I'm not in the least tired
...
There is still a long way to go
...

We can use absolutely before no and its compounds
...

NOTE

a We can use ever with a negative word
...

For more details about ever and never, •211(1) Note c
...

There's nothing whatsoever we can do about it
...


3

c

STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC

PAGE 20

An adverbial with a negative meaning can come in front position for extra
emphasis
...
There is inversion of subject
and auxiliary
...

Compare: The company did not break the law at any time
...

Compare: You should not travel alone under any circumstances
...

Compare: I have never seen such extraordinary behaviour in my life
...
Nor was there any electricity
...

Seldom did we have any time to ourselves
...

Only in summer is it hot enough to sit outside
...

The pattern with inversion can sound formal and literary, although no way is
informal
...

NOTE

a A phrase with not can also come in front position for emphasis
...

Compare: Jeff had not been back to the village since his childhood
...


18 Questions
This is a short introduction to questions
...

Doctor: Where does it hurt?
Patient: Just here
...

Doctor: Has this happened before?
Patient: Well, yes, I do get a pain there sometimes, but it's never been as bad as
this
...
Could you come over here and lie down, please?
The most basic use of a question is to ask for information, e
...
Where does it hurt?
~ Just here
...
g
...
Wh-questions begin with a
question word, e
...
where, what
...
• 23
Statement
It hurts just here
...


Question
wh-:
Where does it hurt?
yes/no: Has this happened before?

PAGE

21

19 The imperative

19 The imperative
1 Form
The imperative form is the base form of the verb
...
When
I say Come in, I mean that you should come in
...

Positive:
Come in
...

Negative:
Do not remove this book from the library
...

Emphatic: Do be careful
...

Never touch electrical equipment with wet hands
...


2 Use
a

The basic use of the imperative is to give orders, to get someone to do something
...

Teacher (to pupils):
Get out your books, please
...

Boss (to employee):
Don't tell anyone about this
...


b

But an imperative can sound abrupt
...

I want you to just keep still a moment
...

You mustn't tell anyone about this
...

Can you get out your books, please?
Could you just keep still a moment?
It is generally safer to use a request form, but the imperative can be used
informally between equals
...

Hurry up, or we're going to be late
...

Shut up
...
Get lost
...

Can you get out your books, please? Open them at page sixty and look at the
photo
...


3

STATEMENTS, QUESTIONS, IMPERATIVES ETC

PAGE 22

3 Other uses of the imperative
Slogans and advertisements:
Save the rainforests
...

Suggestions and advice:
Why don't you spend a year working before you go to college? Take a year off from
your studies and learn something about the real world
...

Always switch off the electricity first
...

Instructions and directions:
Select the programme you need by turning the dial to the correct number
...
The light will come on and the machine will start
...

Informal offers and invitations:
Have a chocolate
...

Good wishes:
Have a nice holiday
...

NOTE

Have a chocolate
...
= I hope you have a nice holiday
...

Teacher:
Get out your books, will/would/can/could you?
The meaning is the same as Will you get out your books? but the pattern with the
tag is more informal
...

Doctor:
Keep still, won't/can't you?
This suggests that the doctor is especially anxious that the patient should keep still,
or annoyed because the patient cannot keep still
...

Have a nice holiday, won't you?
Don't forget your key, will you?
In offers and invitations the tag is will you? or won't you?
Have a chocolate, will/won't you?
These tags make the sentences more emphatic
...

I'll wait here
...

You can also make an order emphatic or even aggressive
...

NOTE

a A few other phrases can be the subject
...

b The negative don't comes before the subject
...


6 Let
a

Let's (= let us) + base form of the verb expresses a suggestion
...
Let's sit outside
...

Let's suggests an action by the speaker and the hearer
...

The negative is let's not or don't let's, and for emphasis we use do let's
...
/Don't let's waste any time
...
We've wasted enough time already
...

b The long form is formal and old-fashioned
...


b

Let me means that the speaker is telling him/herself what to do
...
Where did I put the letter?
Let me see what's in my diary
...

Let me think means 'I'm going to think
...
'
NOTE

Let can also have the meaning 'allow'
...
Let me see
...

Let the person who made this mess clean it up
...
Let them decide
...

NOTE

There are two special sentence patterns with a similar meaning to the imperative
...

God save the Queen
...

These patterns are rather formal and used only in limited contexts
...


Do let's play soon
...

Let's play tennis
...

You play the piano
now
...


Don't play that record
...

Don't you play that
silly game
...
We often use a
pattern with how or what
...

Question:
How warm is the water?
Exclamation:
How warm the water is!
The exclamation means that the water is very warm
...

After how there can be an adjective or adverb
...

How we laughed!
After what there can be a noun phrase with a/an or without an article
...

What a stupid mistake you made!
What lovely flowers these are!
An exclamation can also be just a phrase with how or what
...

Oh no!
Lovely!
You idiot!
Stop!
Look out!
Oh, my God!
There is usually a greater rise or fall of the voice than in other types of sentences
...


3 Exclamations with a negative question form
Some exclamations have the form of a negative question
...

Aren't you lucky! (= How lucky you are!)
Didn't we laugh! (= How we laughed!)

PAGE 25

4
Questions and answers
21 Summary
The use of questions • 22
We use questions to ask for information and also for requests, suggestions,
offers etc
...

Statement: You have written a letter
...

yes/no: Have you written a letter?
wh: What have you written?

Wh-questions: more details • 25
A question word can be subject, object, complement or adverbial
...

Who told you? (subject)
Who did you tell? (object)

Question words: more details • 26
A question word can also be a determiner
...

We can use how on its own or before an adjective or adverb
...

Why exactly do you need this information ?
OVERVIEW:

question words • 27

Question phrases • 28
We can form question phrases with what and how
...

What are you writing? ~ A letter to Kate
...

Have you written the letter? ~ Fes, I have
...

Haven't you answered the letter yet?
Questions with or • 31
We can use or in a question
...

You've written a letter?
Indirect questions • 33
We can ask an indirect question
...

Question tags • 34
We can add a question tag to a statement
...

I've written the letter
...

Customer: I need a return ticket from Bristol to Paddington
...

Travel agent: Tomorrow
...

Travel agent: Are you leaving before ten o'clock?
Customer: It's cheaper after ten, is it?
Travel agent: Yes, it's cheaper if you leave after ten and return after six o'clock
...


PAGE 27

23 Inversion in questions

Customer: Oh, fine
...

Customer: Can I have one then, please?
1

The most basic use of a question is to ask for information
...


2

But we can use questions in other ways, such as getting people to do things
...
g
...

Requesting:
Can I have one then, please?
Making suggestions:
Shall we take the early train?
Offering:
Can I help you?
Asking permission:
May I take one of these timetables?

3

There are also 'rhetorical questions', which do not need an answer
...
It's a small world, isn't it?
NOTE

A question can be answered by the person who asks it
...


23 Inversion in questions
1

In most questions there is inversion of the subject and auxiliary
...

The train has got a buffet
...


Are you leaving today?
Has the train got a buffet?
Where can we sit?

If there is more than one auxiliary verb (e
...
could have), then only the first one
comes before the subject
...

2

Question
Could I have reserved a seat?

In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do
...

Ox: You do like train journeys
...

Or: They did arrive at six
...

Statement
The train was late
...


4

Question
Was the train late?
Where is my ticket?

For short questions, • 38(3)
...
~ And did it?~ I'm afraid so
...

Leaving already? (= Are you leaving already?)

24 Yes/no questions and wh-questions
1

Ayes/no question can be answered yes or no
...
/Certainly
...
/I don't think so
...


2

A wh-question begins with a question word
...
For an overview, • 27
...


25 Wh-questions: more details
1

A question word can be subject, object, complement or adverbial
...

Subject:
Who can give me some help?
(Someone can give me some help
...
)
Complement:
Whose is this umbrella?
(This umbrella is someone's
...
)
Where is this bus going?
(This bus is going somewhere
...
)
When a question word is the subject, there is no inversion
...

Who can give me some help?
But when a question word is the object, complement or adverbial (not the subject),
then there is inversion of the subject and auxiliary
...

What will tomorrow bring?
Whose is this umbrella?

PAGE 29

25 Wh-questions: more details

NOTE

a A question can sometimes be just a question word
...
~ When?
b A question word can be part of a sub clause
...
)
When would everyone like to leave? (Everyone would like to leave some time
...

When and where did this happen?
Who paid for what?

2

Compare who as subject and object of a question
...

(Someone invited you
...

(You invited someone
...
)

Who did the detective see?
(He saw someone
...

What happens next?
Which came first, the chicken or the egg?
Who is organizing the trip?
Which biscuits taste the best?
Whose cat has been run over, did you say?
How many people know the secret?
3

A question word can also be the object of a preposition
...
)
Where does Maria come from?
(Maria comes from somewhere
...
)
In informal questions, the preposition comes in the same place as in a statement
(addressed to, come from)
...

To whom was the parcel addressed?
On what evidence was it decided to make the arrest?
NOTE

a For who and whom, • 26(3)
...

Since when has this area been closed to the public?
This often expresses surprise
...
? is more neutral
...

What will be the best train?
There are lots of books here
...

What train will you catch? (You will catch a train
...
)
Whose idea was it? (It was someone's idea
...

Which ones do you want?
Which of these postcards shall we send to Angela?

2 The use of who, what and which
Who always refers to people
...
What refers mostly to something not human, but it can refer to people
when it comes before a noun
...

NOT Who teacher do you have? and NOT Who of the teachers do you have?
There is a difference in meaning between what and which
...
We use which when there is a definite (and often small) number of
possible answers
...

What sport
...
)
Which way
...
In some contexts either word is possible
...

Why don't you invite a few friends? ~ What friends? I haven't got any friends
...

Who/Whom did you invite?
Whom is formal and rather old-fashioned
...

When who/whom is the object of a preposition, there are two possible patterns
...


4 How
a

How can express means or manner
...
)
How did the children behave? (The children behaved well/badly
...

How wide is the river? (20 metres/30 metres wide?)
How soon can you let me know? (very soon/quite soon?)
For question phrases with how, • 28
...

How are you? ~ Fine, thanks
...

How are you getting on at college? ~ Fine, thanks
...

NOTE

What
...
Sometimes it h a s a very similar m e a n i n g to How
...
like? does not refer to well-being
...

What's your brother like? ~ Well, he's much quieter than I am
...


5 A special pattern with why
Why (not) can come before a noun phrase or a verb
...

When exactly are you coming back?
Just what will tomorrow bring?
About how many people live here?

b

Else has the meaning 'other'
...
?)
Who else did you invite? (= What other people
...

What on earth will tomorrow bring?
We can also use ever
...
The emphasis often
expresses surprise
...


27 Overview: question words
Question
word

Example

who, whom Who won?
what
What happened?
What sport(s)?
which
Which is/are best?

Word class

Positive expression

pronoun
pronoun
determiner
pronoun

someone
something
a sport, some sports
one of them,
some of them
one of the sports,
some of the sports
someone's
someone's
somewhere
some time
for some reason
somehow

Which sport(s)?
whose
where
when
why
how

determiner

Whose was the idea?
Whose idea was it?
Where shall we go?
When did it happen?
Why are you here?
How do you open it?
How did they behave?
How wide is it?
How are you?

pronoun
determiner
adverb of place
adverb of time
adverb of reason
adverb of means
adverb of manner
adverb of degree
adjective

28 Question phrases
What and how can combine with other words to form phrases
...

What time is the next train?~ Ten eleven
...

What kind of/type of/sort of computer have you got? ~ Oh, it's just
a desktop machine
...


PAGE 33

29 Answering questions

2 We use what about/how about to draw attention to something or to make a
suggestion
...

3

How can come before an adjective or an adverb
...

How far did you walk? ~ Miles
...

How long can you stay? ~ Not long, I'm afraid
...

How many people live in the building? ~ Twelve
...

NOTE

How come is an informal phrase meaning 'why'
...

How come all these papers have been left here?~ I'm in the middle of sorting them out
...
Here are some examples from real
conversations
...

I've got a hat
...

Do you like school? ~ Yes, I do
...

You haven't got central heating? ~ No, we haven't
...

Why did you sell the car? ~ It was giving me too much trouble
...

How is Lucy? ~ She's a lot better now
...

It is usually enough to give the relevant piece of information without repeating all
the words of the question
...

NOTE

a We can repeat the words of the question to give emphasis, e
...
when we deny something
...

b There is not always a direct grammatical link between a question and answer
...

What time will you be home? ~ Well, these meetings go on a long time
...

What's your favourite subject? ~ I haven't really got a favourite subject
...


4 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

2 Yes/no short answers
a

We can sometimes answer with a simple yes or no, but English speakers often use a
short answer like Yes, I do or No, we haven't
...
The patterns are yes + pronoun + auxiliary and no +
pronoun + auxiliary + n't
...

Yes, I have
...


Negative
No, it isn't
...

No, we can't
...

Do you play the piano? ~ Yes, I do
...
)
Did Roger cut the grass ~ No, he didn't
...

Is the chemist's open today? ~ No, it isn't
...


d

We very often add relevant information or comment after a simple yes or no or
after the short answer
...

Were you late? ~ Yes, I was, I missed the bus
...

Did Carl find his wallet? ~ No, he didn't, unfortunately
...

We can sometimes use another phrase instead of yes or no
...
/Of course I wasn't
...

Was the scheme a success? ~ No, it was not
...


f

We can also use a short answer to agree or disagree with a statement
...
~ Yes, they are
...
~ No, it doesn't
...
~ No, you didn't
...

We can't afford a car
...

We often use a tag after the short answer
...
— Yes, they are, aren't they?

3 Requests, offers, invitations and suggestions
a

We cannot usually answer these with just a short answer
...
/Of course
...
Thank you
...
Thank you very much
...
/Yes, why not?

PAGE 35
b

30 Negative questions

A negative answer to a request or invitation needs some explanation
...

Would you like to come to my party on Saturday? — I'm sorry
...

A short answer (e
...
No, you can't) would sound very abrupt and impolite
...

Who's got a hair drier? ~ Neil has
...

Which shoes fit best? ~ These do
...

Who's got a hair drier? ~ Neil
...
• 184(1b)

30 Negative questions
MY PHONE IS OUT OF ORDER

Claire: I'll tell you more when I see you next week
...
My phone's still out of order
...
It's an awful nuisance
...

Anna: Why don't you refuse to pay your bill?
Claire: That wouldn't make any difference, I don't expect
...
Anyway, it's not working
...

Can't you ring me?
Haven't they repaired your phone?
The context suggests that the negative is true (they haven't repaired the phone)
...
But Anna is surprised at this
...


b

A negative question can be a complaint
...

This means that you should be quiet
...

Why haven't they repaired it?
Why can't you be quiet?

c

We can use Why don't/doesn't
...
?to criticize
...

Why didn't you tell me this before? You should have told me
...
in a suggestion
...

Who hasn't returned this library book?
What can't you understand?
Which of the guests doesn't eat meat?

e

We can use a negative question to ask the hearer to agree that something is true
...
• 34(3)
I saw you on television last night, didn't I?
NOTE For a negative question form in exclamations, e
...
Wasn't that fun! • 20(3)
...

Haven't you finished yet? NOT Have not you finished yet?
Why doesn't the government take action?
NOTE

The negative of am I is aren't I
...

Have you not finished yet?
Why does the government not take action?

c

If the question word is the subject, n't or not comes after the auxiliary
...

Are you never going to finish? Why does the government take no action?
NOTE

In informal speech the question can be without inversion
...
The answer yes means that the
positive is true
...

~ Yes, they did it yesterday
...
The word or comes
before the last alternative
...

Did you speak to a man or a woman? ~ It was a woman
...

Shall we take a & bus or a ( taxi?
NOTE

This question does not contain alternative answers
...

Here brothers or sisters is spoken as one phrase
...

Are you coming back today, or are you staying overnight? ~ I'm coming back today
...

Are you coming back today or aren't you/or not? ~ Yes, I am
...


32 Questions without inversion
In informal conversation a question can sometimes have the same word order as
in a statement
...

The machine gives change? ~ No, it doesn't
...

The car is blue?~ That's right
...

They went which way?~ That way
...

I need a return ticket to Paddington
...

NOTE

For echo questions, • 35(1)
...
~ You're travelling when?

33 Indirect questions
We can ask a question indirectly by putting it into a sub clause beginning with a
question word or with if/whether
...

We need to know what the rules are
...

Do you know when the train gets in?
I was wondering if/whether you could give me a lift
...

NOT We need to know what are the rules
...

Could you tell me how to get there?
NOTE If the main clause is a statement (We need to know), then there is no question mark
...

Gary: Oh, you have coal fires, do you?
Brian: Yes
...
You have central heating, don't you?
Gary: Yes, we do
...

Brian: Yes, but they're a lot more work than just switching on the heating
...

Gary: I suppose coal fires aren't very convenient, are they?
Brian: They certainly aren't
...
The structure of a
negative tag is auxiliary + n't+ pronoun, e
...
isn't it
...

Louise works at the hospital, doesn't she?
You came home late, didn't you?

c

In these examples the main clause has be on its own, as an ordinary verb
...

It isn't raining, is it?
You haven't finished, have you?
NOTE The form of question tags
a We can use the subject there in a tag
...
We use it or they instead
...
the tag is aren't I
...

Anyone could just walk in here, couldn't they?
d In more formal English, not can come after the pronoun
...

These pictures are good, don't you think?
f In informal English we can use yes, no, right and OK as tags
...
• 303(4)
These figures are correct, yes?
You like London, no?
I'll be outside the post office, right?
We're going to start now, OK ?
But as a general rule learners should not use these tags
...


34 Question tags

PAGE 39

2 Overview: patterns with tags
There are three main patterns
...
It is sometimes obvious that the statement is true
...
The tag (isn't it) is not
really a request for information but an invitation to the hearer to continue the
conversation
...

That was fun, wasn't it?~ Yes, I really enjoyed it
...

It's cold, \ isn't it?
But when the speaker is not sure if the statement is true, then the tag is more like a
real question, a request for information
...

You have central heating, & don't you? ~ Yes, we do
...

NOTE

Sometimes a tag with a rising intonation can express surprise
...

The speaker is surprised at the idea that someone might have no central heating
...
Compare It's colder, isn't it? and It's not
so warm, is it? As in Pattern A, the voice falls or rises depending on how sure the
speaker is that the statement is true
...

You haven't heard the exam results, have you? ~ No, sorry, I haven't
...

We can also use Pattern B to express disapproval
...

You aren't staying in bed all day, are you?
This means 'I hope you aren't staying in bed all day
...

We've had no information yet, have we?

4

QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

PAGE 40

5 Pattern C: positive statement + positive tag
Pattern C also asks the hearer to agree that the statement is true
...
Look at
this example from the conversation Coal fires
...
~ Oh, you have coal fires, do you?
The positive tag means that the information is new to Gary
...
The meaning is the same as 'So you
have coal fires'
...

I can't help you just at the moment
...

Annabelle is out in her new sports car
...

Compare patterns A and C
...
~ It's heavy, isn't it?
(I already know that it is heavy
...
~ It's heavy, is it?
(I have just learnt from your words that it is heavy
...

I often eat bits of wood
...
~ Who did he know?/He knew who?
Did you see the naked lady? ~ Did I see the what?
The second speaker is asking the first to repeat the important information
...
They are spoken with a
rising intonation on the question word
...

I often eat bits of wood
...

I often eat bits of wood
...
• 34(1)
...
(But • Note c
...
~ Oh, are you?
Max played the part brilliantly
...
~ Isn't she?
My brothers can't swim
...
Oh, are you? means 'Oh,
really?' The voice usually rises
...
• 54(2c)
NOTE

a An echo tag is sometimes without inversion
...
~ You are?
b After a positive statement, there can be a short statement + echo tag
...
~ You are, are you?
Max played the part brilliantly
...
Although the information is new, there
is a suggestion that it was expected: You are, are you? I thought so
...

We're moving house soon
...
~ They can, can't they?
c We can use a negative tag in reply to a positive statement
...

Max played the part brilliantly
...
~ It is, isn't it?
That was fun
...


PAGE 42

5
Leaving out and replacing words
36 Summary
Avoiding repetition • 37
We sometimes leave out or replace words to avoid repeating them
...

Leaving out words after the auxiliary • 38
Have you seen the film? ~ Yes, I have
...

Leaving out words after a question word • 40
This photo was taken years ago
...

Leaving out the verb • 41
Adrian chose a steak and Lucy spaghetti
...
~ So have I
...

Have you seen the film?~ Yes, I think so
...
~ Oh, so I am
...
Have we got any?
I saw the film, but I didn't like it
...

NOTE For patterns with a predicative adjective, e
...
although tired, • 199(5c)
...
Here is part of a real conversation in a shop
...
I can show it to you in the daylight
...

Customer: Are they all the same price?
Assistant: Yes
...
The best quality
...

Customer: It's a nice colour though
...
Underwood and P
...
While she and
the assistant are looking at the jackets, there is no need to repeat the word jacket
...


...
(= here is a jacket
...
show the jacket
...
(= These jackets are
...

There's this rather nice rose pink, or two or three nice blues, burgundy, and here is
one that's a very nice colour
...

The assistant wants to emphasize that the colours are all nice and that the material
is cotton
...
• 53(1a)

3

Sometimes the words that are left out or replaced come later, not earlier
...

(= If you want to pay by credit card,
...

(= After Phyllis had had
...


38 Leaving out words after the auxiliary
1

A sentence can end with an auxiliary if the meaning is clear from the context
...
~ Yes, I'm afraid you are
...
She was pleased to see that Sue had
...

Can you get satellite TV? We can
...

I don't enjoy parties as much as my wife does
...

It's a nice colour
...


5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS

PAGE 44

The stress can be on the auxiliary or the subject, whichever is the new information
...
(emphasis on the fact)
She was pleased to see that 'Sue had
...

NOT She was pleased to see that Sue'd-
...

I'm getting old
...

After are we leave out getting old
...


a

We do not leave out not/n't
...
I'm not eating today
...
When the first is a new word, we
cannot leave out the second
...

I don't know if Tom is still waiting
...

When will the room be cleaned? ~ It just has been
...

But when the two auxiliaries are both in the previous sentence, then we can leave
out the second
...

You could have hurt yourself
...


c

In British English do is sometimes used after an auxiliary
...

Have the team won?~ Well, everyone's smiling, so they must have (done)
...


d

There can be an adverbial or a tag
...
~ Yes, it is, isn't it?
Is there a market today? ~ I don't know
...

Here a market is left out of the answer, but yesterday's new information
...

I've seen the film before
...

I wanted Helen to pass her test
...

Here it is clear from the context that And did she? = And did she pass her test?

39 Leaving out an infinitive clause
1

When there is no need to repeat a to-infinitive clause, we can leave it out
...

Would you like to join us for lunch? ~ Yes, I'd love to
...

You've switched the machine off
...

But we repeat an auxiliary after to
...

Jane was chosen for the job, although she didn't expect to be
...

I don't work as hard as I ought (to)
...

We usually leave out to after an adjective
...
Are you willing?
NOTE

We usually leave out to after like but not after would like
...

Take one of these brochures if you'd like to
...

I wanted to borrow Tim's cassettes, but he wouldn't let me
...
let me borrow his cassettes
...

(=
...
)

40 Leaving out words after a question word
We can leave out the words after a question word or phrase rather than repeat
them
...
No one knows why
...
~ Oh, what time?
I put the certificate somewhere, and now I can't remember where
...

Something rather strange has happened
...

The new warehouse contains furniture and the old one electrical goods
...
and the old one contains electrical goods
...

(=
...
)
This happens only in rather formal English
...

Ready? ~ Sorry, no
...
~ Doesn't matter
...

~ OK
...

Ready? means 'Are you ready?', and it is clear that the question refers to the person
spoken to
...
The same thing happens in informal writing, for example in postcards
...

Can't find my keys
...
)
Hope you have a good time
...
)
Feels colder today
...
)

2 Yes/no questions
We can leave out the auxiliary or the ordinary verb be from a yes/no question
...
?)
Everything all right? (= Is everything
...

Tired? (= Are you tired?)
Need to borrow money? Just give us a ring
...
?)
Any free seats in here? (= Are there any free seats
...

Cup of tea is what I need
...
)
Television's broken down
...
)

4 Leaving out an imperative verb
We can sometimes leave out an imperative verb
...

Careful
...
)
This way, please
...
)

43 Patterns with so, neither etc
1 Too, either, so and neither/nor
a

After a clause there can be a short addition with too or either
...
The negative is subject + auxiliary + n't+ either
...
~ You are, too
...

In simple tenses we use the auxiliary verb do
...
~ I do, too
...
~ This one doesn't either
...

I'm tired
...


PAGE 47

b

43 Patterns with so, neither etc

An addition to a positive statement can also have this pattern with 50
...
~ So do I
...
~ So are you
...

So here means the same as too
...

NOT I like chocolate
...

For So I do, • (4)
...

Barbara can't drive, and neither/nor can her husband
...
~ Neither/Nor have we
...
~ Neither/Nor did the eggs
...
either
...

b The first sound in either/neither is /i:/ in the USA and usually /ai/ in Britain
...

I'm hungry now
...

We haven't got a dishwasher
...


2 Do so, do it and do that
Do so and do it refer to an action which is clear from the context
...

Anna had often thought of murdering her husband, but she hesitated to actually
do so/do it
...

Here the stress is on do, not on so/it
...

When do that refers to an action, the stress is usually on that
...
~ Oh, I wouldn't do that if I were you
...


3 So and not replacing a clause
a

So can stand for a whole clause
...

I'm not sure if the shop stays open late, but I think so
...

Has the committee reached a decision?~ Well, it seems so
...
~ 7s that so?
Here I expect so means 'I expect I'll be going out
...

NOT Yes, I expect
...


b

We can use these verbs and expressions in this pattern with so: be afraid,
it appears/appeared, assume, be, believe, do • (2), expect, guess, hope, imagine,
presume, say, it seems/seemed, suppose, suspect, tell (someone), think
...

The shop stays open late
...
NOT Yes, I know so
...

Negative verb + so: Will you be going out? ~ I don't expect so
...

Some verbs can form the negative with either pattern, e
...
I don't suppose so or
I suppose not
...

Expect, imagine and think usually form the negative with so
...

Assume, be afraid, guess, hope, presume and suspect form the negative with not
...

There's no use waiting any longer
...

NOTE

Compare the different meanings with say
...
The doctor didn't say so
...
The doctor said not
...

Mark and Susan are good friends
...
/So it appears
...
Or so they say, anyway
...

Do you want your money to work for you? If so, you'll be interested in our Super
Savers account
...

We can also use not after the adverbs certainly, of course, probably, perhaps, maybe
and possibly
...


4 So in short answers
A short answer with so can express agreement
...

You've made a mistake here
...
Thank you
...

This glass is cracked
...
I hadn't noticed
...
I meant to throw it away
...


5 So, that way and the same
a

So can replace an adjective after become and remain
...
(= become serious)
So is rather formal here
...

The situation isn't serious yet, but it might get that way
...

It's generally pretty busy here - more so in summer, of course
...

Happy New Year! ~ Thank you
...

Monday was beautiful, and Tuesday was the same
...

Do the same can refer to an action already mentioned
...

(= everyone else lifted their glasses, too)
NOTE

We can use the same way after feel
...


6 Overview: uses of so
Use
• 43(1)
• 43(2)
• 43(3)
• 43(4)
• 43(5a)

• 212
• 247
• 252

Example

Meaning

expressing addition
after do If you

I'm hungry
...

'too, also'
wish to look round, (do so = look
you may do so
...

we've got time)
expressing agreement The coach has arrived
...

that
...

expressing degree
The view was so nice
...

'a lot'
expressing reason I was tired, so I went to bed
...


44 Some other ways of avoiding repetition
1

If the meaning is clear from the context, we can leave out a noun after a number or
other quantifier, a demonstrative, or a superlative adjective
...
~ No, it's got two, look
...
Would you like some?
How do you like the photos? ~ I think this is the nicest
...

NOT I've got some chocolate here
...
• 188
I wanted a big packet, not a small one
...

When Monica got the invitation, she felt pleased
...


5 LEAVING OUT AND REPLACING WORDS

PAGE 50

4

It, this or that can replace a clause
...

(it = that Terry can't get a job)
I hear the shop is closing down
...

I left the bag on the seat, and when I got back, it wasn't there
...
Things were different then
...


1 Signs and labels
A sign or label identifies the thing it is written on or tells us something about it
...
'
'This room is the office
...
'
'This car is for sale
...

Actor dies (= An actor has died
...
)
Six arrested in raid (= Six people have been arrested in a raid
...
Here is an example from a camera
instruction booklet
...

(= Open the battery compartment cover by pushing in the direction
of the arrow
...

Handle with care
...
(on a heater)

PAGE

51

45 Special styles

4 Postcards and diaries
Some kinds of words can be left out from a postcard or diary to avoid repetition or
to save space
...

Arrived safely Saturday
...
Been
sunbathing
...
Going on excursion tomorrow
...
This information is about Edinburgh University
...
Separate science campus
with regular (free) minibus service
...

Main accommodation in central Halls with wide range of renovated houses and
student flats
...

(from K
...
Lees-Spalding The Student Book)

The words left out here are a/an and the, the verb be and there is/are
...


PAGE 52

6
Information and emphasis
46 Summary
Word order and information • 47
In a statement the subject usually makes a link with the situation or with the
previous sentence
...
They're so crowded
...
The prices
horrify me
...
I is the
speaker; they refers back to supermarkets; the prices makes a link with expensive
...
For example, in the
second sentence so crowded is new, mentioned for the first time
...

There are twelve of us in the group
...

We can either go in three cars or in the minibus
...

Front position • 49
Some elements can come before the subject
...

They spent the morning sightseeing
...

I've read the book
...

Sometimes there is inversion of subject and verb
...


PAGE 53

47 Word order and information

The empty subjects there and it • 50
We can also use there + be
...

We use it referring forward to a phrase or clause
...

It was a good thing we didn't have to pay
...

I hate supermarkets
...

I hate supermarkets (not little shops)
...

I did go to the supermarket
...

There are also patterns with it and what
...

What I hate is supermarkets
...

(in a cafe)
This coffee tastes awful
...

(at a railway station)
The next train is at half past nine
...
The topic
is usually the subject
...
The topic is known or expected in the situation: coffee is what we are
drinking, I am in the shop, the next train is what we are going to catch
...

This coffee tastes awful
...

The next train is at half past nine
...
It is also the part of the sentence where the voice rises or falls
...

Each of the statements starts with something known, old information and ends
with something new
...


6

INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS

PAGE 54

2 Information in a text
a

In a text, old information usually comes first in the sentence and new information
comes later
...
This period covers the building styles known as Queen Anne, Georgian and
Regency, all three of them periods in which houses were very well designed
...
In the new age, architects planned whole parts of towns,
and built beautiful houses in terraces, or in squares with gardens in the middle
...
They can be seen in many towns,
especially in London, Edinburgh, Bath, Cheltenham and Brighton
...

(from R
...
Usually it
relates to something mentioned earlier
...
designed
three
...
houses
The houses of these periods
Brighton

This period covers
...

architects planned
...

They can
...


We can simply repeat a word (Brighton)
...
They
...
between 1700 and 1830
...
Here both phrases refer to the same
thing, the period of time
...

A subject can be in contrast with something mentioned before
...
The villages, on the other hand,
...

Previously, towns had grown naturally
...
For more on adverbials in front position, • 49(1)
...
If
the link is not clear at first, then the reader has to work harder to understand the
meaning
...


...
After 1784, when the Prince of Wales, later King George IV, went to
Brighton regularly, and later when he built the Royal Pavilion,
...


PAGE 55

49 Front position

48 The subject
1

The subject often makes a link with the previous sentence
...
He stole some jewellery
...
Some jewellery was stolen
...
Celia got the first prize
...
The first prize went to Celia
...
g
...
/The prize
went to Celia
...


2

The subject can express ideas such as time and place
...
September saw our move to new offices
...
)
The house was empty, but the garage contained some old chairs
...
)
They're building a new theme park
...

(= Lots of people will visit it
...

Someone threw a stone through the window
...

Lucy had finally made up her mind
...

Brian is an impossible person
...

The people here have nothing
...


49 Front position
The subject often comes at the beginning of a statement, but not always
...
We do this to
emphasize a phrase or to contrast it with phrases in other sentences
...


1 An adverbial in front position
a

This paragraph is about a man who is starting a forbidden love affair
...
On the next day she did not
appear in the canteen until he was leaving it, the whistle having already blown
...
They passed each other
without a glance
...
Then for three
dreadful days she did not appear at all
...
Orwell Nineteen Eighty-Four)

The first phrase in the sentence usually relates to something that has gone before
...

Compare an alternative order
...
She was in the canteen at the usual
time on the day after that
...
You might not realize at first
that the second sentence is about a different day
...

For a week after this, life was like a restless dream
...
Its best position is at the end of the sentence
...


b

These kinds of adverbial often come in front position
...

Linking:
The path was stony
...

Truth:
Presumably she had been changed on to a later shift
...
Incredibly, no one was hurt
...

Place:
It was warm and comfortable in the little cottage
...

Manner:
Slowly the sun sank into the Pacific
...
Quite often the little
shop is empty for half an hour at a time
...

Dogs I love, but cats I can't stand
...
The routine letters he answers
himself
...

There is no inversion
...


b

We can also sometimes put a complement in front position
...
Best of all was the constant sunshine
...
An advantage is the low cost
...


3 Inversion after an adverbial
a

In this sentence the pattern is subject + verb + adverbial of place
...

When the adverbial of place is in front position, there is inversion of the subject
and the ordinary verb be
...
Outside the house was a furniture van
...
The new information (a furniture van) comes at the end of the sentence
...
g
...

The room contained a table and four chairs
...

The palace is heavily guarded
...

With such verbs, a pattern without inversion is possible but less usual
...


PAGE 57

50 The empty subjects there and it

There is no inversion with most other kinds of verbs
...

NOT Outside the house were talking two women
...


b

We can use here and there in front position to draw attention to something in the
situation
...

(sports commentator)
And there goes Williams! Into the lead!
In this pattern we can use be, come or go in the present simple
...
The noun phrase, the new information, goes at the end
...
NOT Here-an announcement is
...

And there goes Williams'
...


4 Overview: inversion
a

Subject-verb inversion
After an adverbial of place in front position, • 49(3)
On the doorstep stood an old man
...

After direct speech, • 265(4)
Are you ready?' Jane asked/asked Jane
...

After a negative phrase in front position, • 17(6c)
In no circumstances should you sign the form
...


50 The empty subjects there and it
1 The use of there
The verb be does not usually have a subject with a/an or some
...
A phrase with a/an
is usually new information, and so it comes later in the sentence
...

We put therein the subject position so that a Chinese restaurant can come after the
verb
...


6

INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS

PAGE 58

2 There + be: more details
a

We use the pattern in sentences with adverbials of place, time and other meanings
...

There's a concert next week
...

NOTE For The house had a furniture van outside it, • 85(1) Note d
...
This happens with nouns expressing a
situation or event
...
(= A problem exists
...
(= An accident has happened
...

You know this party we're going to
...
This
noun phrase has an indefinite meaning
...
It can also have one of these quantifiers: a
lot of/lots of many, much, few, little; a good/great deal of, a number of, several;
more, another, other, others; enough, plenty of
...

There are seven days in a week
...

There's far too much traffic on the roads
...

Is there any more tea in the pot?
There isn't enough memory in the computer
...

NOTE

We can use the in this pattern when we remind someone of the existence of something
specific
...


d

We form negatives and questions in the normal way
...

Are there any letters for me?

e

We can use there in a question tag
...
(But • 153(6) Note
...


g

There is not stressed and is normally spoken in its weak form
(like the)
...
The adverb is
pronounced
There
was a van there
, outside the house
...

I didn't expect there to be such a crowd
...

But this is rather literary
...

/ didn't expect (that) there would be such a crowd
...


3 There + be with relative clauses
We can put an active or passive participle after the noun phrase
...

(= A van was blocking the road
...

(= A van was parked outside the house
...

There was a noise that woke me up
...

There's a small matter which we need to discuss
...

There is a small matter to discuss/to be discussed
...
Some other verbs are possible,
but only in a formal or literary style
...

There now follows a party political broadcast
...

Verbs in this pattern are: arise, arrive, come, emerge, enter, exist, follow, lie, live,
occur, remain, result, sit, stand, take place
...

There doesn't seem to be enough memory in the computer
...

There appears to have been an accident
...

There seemed (to be) little difference between the two alternatives
...


5 The empty subject it
a

A clause like to make new friends or that so few people came can be the subject of a
sentence, but this is not very usual
...

,
It's difficult to make new friends
...
)
It was a pity so few people came
...
)
It amazes me how much money some people earn
...
)
Because the clause is long, it comes more naturally at the end of the sentence than
at the beginning
...

Making new friends is difficult
...

b

It can also be an empty object in the pattern subject + verb + it + complement +
clause
...

We all thought it a pity so few people came
...


c

It can also be an empty subject before seem, appear, happen, chance, turn out and
prove
...

(= The phone seems to be out of order
...

(= I happened to have my camera with me at the time
...

There is also the pattern it looks/seems as if/as though
...

For It is said that
...


d

We can use it+ be before a phrase in order to emphasize it
...


e

It can also refer to the environment, the weather, the time or distance
...

It was cold yesterday
...


6 There or it?
There + be expresses the fact that something exists or happens
...
We use there with a noun
phrase of indefinite meaning, e
...
a young lady, something
...
g
...
It can also refer
forward to a clause
...

(= A young lady is at the door
...

(= A wind is blowing
...

(= No classes took place
...

(= The story has no truth in it)
...

(= The young lady is Lorraine
...

(= The weather is windy
...

(= The day was Saturday
...

(= What they say isn't true
...
How did you find out about it?
Susan: It was you who told me
...

Emma: Oh, yes
...
I've got a terrible memory
...

Susan: What you need is a personal organizer
...
Are all the practices going to be on Tuesdays?
Susan: Yes, and if you want to be in the orchestra, you have to attend
...
I'd love to play in the orchestra
...

Are all the practices going to be on Tuesdays? ~ No, they're going to be
on Thursdays
...


b

We can also use emphatic stress to give extra force to a word expressing an
extreme quality or feeling
...

The talk was extremely interesting
...

I'd love a cup of coffee
...
They are very, really and some words expressing
quantity and length of time
...

This has happened many, many times before
...
We had a long, long wait
...

We can also sometimes do this with adjectives expressing extreme feelings
...

You can dial direct to Brazil
...

I haven't taken your calculator, I tell you
...

Are you tired? ~ Yes, I am
...

In a simple tense we use the auxiliary do
...

The garden does look nice
...
I'm absolutely certain
...
The idea terrifies me
...
In the
conversation Music practice Emma is emphatic that yes, she wants to be in the
orchestra
...

The garden really does look nice
...


6

b

INFORMATION AND EMPHASIS

PAGE 62

But sometimes the form emphasizes another part of the meaning rather than yes
or no
...
We haven't decided definitely
...
)
I did have a personal organizer, but I lost it
...

I've borrowed your calculator
...

I wrote the letter
...


3 The pattern with it
a

In the conversation Music practice, Susan wants to emphasize the identity of the
person who told her about the practice
...

The pattern is it + be + phrase + relative clause
...


b

Look at this statement about England's football team
...

We can emphasize the subject, object or adverbial
...

Object:
It was the World Cup (that) England won in 1966
...

We use who, which or that with the subject
...
(For relative pronouns, • 273
...

It was England, not Germany, who won the World Cup in 1966
...

NOTE

We can sometimes also emphasize a prepositional object
...

We can also emphasize a whole clause
...


c

When a pronoun comes after be, it is usually in the object form
...

The Sixties was the decade of the Beatles and Swinging London
...


4 The pattern with what
a

In the conversation Music practice, Susan wants to emphasize that Emma needs a
personal organizer (and not anything else)
...

We can emphasize the new information with a what-clause + be
...


PAGE 63

51 Emphasis

b Look at these examples
...

The guests played mini-golf after tea
...

What caused the delay was a technical fault
...

What the guests did after tea was (to) play mini-golf
...

NOTE

a We cannot use who in this pattern
...

The people who played mini-golf were the guests
...

b We can emphasize an action, e
...
What the guests did was (to) play mini-golf
...

What the guests are doing is playing mini-golf
...

What we could do is (to) hire a car
...

What I long for is a little excitement
...
Compare the two orders
...
~ What you need is a personal organizer
...
~ Oh, good
...

e We can use when and where
...

The sports hall is (the place) where the students do the examination
...

I did see a ghost
...

What I saw was a ghost
...

The next moment it had disappeared
...

What on earth did you see?
I really saw it
...


PAGE 64

7
Spoken English and written English
52 Summary
Grammar in speech and writing • 53
There is normally more repetition in speech than in writing
...
, you know and sort of
...
A rising intonation
usually means that the speaker is unsure or that the conversation is incomplete
...
For
example have has a spoken weak form /v/ and a written short form 've
...


53 Grammar in speech and writing
1

This is part of a real conversation between three people
...
So I timed it Sarah: These appointments were in town?
Tom: Yeah
...
And I reckoned I'd be at
Hounslow West just before five to six and I'd jump into a taxi and be at Pathway
just after six o'clock
...

Simon: Why was this?
Tom: And we were there for - well, I'm not quite sure, I think there was a train
stopped in front of us and we were therefor - really for three quarters of an
hour
...
Underwood Have you heard?)

PAGE

a

65

53 Grammar in speech and writing

A speaker normally uses more words than a writer
...

I had one appointment
...

one
...


another

In writing we might express the meaning like this
...

Tom uses separate clauses, and this gives him more time to remember the details
of what he is saying
...
In writing, more information can
be in fewer words
...

So I got
...
and then we
...


This is less usual in writing
...

For example, the word well often comes at the beginning of a clause
...
(hesitating before answering)
Well, wasn't that fun! (expressing feelings)
Well, I think I've done enough for today
...
For
example, a speaker uses you know when unsure of the best way to express
something
...

Kind of/sort of is used when a word may not be exactly the right one
...
Some of the students met there to
protest about something
...

The phrase or something makes the meaning more vague
...

Are you drunk or something?
In informal speech we can use thing or stuff instead of a more exact word
...

(of luggage) Put your stuff upstairs
...

So I got on the Underground at Green Park at about ten past five, no, twenty
past five
...
at about ten past five, I mean twenty past five
...

So I timed it very carefully that I was going to leave at about ten past five - this
was in, er, this was in central London
...

CYCLING

The rising cost of petrol and increasing traffic congestion in towns have brought
back for the bicycle some of the popularity it was beginning to lose
...

(from H
...
A spoken version would be different
...
I think cycling is good for you, and it's
practical, and lots of people enjoy it
...

Written

Spoken

the rising cost of petrol ' the cost of petrol is going up'
a popular recreation
' lots of people enjoy it'
For more details about nominalization, • 149
...

I'll 'see you next 'week
...

The stress usually falls on the vocabulary items, the nouns, verbs, adjectives and
adverbs, e
...
week, built, enormous
...
g
...

If the word has two or more syllables, there is still only one stressed syllable,
e
...
e'normous
...
• 51 (1)
They've built an enormous new shopping centre
...
The greatest movement of the voice
is usually on a word near the end of the clause
...

They've built an enormous new m shopping centre
...


PAGE 67

54 Stress and intonation

The greatest fall or rise is on the new and important information
...

People round here are well off
...

If you want to know about caravans, ask our neighbours
...

I know someone who's got a caravan
...

b

Intonation in statements and questions
These two sentences are the same except for the intonation
...

I'll see you next k week?
The intonation shows that the first sentence is a statement and the second a
yes/no question
...
A rising intonation
means that the speaker is unsure if something is true or not
...
But a
wh-question usually has a falling Falling intonation because it is not about whether
something is true or false
...

Are you m ready? Come on, hurry up
...

What are you k doing? Please tell me
...

Can you pass me the m salt, please?
Could you m wait for us?
The meaning of a tag depends on the intonation
...
The rise is not as great as
in ayes/no question
...
(I'll be here next week
...
(it's quite wrong
...
(we can go
...

It's a long way to k walk
...

The meaning here is that the conversation is incomplete
...

It's a long way to k walk
...
(I won't walk, and that's final
...
Compare these
replies
...
(What's happened?)
Have you heard the news? ~ m Yes
...
~ Oh, k have you? (Where?)
I've got a new job
...
In this context it sounds
uninterested and so rather impolite
...
Weak forms are normal in speech
...
We use short forms in informal writing
...
We use the strong form
only in very careful speech, or when the word is stressed
...

Fit a gas wall heater and you'll stop shivering
...
It fits snugly and safely on the wall
...

(from an advertisement)

Full form:
Short form:

It is easy to control
...


In the short form, we miss out part of a word and use an apostrophe instead
...

The short form corresponds to the spoken weak form: /itz/ instead of /it iz/
...
They can also be
used in direct speech - in a filmscript or play, for example, when speech is written
down
...

NOTE

We cannot use a short form when the word is stressed
...
But we
can use unstressed n't in a short answer, e
...
Wo, it isn't
...
These are the main short forms
...

The bathroom's cold
...

NOTE

a The short form 's can mean is or has
...
It's got five bedrooms
...
It has
...

If you'd asked, you'd have found out
...
)
b Sometimes we can shorten a form with not in two different ways
...

It is not
...
/ It's not
...
= You won't
...


But I am not has only the one short form I'm not
...

That ain't right
...
)

7 SPOKEN ENGLISH AND WRITTEN ENGLISH

PAGE70

56 Punctuation
1 The sentence
A sentence ends with a full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark
...

Send for our brochure today
...

You've booked a holiday?
b A request in the form of a question usually has a question mark
...

It's a bargain, isn't it?

2 Punctuation between main clauses
a

There are a number of ways of punctuating two main clauses
...
He also acted on the stage
...

Comma between clauses linked by and, but or so
Shakespeare wrote plays, and he also acted on the stage
...

A full stop or semi-colon shows that there are two separate pieces of information
...


b

Clauses linked by and, but or so can be without a comma, especially if they are short
...

He wrote plays and he also acted
...

NOT He wrote plays, he also acted
...

Shakespeare wrote plays - he also acted on the stage
...

The theatre was full - there were several school parties there
...


56 Punctuation

PAGE 71

3 Sub clauses and phrases
The rules about commas with sub clauses and phrases are not very exact
...
Commas are
more likely around longer phrases
...

After the guests had all left, we had to tidy up
...

Afterwards, we had to tidy up
...
After a short phrase there is
often no comma
...

A comma is much less usual when the adverbial comes at the end of the sentence
...

We had to tidy up afterwards
...

Lots of people come here to look round the market
...

Yes, I have received your letter
...

There wasn't much to eat, however
...

Nothing got broken, luckily
...

My husband does the cooking, sometimes
...

Everything should be OK (I hope)
...

I hope to see you soon, Melanie
...


b

Noun clauses
A noun clause is not separated off by commas
...

It is a fact that there are more cars in Los Angeles than people
...

Everyone was wondering what to do
...


c

Relative clauses
An identifying relative clause is not separated off
...

But an adding clause has commas
...

Shakespeare, who wrote many famous plays, also acted on the stage
...


7 SPOKEN ENGLISH AND WRITTEN ENGLISH

PAGE 72

d

Apposition
We sometimes use commas around a phrase in apposition, but not always
...

The composer Irving Berlin couldn't read music
...


e

Phrases which explain
A dash or colon comes before a phrase which explains, which adds the missing
information
...

The product is available in three colours: white, green and blue
...
The last two items are
linked by and or or, often without a comma
...

NOTE For details about adjectives, e
...
a narrow, steep, winding road, • 202
...
In this
story a policeman called Hawes wants to question someone
...

'Charlie?' he said
...
'Who's that, anyway?'
'Police officer,' Hawes said
...

'I've got a warrant for the arrest of Charles Harrod,' Hawes lied
...
'
(from Ed McBain Bread)

Direct speech is inside quotation marks, also called 'quotes' or 'inverted commas'
...

'Police officer,' he said
...

We use a phrase like he said, separated by a comma (or a colon), to identify the
speaker
...

'Police officer,' Hawes said
...
'/Hawes said: 'Police officer
...

'Open the door,' he said, 'or I'll kick it in
...

The so-called 'hotel' was just an old shed
...
'
b For inversion, e
...
said Hawes, • 265(4)
...
In general, hyphens are
used less in the USA than in Britain
...
It is usual in compound
expressions before a noun
...

winds reaching gale force
attitudes that are out of date

b

We also use a hyphen in compound numbers below 100 and in fractions
...

One word: motorway
Hyphen: motor-scooter
Two words: motor car
Some compounds can be written more than one way, e
...
phone card/phone-card/
phonecard
...
If you are
unsure, it is safer not to use a hyphen
...

Noun + gerund, e
...
stamp-collecting, windsurfing
Verb + adverb, e
...
take-off, a walk-out
Letter + noun, e
...
an X-ray

d

We sometimes use a hyphen after a prefix, e
...
non, pre, anti, semi
...

antisocial attitudes
sit in a semicircle
For more examples, • 284
...
g
...

b We use a hyphen when the prefix comes before a capital letter
...
g
...


e

We use a hyphen when a word is divided between one line of print or handwriting
and the next
...
It is important to understand that the computer
...
Some dictionaries mark the places
like this: un-der-stand
...


c

With the names of people: Jason Donovan, Agatha Christie
...

NOTE

Words like doctor and father have a capital when they are a title, or when we use them to
address someone
...
When a noun is part of a
name, it has a capital letter too: the River Aire, the Humber Bridge, Fifth Avenue,
Paddington Station
...


f With nationality words: a French singer, I'm learning Greek
...

NOTE In titles, grammatical words often have a small letter: Strangers oka Train
...


PAGE 75

8
The verb phrase
57 Summary
Verb forms • 58
Verbs have the following forms: a base form (e
...
look), an s-form (looks), a past
form (looked), an ing-form (looking) and a past/passive participle (looked)
...
A non-finite
verb is an infinitive, gerund or participle
...

Your hair looks nice
...

I have looked everywhere
...

You should have looked in the drawer
...

Action verbs and state verbs • 62
There are action verbs (e
...
walk, make) and state verbs (e
...
own, like)
...


58 Verb forms
MODERN CRIME DETECTION

If you leave valuable articles in a changing room, it is quite likely that someone
will steal them while you are playing tennis or whatever
...
'This has gone on for too long,' said the club chairman
...
They installed a secret video camera so that
they could find out what was happening, and a few days later they played back
the video at police headquarters, eager to see the thief filmed in the act
...


8 THE VERB PHRASE

1

Verbs have the following forms
...

Base form:
Imperative
Play tennis with me
...

Infinitive
I'd like to play
...

(3rd person singular)
Past form:
Past tense

...

Ing-form:
Gerund
Playing tennis is fun
...

Past/passive Past participle
They've played back the film
...


59 Finite and non-finite verbs
1

A finite verb phrase is one that can be the main verb of a sentence
...


you
it
someone
you
the police

Finite
leave
is
will steal
are playing
were informed

Non-finite
kept disappearing
anxious to stop
see the thief filmed

NOTE

A form with ed can be finite or non-finite, depending on the context
...
(past tense - finite)
They saw the thief filmed in the act
...

The police took action
...

A non-finite verb comes only in a sub clause
...

We approved of the police taking action
...

Sometimes there are two verb phrases together, a finite one and then a
non-finite one
...

Things kept disappearing from the changing room
...


60 The structure of the verb phrase

PAGE 77

60 The structure of the verb phrase
1

In a finite verb phrase there are a number of choices
...


2

In the verb phrase there is always an ordinary verb
...

Auxiliary verb(s)
you
the police
someone
this
he
the police
the camera
someone
a man
his clothes
I

Ordinary verb

will
has
was
were
should have
has been
is being
had been
must have been

leave
arrived
steal
gone
looking
informed
worked
taking
questioned
stolen
dreaming

valuable articles
them
on too long
for his clothes
things
by police

If there is no auxiliary, the verb is in a simple tense: leave (present simple),
arrived (past simple)
...

Modal verb + base form:
will steal, should have worked
have + past participle:
has gone, has been taking, have worked
be + active participle:
was looking, has been taking
be + passive participle:
were informed, had been stolen
The first word of the verb phrase is present or past, e
...
leave (present), arrived (past),
has (present), was (past)
...
Sometimes the first word agrees with the subject: you leave/he leaves
...
A
sentence like It might have been being played is possible but unusual
...
• 82
The money was in the changing room
...

c An adverbial can come inside the verb phrase
...

A man is now being questioned
...
g
...

For emphatic do + base form, e
...
You did play yesterday, • 51(2)
...
In negatives, the
auxiliary has not after it
...

In questions the auxiliary comes before the subject
...

They didn't play the video
...
We've been there a month now, and I think we're
going to like it
...
You must come and see us
when we've finished
...
That'd be nice
...

Jason: Yes, we were getting pretty desperate
...
The flat wasn't advertised
...
It's quite convenient too
...

Ian: What floor is the flat on?
Jason: Well, we live right at the top, but there are only four floors
...


1 Tense
The first word of a finite verb phrase is either present or past
...

Present:
I think we're going to like it
...

Past:
We heard about it through a friend
...

NOTE

In some contexts the choice of present or past depends on the speaker's attitude
...

Have you a moment? I wanted to ask you something
...
The past tense is more distant
...
For these tenses in conditional clauses, • 257(4c)
...

We couldn't find anywhere
...

For the meaning of modal verbs, • 102
...

We have just finished the decorating
...

We had been looking for ages
...
The decorating came to an end in
the period leading up to the present time
...
• 65
We've finished the decorating
...
(in the past)

4 The continuous
These verb phrases are continuous (sometimes called 'progressive')
...

We had been looking for ages
...

The continuous means 'for a period of time'
...

Sometimes the use of the continuous depends on how we see the action
...

Period of time:
We had been looking for ages
...

State verbs (e
...
know) are not normally continuous
...


5 The passive
We use the passive when the subject is not the agent but what the action is
directed at
...

In the conversation A new flat, Jason chooses a passive sentence here because the
flat is the best subject
...


62 Action verbs and state verbs
1

Verbs can express actions or states
...

Jane was tired
...
I need a new briefcase
...

Jeremy owes me five pounds
...
Action verbs are
verbs like do, go, buy, play, stop, take, decorate, say, ask, decide etc
...
These verbs are state verbs:
adore
depend
doubt
lack
owe
seem
be
deserve
envy
like
own
understand
believe
desire
exist
love
pity
want
belong to
despise
hate
matter
possess
wish
consist of
detest
intend
mean
prefer
contain
dislike
know
need
resemble

8 THE VERB PHRASE

PAGE 80

Most action verbs refer to physical actions, but some are verbs of reporting (say) or
verbs of thinking (decide)
...

2

We can use action verbs with the continuous, but state verbs are not normally
continuous
...

Some state verbs cannot be passive
...
One meaning can be an action and another
meaning can be a state
...

(action-'eating')
We're thinking about moving
...

expect/expecting trouble
imagine/imagining the result
care/caring for the sick
admire/admiring the view
(= looking at it with pleasure)
look/looking at a picture
smell/smelling the powder
appear/appearing in a
film
measure/measuring the door
weigh/weighing the luggage
fit/fitting a new switch
fit
cost/costing a project

States
We have a big kitchen
...

(state - 'believe')
The soup tasted like water
...

I love holidays
...
(active enjoyment)
Here are some more examples
...

We were expecting visitors
...

This holiday is costing me a lot
...

Be can be an action verb meaning 'behave'
...

NOTE

a Mean (= have the meaning) is always a state verb
...

I'm enjoying the party
...


PAGE 81

5

62 Action verbs and state verbs

Some verbs always express states and so cannot be continuous
...

I know the town quite well now
...

NOTE

The expression get to know can be continuous
...


6

Hurt, ache and feel can be simple or continuous with little difference in meaning
...
I feel/I'm feeling depressed
...

I can see something under the sofa
...

1 can smell something burning
...

We do not normally use the continuous
...

We can use the past simple when the thing that we saw or heard was a complete
action
...

Tom heard the whole story
...

Smell, taste and feel as action verbs express a deliberate action
...

When we arrived, people were already tasting the wine
...

NOTE

a See (= meet) is an action verb, and see (= understand) is a state verb
...

You put the cassette in here, like this
...

b Look (at something), watch and listen are action verbs
...

c Feel (= believe) is a state verb
...


PAGE 82

9
Verb tenses and aspects
63 Summary
A finite verb phrase is present tense or past tense
...
The tenses and
aspects can combine in the following ways
...

We play in the orchestra every week
...

We played tennis yesterday
...


Present perfect continuous • 67
We have been playing cards all evening
...

We had been playing for ages
...

OVERVIEW:

64 Present continuous and present simple
MACBETH

Andrew: What are you reading?
Sadie: 'Macbeth'
...
Our class is going to the theatre to see
it next week
...

Andrew: What's it about?
Sadie: Well Macbeth murders the King of Scotland
...

Andrew: Mr Davis takes us for English
...

Sadie: Mr Adams loves Shakespeare
...
Shakespeare
is England's greatest writer, he says
...

NOT He does not reads and NOT Does he reads?
NOTE

a There are some spelling rules for the participle
...

Adding es after a sibilant sound: push
pushes • 290(1)
Y changing to ie: hurry
hurries • 294
c For pronunciation of the s/es ending, • 290(3)
...
The action has started but it hasn't finished yet
...
~ It's raining now, look
...
Your friends are waiting for you
...

Some typical time expressions with the present continuous are now, at the
moment, at present, just, already and still
...

I'm reading an interesting book
...

We'd better get home
...


b

A state
We normally use the present simple for a present state: a feeling, opinion or
relation
...

I think it's a good idea
...

Silicon is a chemical element
...

NOTE

We use the present simple for permanent states
...
For details, • 62
...


9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS

c

PAGE 84

Repeated actions
We use the present simple for repeated actions such as routines and habits, things
that happen again and again
...

Bob works in Avonmouth
...

We do lots of things in our spare time
...

The old man takes the dog for a walk every morning
...

We also use the present simple for permanent facts, things that always happen
...

Paint dries quicker in summer
...

My car's off the road
...

We're doing 'Macbeth' in English
...
But they may be moving him to
head office in Birmingham
...

You 're walking today
...

You're walking today
...

At seven we're usually having supper
...
)
Compare the present simple for a complete action
...
(= Seven is our usual time for supper
...

Whenever I see Graham, he's wearing a tracksuit
...

c We can also use the present simple to say what is the right way to do something
...
You put your money in here
...

They're always giving parties, those people next door
...
I can never find anything
...

In this pattern always means 'very often' or 'too often'
...

Our teacher always gives us a test
...
(= very often)

e

An instant action
The present simple is also used to describe actions as they happen, for example in
a commentary
...
Short moves inside, but Burley wins it back for
United
...
For actions
over a period, we use the continuous
...
The crowd are cheering them on
...
It makes the action
seem more direct, as if happening now
...

We also use the present for actions in films, plays and books
...

NOTE

a We can also use the present simple with a performative verb, e
...
promise
...

I suggest we go
...

b For the present simple after here/there, • 49(3b)
...

In normal style we use the present perfect: Rail fares have gone up
...
We see the written
statement as existing in the present
...

The notice warns passengers to take care
...

We can also do this with reports of spoken words that we have heard
recently
...


g

The future
We can use the present continuous to talk about what someone has arranged to do
and the present simple for actions and events which are part of a timetable
...

The ferry gets into Rotterdam at six o'clock tomorrow morning
...
• 77
If you need any help tomorrow, let me know
...

Debbie: I went in yesterday
...
I bought some gloves
...

Nicola: I haven't skied for ages actually
...
I used to ski a lot when I was younger
...

Debbie: I've been to Scotland twice, but I've never done any skiing abroad
...


9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS

PAGE 86

1 Form
Present perfect:
present of have + past participle

Past simple:
past form

I/you/we/they have opened
he/she/it has opened
Negative
I/you/we/they have not opened
he/she/it has not opened
Questions
have I/you/we/they opened?
has he/she/it opened?

someone opened

someone did not open

did someone open?

Some participles and past forms are irregular, e
...
seen, bought
...

NOT They arc opened the shop and NOT I am hurt myself
...

NOT It did not opened and NOT Did it opened?
NOTE

a There are some spelling rules for the ed-form
...


2 Use of the present perfect
The present perfect tells us about the past and about the present
...

The shop has just opened
...

The post hasn't come yet
...

We can also use the present perfect for repeated actions
...

I've ridden lots of times
...

We can also use the present perfect for states
...

The shop has been open a week
...

Some typical time expressions with the present perfect are just, recently, lately,
already, before, so far, still, ever/never, today, this morning/evening, for weeks/years,
since 1988
...
• (5)
NOTE For been to and gone to, • 84(6)
...

The shop opened last week
...

The earthquake happened in 1905
...

When did the first Winter Olympics take place?
The time of the action (last week) is over
...

Once upon a time a Princess went into a wood and sat down by a stream
...
Some of these are also used with the present perfect
...

/ bought some gloves yesterday
...
It's really good
...

It is clear from the context that the action bought happened yesterday
...

I didn't eat any breakfast
...

b A phrase with ago means a finished time
...
Compare these sentences
...

I've seen that film
...

We went to Austria a few times
...

We can also use the past simple for states
...

The Romans had a huge Empire
...

NOTE

a There are other ways of expressing repeated actions in the past
...
The children would always play in the garden
...
g
...

For the past tense expressing something unreal, e
...
I wish I had more money, • 241(3)
...
g
...


4 Present perfect or past simple?
a

The choice depends on whether the speaker sees the action as related to the
present or as in the past
...

The shop opened last week
...
The present perfect tells us
something about the present: the shop is open now
...
It does not tell us about the present
...
(So it's open now
...
It's doing very well
...
Then it closed again two days later
...
(So I have no transport now
...
It's still off the road
...
But luckily we got it going again
...

If the state is over, we use the past
...

I had those skis for years
...
)
I've been here since three o'clock
...
(Then I left
...

I bought these skis years ago
...


c

When we use the present perfect for repeated actions, it means that the action may
happen again
...

Gayle has acted in more than fifty films
...
)
Gayle acted in more than fifty films
...
)

d

Look at this news report
...
It happened at ten o'clock this
morning near Preston when a lorry went out of control and collided with a car
...
We often use the present perfect to first
mention a topic and the past simple for the details
...
~ Oh, where did you go?
Have you sent in your application? ~ Yes, I sent it in ages ago
...
For
American usage, • 303(6)
...

I've just heard the news
...

We've recently moved house
...

Compare these examples with already
...
(before now)
I already knew before you told me
...

We've been to Scotland once/lots of times
...

With the simple past once usually means 'at a time in the past'
...

Ever/never with the present perfect means 'in all the time up to now'
...

Have you ever visited our showroom?
Didyou ever visit our old showroom?

c

We can use this morning, this afternoon and today with the present perfect when
they include the present time
...

It has been windy this morning
...
)
It was windy this morning
...
)

PAGE 89

66 Past continuous

With today there is little difference in meaning
...
(The day is not yet over
...
(The day is over
...
The second must be in the evening
...

We use the present perfect with this week/month/year when we mean the whole
period up to now
...

We use the simple past for one time during the period
...

We might say this on Friday about something two or three days earlier
...

It hasn't been very warm today
...

d

We often use for and since with the negative present perfect
...
/I haven't skied since 1988
...

I haven't skied since I was twelve
...

I last skied years ago/in 1988/ when I was twelve
...

I skied for hours
...

It's years since I skied/I've skied
...

b I've been here (for) a month means that I arrived here a month ago
...


66 Past continuous
AN UNIDENTIFIED FLYING OBJECT

'I was going home from the pub at quarter to eleven
...
I was
walking over the bridge when I saw the UFO
...
It was long and
thin, shaped like a cigar
...
It was travelling
east to west, towards Warminster
...
I didn't have a
camera of course
...
'

1 Form
Past of be + active participle
I/he/she/it was flying
you/we/they were flying
Negative
Questions
I/he/she/it was not flying
was I/he/she/it flying?
you/we/they were not flying were you/we/they flying?

9 VERB TENSES AND ASPECTS

PAGE 90

2 Use
a

An action over a past period
We use the past continuous for an action over a period of past time, something
that we were in the middle of
...

The UFO was travelling east to west
...

I looked into the room
...

Compare the present continuous and past continuous
...
(It is in the middle of its journey
...
(It was in the middle of its journey
...

The UFO went behind a cloud
...

The salesman was travelling from Monday to Friday
...
We never went to sleep
...

Period of time:
He was travelling all week
...

Complete action:
He travelled all week
...


b

Past continuous and past simple
The period of a past continuous action can include a clock time
...

It can also include another action
...

Here the speaker sees one action as happening around another
...
The shorter action interrupted the longer one
...

Tim was washing his hair when the doorbell rang
...

The sun was shining when the campers woke
...

Tim was washing his hair while I was cleaning up the kitchen
...

Tim got up when the doorbell rang
...
)

c

Past states
For a past state we normally use the past simple
...

I didn't know what to do
...
It had a shape like a cigar
...
For details, • 62
...


PAGE

91

67 Present perfect continuous

Other uses of the past continuous
a We can use the past continuous for repeated actions which are temporary, only for a period
...
I was travelling to work by bus that week
...
• 64(2c)
b We can use the past continuous for a past arrangement
...
I was meeting James there
...
)
For I'm meeting James at the pub tonight, • 73(1)
...

Do you remember Mr Adams? He was always quoting Shakespeare
...


67 Present perfect continuous
GOING INTO HOSPITAL

Mrs Webster: I shall have to go into hospital some time to have an operation on
my leg
...

Ted: Three years! That's awful! You've been suffering all that time
...

Ted: They've been cutting expenditure, trying to save money
...

Mrs Webster: My son David has written to them three times
...
I don't know if it'll do any good
...

I've been waiting for three years
...

How long have you been using a wheelchair?
The roof has been leaking
...

The speaker looks back from the present and so uses the perfect
...

We often use for and since
...

NOTE

The action can end just before the present
...
~ Yes, I've been running
...

David has been writing letters to the hospital
...

The speaker sees the actions as a continuing series
...

David has written to the hospital three times now
...

Period of time:
I've been washing the car
...

Complete action:
I've washed the car
...

The continuous here focuses on the action going on
...
The choice depends on how the speaker sees the action
...
When we say how
many, we do not use the continuous
...
She's written twelve pages
...

I've been waiting here for ages
...

We've been living here since April/We've lived here since April
...


d

We use the present perfect (not the continuous) for a state up to the present
...

I've always hated hospitals
...
She was depressed
...
He hadn't
invited Miranda to go with him
...
And
everything had been going so well
...

She had met Max six months before
...

By midnight they had come to an agreement
...

The paragraph above begins in the past tense
...
The writer looks back from the past situation to a time before
...

The floor is clean
...

The floor was clean
...

We can also use the past perfect for a state
...

Everything had seemed fine up to then
...

NOTE For the past perfect in if-clauses, • 257(6)
...

This lamp is a new one
...
NOT I had bought it last week
...

When the shot rang out, everyone threw themselves to the floor
...
had done or after
...

When Miranda had written the letter, she went out to post it
...

NOT When Miranda wrote the letter, she went out to post it
...

/ had hardly sat down when the phone rang
...

When the boss arrived, the meeting began
...
)
When the boss arrived, the meeting had begun
...
)
When Max spoke, Miranda put the phone down
...
)
When Max had spoken, Miranda put the phone down
...
)

c

We can sometimes use the past perfect after before or until
...

We didn't want to stop until we finished/had finished the job
...

Everything had been going so well up to then
...

A woman collapsed at the supermarket checkout
...

Compare the present and past tense
...
I have been washing the floor
...
I had been washing the floor
...

Period of time:
I'd been mowing the lawn
...

Complete action:
I'd mown the lawn
...

The past perfect continuous (had been mowing) focuses on the action going on
...

When we say how long, we normally use the continuous form
...

The volunteers brought in their collecting boxes at lunch time yesterday
...
They had collected hundreds of pounds
...

When I saw Debbie, she was playing golf
...
)
When I saw Debbie, she'd been playing golf
...
)

69 Overview: uses of tenses and aspects
1

Present continuous • 64

Present simple • 64

In the middle of an action
I'm watching this comedy
...


2

A present state
I like comedies
...


Present perfect • 65

Past simple • 65

An action in the period up to the present
I've written the letter
...

A state up to the present
I've been here for a week
...

A series of past actions
I played basketball years ago
...


Past continuous • 66
An action over a period of past time
It was raining at the time
...


5

Past perfect continuous • 68
An action over a period up to a past time
It had been raining for hours
...

A state before a past time
The weather had been awful
...

CINEMA TO CLOSE

The Maxime Cinema is to close in November, it was announced yesterday
...
'The cinema has become
uneconomic to run,' said Mr Peters
...
'This town won't be the same again,' said camera operator Bert Dudley,
who has worked at the cinema for eighteen years
...
In future, cinema goers will have to travel ten miles to the
nearest cinema
...

Will and shall • 71
The cinema will close in November
...

Be going to • 72
The cinema is going to close soon
...

The cinema closes on November 17th
...

The future continuous • 75
The cinema is sold and will be closing in November
...

The present simple in a sub clause • 77
It will be a sad day when the cinema closes
...

He might retire soon
...

The future perfect • 79
The cinema will have been in business for sixty years
...

OVERVIEW:

the future • 81

71 Will and shall
1

We use will + base form for the future
...

We'll know our exam results in August
...

Will you still love me tomorrow?
This town won't be the same again
...


2

In the first person we can use either will or shall in statements about the future
...

I will be/shall be at home tomorrow
...

Shall is less usual in the USA
...

NOT Christine shall be at home tomorrow
...

I shan't be here tomorrow
...
It expresses a
prediction, a definite opinion about the future
...

My father will probably be in hospital for at least two weeks
...

It's raining
...

I think I'll have the soup, please
...
Compare be going to
...
(I'm deciding now
...
(I've already decided
...

Action: There's a shop here
...
~ OK, I'll wait for you
...


5

Will sometimes expresses willingness
...
He speaks Italian
...
I don't mind
...

The doctor won't come at this time of night
...

NOTE

We can also use won't when the subject is not a person
...

This screw won't go in properly
...

Offer:
I'll hold the door open for you
...

Promise:
(I promise) I'll do my best to help you
...

Where shall I put these flowers? ~ I'll get a vase
...

Shall I hold the door open for you? ~ Oh, thanks
...

You shall be the first to know
...


9

Will is sometimes used in formal orders
...
This emphasizes the authority of the speaker
...

Uniform will be worn
...

The secretary shall give two weeks' notice of such a meeting
...

It's ten already
...

This fence is going to fall down soon
...
Be going to expresses a
prediction based on these situations
...


We can also use be going to for a present intention
...

I'm not going to live here all my life
...

Here the intention points to a future action
...

For a comparison of be going to and will, • 74
...

The flats are going to be for old people
...

I'm going out in a minute
...

Barbara is coming round for a chat tonight
...


10

THE FUTURE

PAGE 98

73 Present tense forms for the future
1

We use the present continuous for what someone has arranged to do
...

What are you doing tomorrow?
Julie is going to Florida
...

The meaning is similar to be going to for an intention, and in many contexts we can
use either form
...

NOTE

a An 'arrangement' need not be with another person
...

I'm having an early night
...

Gavin will be at the club tonight
...


2

We can sometimes use the present simple for the future, but only for what we see
as part of a timetable
...

The train leaves at 16
...

We change at Birmingham
...

NOT I carry that bag for you
...

NOTE For the present simple in sub clauses, • 77
...

It'll rain, I expect
...

It's going to rain
...

A prediction with be going to is based on the present situation
...

One day the sun will cool down
...

The sentence with be going to suggests that there is some present evidence for the
prediction
...

I think we'll have time for a coffee
...

We use be going to (not will) when the future action is very close
...

The cinema closed last year
...

(in the past)
(past action related to the present)
The cinema will close in November
...

(in the future)
(future action related to the present)

PAGE 99

75 The future continuous: will be doing

2

When we talk about intentions, plans and arrangements, we use be going to or the
present continuous, but not will
...
(We have decided to eat out
...
(We have arranged to eat out
...

It's hot in here
...

Paul is using the kitchen
...
~ Well, we'll eat out then
...

A FEW DAYS OFF

Emma: I'll see you on Monday then
...
Didn't I tell you? I'm taking a few days off
...
I'll be away for a week
...
Where are you going?
Polly: The Lake District
...

Emma: Oh, that'll be nice
...

Polly: Thanks
...

Polly gives the news of her plans and intentions by using the present continuous
and be going to
...

I'm going to do some walking
...
But after first mentioning a plan or intention,
we often use will for further details and comments
...
I'll be away for a week
...
~ Oh, that'll be nice
...
The work will take about six months
...
• 257(3)
I'll lose my way if I don't take a map
...

I might give up the course
...


75 The future continuous: will be doing
1

We use will + be + active participle for an action over a period of future time
...

I can't meet you at four
...

How will I recognize you? ~ I'm fair, six feet tall, and I'll be wearing a blue coat
...

Compare the past and future
...
This time last week I was lying in the sun
...
This time next week I'll be lying in the sun
...

The crowd will cheer when the Queen arrives
...
)
The crowd will be cheering when the Queen arrives
...
)
NOTE

In the first person we can also use shall
...


10

2

THE FUTURE

PAGE 100

We can also use will be doing for an action which is the result of a routine or
arrangement
...
I always phone her on Fridays
...

The postman will be coming soon
...

The phone call is the result of my regular routine
...
The postman's visit is part of his normal working day
...

Decision:
I think I'll have lunch in the canteen today
...

Routine:
I'll be having lunch in the canteen as usual
...

Will you be going past the post office this morning? ~ Yes, why? ~ Could you post
this for me please?
How long will you be using the tennis court? ~ We've booked it until three
...

When will you be marking our test papers? ~ Next week, probably
...

The Prime Minister is to visit Budapest
...

This pattern is often used in news reports
...

Prime Minister to visit Budapest
...
g
...

The headmaster says you are to come at once
...

No one is to leave this building
...


77 The present simple in a sub clause
1

We often use the present simple for future time in a clause with if, when, as, while,
before, after, until, by the time and as soon as
...

If we meet at seven, we'll have plenty of time
...

Let's wait until the rain stops
...

Call me as soon as you have any news
...

The same thing happens in relative clauses and noun clauses
...

I'll see that the place is left tidy
...

I'll think of you here when I'm lying on the beach next week
...
NOT until the rain will have stopped
...
g
...

I expect the rain will stop soon
...

NOTE

After hope we can use either a present or a future form
...


78 Other ways of expressing the future
1 Be about to etc
a

We can use be about to + base form for an action in the near future
...

Hurry up
...

NOTE

We can use be just about to/going to for the very near future
...


b

We can also use be on the point of+ gerund
...

NOTE

Be set to + base form is used in news reports about things likely to happen in the near future
...


c

We can use be due to + base form for an action which is part of a timetable
...


2 Modal verbs
Besides will, there are other modal verbs which express the future
...

I can meet you later
...
)
There might be a storm
...
)
We must post the invitations soon
...
)
NOTE

We can use be sure to/be bound to + base form to express certainty about the future
...
(= It will certainly fail
...
(= There will certainly be trouble
...

We've decided to sell our flat
...

We've arranged to visit the area
...

I'll have finished this book soon
...

We don't want to spend all day in the museum
...

Sarah won't have completed her studies until she's twenty-five
...
They'll have only been here a year
...

We will/shall have done half the journey by the time we stop for lunch
...

c We can use will with the perfect and the continuous together
...

Our neighbours are moving soon
...


80 Looking forward from the past:
was going to etc
1

We can use was/were going to for a past intention or arrangement
...

We were going to watch the film, but then we forgot about it
...

I was going to means that I intended to
...

He had to retire when the cinema closed
...

b We can also use the past continuous for a past arrangement
...


2

We can use would as a past form of will
...
They would reach the camp before nightfall
...

Here we look at a past action (reaching the camp) from a time when it was in the
future
...

The spokesman wouldn't answer any questions
...


3

We can also use be to, be about to etc in the past
...

We had to hurry
...

Phil was on the point of leaving when he noticed an attractive girl looking across
the room at him
...
But
was to + perfect means that what was arranged did not actually happen
...


PAGE 103

81 Overview: the future

b There is a special use of was to where it has a similar meaning to would
...

Here was to means that the future action really did happen
...

An instant decision
I think I'll buy a ticket
...


2

A prediction based on the present
Scotland are going to win the game
...


Present simple • 73

Present continuous • 73

A timetable
An arrangement
The game starts at 3
...

I'm playing in the team tomorrow
...


3

Future continuous • 75
An action over a future period
I'll be working all day Saturday
...
I'll
be working on Saturday
...

5

Be about to • 78
The near future
The players are on the field
...


Future perfect • 79
Something that will be over in the future
The game will have finished
by half past four
...


Was going to • 80
Looking forward from the past
At half time we thought
Scotland were going to win
...


PAGE 104

11
Be, have and do
82 Summary
Auxiliary verbs and ordinary verbs • 83
Be, have and do can be auxiliary verbs or ordinary verbs
...

I have thought about it
...

I have a suggestion
...


The ordinary verb be • 84
The ordinary verb be has a number of different uses
...

The twins are eighteen
...

Richard has (got) a motor-bike
...

The ordinary verb have • 86
The ordinary verb have can be an action verb with meanings such as 'experience'
or 'receive'
...

We had a sudden shock
...
g
...

The ordinary verb do • 88
We can use do as an ordinary verb to talk about actions
...

Do and make • 89
Do and make have similar meanings and some idiomatic uses
...

Continuous:
I'm taking my library books back
...

Perfect:
I've finished this book
...
Verbs in the present simple
or past simple have no auxiliary
...


2

In negatives, questions and some other patterns, we always use an auxiliary
...

be/have
Negative

I'm not going to
the post office
...

Tag
You're reading
this book, aren't you?
Addition
I've read this book
...

Emphasis
I
am enjoying this book
...

Do you use the library? ~
Yes, I do
...

~ So did I
...


Be, have and do can also be ordinary verbs
...

We had some sandwiches
...
(= completed)
The ordinary verbs can be perfect or continuous
...

We were having some sandwiches
...
(= have completed)
NOTE

a There can be the same auxiliary and ordinary verb together
...
(continuous of be)
I've had a sandwich
...
(emphatic form of do)
b The ordinary verb do can be passive
...


84 The ordinary verb be
1 Be as a linking verb
The ordinary verb be functions as a linking verb
...

The prisoners were hungry
...

For there + be, • 50
...

This pen isn't very good
...

Were your friends there? NOT Did your friends be there?

3 Be with the continuous
We can use be with the continuous for behaviour over a period of time
...

The children were being silly
...

You're being stupid
...
(permanent quality)
NOTE

We can use be in the imperative for behaviour
...

Don't be silly
...


4 Be, lie and stand
We often use be to say where something is
...

The building was/stood at a busy crossroads
...


5 Other uses of be
We can also use be in these contexts
...

Identity:
Mr Crosby, this is my father
...

Nationality:
We're Swedish
...

Jobs:
My sister is a lawyer
...

The buildings are ugly
...
How are you?'~ I'm fine, thanks
...
Can we put the fire on?
If we're all hungry, we'd better eat
...

I think you're mistaken
...


NOTE

a For You are to report to the manager, • 76
...

This bike belongs to me
...

Well, that depends
...

I agree absolutely
...


6 Gone or been?
We often use been instead of gone
...

Tom has gone to town
...
)
Tom has been to town
...
)
Gone means 'gone and still away'
...

In questions about what places people have visited, we use been
...

The girls have gone swimming
...
)
The girls have been swimming
...
)
b For American usage, • 303 (7)
...

I have a car phone
...

Mike has a small flat
...

As well as possession, have (got) expresses other related meanings
...

I 've (got) an idea
...

Have you (got) any brothers or sisters?
I had (got) a number of phone calls to make
...

I haven't (got) time to wait
...

Louise has (got) a new radio
...

Louise has (got) a book that belongs to me
...

We saw a man with a gun
...

The man had a gun
...


11 BE, HAVE AND DO
c

PAGE 108

Have (got)
...


Mandy has (got) a long dress on
...
)
d There is also a pattern with have (got) which means the same as there + be
...
(= There was a slogan on the T-shirt
...
We do not use it in the continuous
...
We can use it in the present
simple and past simple, but it is more common in the present than in the past
...

With have on its own, we usually use a full form
...

Present simple
I have the key
...
(unusual)

I

have got the key
...
(informal)

Past simple
I had the key
...
(unusual)

I had got the key
...
(less usual)

NOTE

In very informal speech, got is sometimes used without have
...
(= I've got lots of time
...
We do not use it in
the perfect
...

We do not normally use it in the infinitive or the ing-form
...

It's pretty depressing having no job
...

Have you got your bag? ~ Yes, I have
...

You can have these magazines if you like
...

I left my books outside
...
(= have become)
Compare these examples:
I've got some sugar from our next-door neighbour
...
I think it's in the cupboard
...

b When have got means 'have obtained', 'have received', we can use it in the infinitive or
ing-form or after a modal verb
...
(to have got = to have found)
/ can't help having (got) a cold, can I? (having got = having caught)
They must have (got) our letter by now
...

Present simple
I don't have a key
...
(a little formal)
Have you a key? (a little formal)

I haven't got a key
...
(most usual)
Did you have a key? (most usual)
I hadn't a key
...
(less usual)
Had you got a key? (less usual)

In the present I don't have and I haven't got are both possible, although Americans
normally use I don't have
...

NOTE

In the perfect we form negatives and questions in the usual way
...
~ How long had you had your old one?

86 The ordinary verb have
Have as an ordinary verb has a number of meanings
...
(= are experiencing)
I've had a letter
...
(= will be eating)
I always have a beer when I'm watching television
...

We use the auxiliary verb do in simple-tense negatives and questions
...

Did you have a good journey?
We cannot use got with the ordinary verb have
...

NOTE

a Compare these two sentences
...
(= play)
State:
We have/ We've got a pack of cards
...


11 BE, HAVE AND DO

PAGE 110

87 Empty verbs
1

Compare these sentences
...

We often have a swim in the pool
...
We can express some actions as a verb
(swim) or a verb + object (have a swim)
...
Have
is the most common empty verb, but we can also use take, give, make and go
...

We were having a swim
...
A swim means a
period of swimming from start to finish
...

Helen jumped in the water and swam a few strokes
...

We missed the bus, so we walked
...


PAGE
4

111

88 The ordinary verb do

Compare the use of the adverb and the adjective in these sentences
...

They argued passionately
...

They had a passionate argument
...

I had a good long sleep
...


88 The ordinary verb do
1

We can use do as an ordinary verb
...

We did the journey in three hours
...


2

These are the forms of the ordinary verb do
...
In simple
tenses we use the auxiliary do
...

He isn't doing biology now either
...

Don't do anything dangerous
...


a

We use do for an action when we do not say what the action is
...

What are you doing? ~ I'm working out this sum
...


b

We also use do to mean 'carry out', 'work at', 'study' or 'complete'
...

We did the job in an hour
...

The roof was damaged
...
(= repairing)
I've done the shoes
...
(= serves)

d

We can also use do with a gerund
...


89 Do and make
1

Do and make are both action verbs
...
) Make often means 'produce' or
'create'
...

They've made a new James Bond film
...

Here are some expressions with do and make
...

NOTE

For These players will make a good team, • 9 ( 1 )
...


2

Here are some more uses of do
...
A sandwich will do
...
(= want)
We shall probably have to do without a holiday
...
It's something to do with the new computer
...


PAGE 113

12
Modal verbs
90 Summary
Introduction to modal verbs • 91
The modal verbs (or 'modal auxiliary verbs') are will, would, shall, should, can,
could, may, might, must, need, ought to and dare
...

We can park here
...

I have to go now
...

These expressions can have other forms such as a past tense or a to-infinitive
...

We asked to be allowed to go
...
We can use
modal verbs to tell or allow people to do things; or we can use them to say how
certain or uncertain we are
...

Obligation and advice: should, ought to etc • 93
You should answer the letter
...

Certainty: will, must and can't
Mandy will be in London now
...

Possibility: may, might, can and could • 97
The keys may be in my coat pocket
...

Unreal situations: would • 99
Six weeks' holiday would be nice
...


The verb dare • 101
I daren't go up on the roof
...
It always has the same
form and never has an ending such as 5, ingot ed
...

It will be windy
...

A modal does not have a to-infinitive after it (except ought)
...
• 5 5 ( 1 )
You must
give me your honest opinion
...

You really must
be quiet
...
)
You 'may be right
...
)
c Will and would have the written short forms 'll and 'd
...
A modal verb can have not after it, and it
comes before the subject in questions
...

How should I organize my work?

...

We do not use do with a modal
...
It can refer to the present or the future
...

The letter might be in my bag
...

The letter might arrive tomorrow
...

Past:
We had to know then
...

But in some contexts could, would, should and might are past forms of can, will,
shall and may
...
(present)
I couldn't remember the formula
...
(direct speech)
We thought we might have problems
...

Perfect:
I may have shown you this before
...

Passive:
We may be shown the results later
...

Perfect + passive:
The car must have been stolen
...


a

The main expressions are have to, be able to, be allowed to and be going to
...

I was able to cancel the order
...
g
...
For will and be going to, • 74; and for be to, • 76
...

We had to do a test yesterday
...

We can also use them in the infinitive and ing-form
...
NOT to may take part
Being able to see properly is important
...


c

We sometimes put a modal verb in front of have to, be able to etc, or we use two
such expressions together
...

I might be able to do a little revision
...

People used to have to wash clothes by hand
...

But we cannot use two modals together
...


6

Some nouns, adjectives and adverbs and ordinary verbs have similar meanings to
modal verbs
...

It's essential/vital you keep me informed
...
• 214
The passengers managed to scramble to safety
...

You must buy your ticket before starting your journey, unless you join the train at
a station where ticket purchase facilities are not available
...

Abigail: There isn't much time to spare
...

Phil: I can't do that
...
I have to buy the ticket before
I get on
...
But there is a difference in meaning
...

You must buy your ticket before starting your journey
...

The leaflet uses must because the rule is made by British Rail, and they are the
authority
...

You must
...
You have to
...

You must fill in a form
...
)
You have to fill in a form
...
)
I must go on a diet
...

I have to go on a diet
...

NOTE

a Compare the meaning of must and have to in questions
...
• 76(2)
The doctor says I'm to go on a diet
...

c Be obliged to and be required to also express necessity
...

You are obliged to/are required to sign a declaration
...

You really must watch this new Canadian soap opera
...

c

Must has no past tense, no perfect or continuous form and no infinitive or
ing-form
...

I had to pay £15 for this railcard last week
...

I'm having to spend a lot of time travelling
...

It's no fun having to stand the whole journey
...


2 Have to and have got to
a

Both have to and have got to express the same meaning: necessity which is outside
the speaker
...

I have got to take/I've got to take an exam in June
...


b

We use got only in simple tenses, but have to has all the forms of an ordinary verb
...

I don't want to have to punish you
...


PAGE 117

92 Necessity

In the past simple had to is more usual than had got to
...
I had to finish my project
...

We don't have to pay
...

We haven't got to pay
...

In past simple negatives and questions we almost always use did
...
got to
...

You need not always make an appointment
...

Often we can use either form
...
With needn't, the lack of necessity is felt by the speaker
...

You needn't take me to the station
...

You don't have to take me to the station
...


b

Need as an ordinary verb
Need to means the same as have to
...

The figure doesn't have to/doesn't need to be exact
...
• 303(9)
b For This carpet needs cleaning, • 113(1)
...

There's no need to get up early
...
If something
happened which we now know was unnecessary, we usually use needn't
have done
...
No one's eaten any
...
)
Didn't need to usually means that the action did not happen
...
We knew that people were bringing
their own
...
)
But we can also use didn't need to for something unnecessary that actually
happened
...
No one's eaten any
...

Fortunately we didn't have to pay for the repairs
...

You mustn't forget your railcard
...

The meaning is the same as Don't forget your railcard
...
Compare You must remember your railcard
...
Compare these
sentences
...
I've got plenty of time
...
I've got a weak heart
...

Students must not/may not use dictionaries in the examination
...
But if we are talking about rules made by other people,
we use can't or be allowed to
...


93 Obligation and advice: should, ought to etc
1 Should and ought to
a

We use should and ought to for obligation and advice, to say what is the right thing
or the best thing to do
...

People shouldn't leave/oughtn't to leave litter all over the place
...
It's an interesting place
...

Who should we invite?/ Who ought we to invite1
...

You should tour in a group
...
)
You must tour in a group
...
)
But in formal rules should is sometimes a more polite and less emphatic
alternative to must
...


b

We can use the continuous or perfect after should and ought to
...

You should have planted these potatoes last month
...

The perfect here means that the right action did not happen
...

I ought to have left a tip
...
)
I had to leave a tip
...
)

PAGE

2

119

94

Permission

Had better
We also use had better to say what is the best thing to do in a particular situation
...
You had better see a doctor, NOT You have better see a doctor
...

Had better is stronger than should or ought to, although it is not as strong as must
...

The negative is had better not
...
We'd better not waste any time
...

Do you think I'd better call a doctor?

3

Be supposed to
We use be supposed to for what people expect to happen because it is the normal
way of doing things or because it has been ordered or arranged
...
~ Oh, I see
...

This jacket is supposed to have been cleaned, but it looks dirty
...
~ Oh, sorry
...

Too much sugar is supposed to be bad for you
...
May is formal and used mainly in writing
...
Anyone can join the club
...


b

We use the negative forms cannot/can't and may not to refuse permission
...

Customers may not bring their own food into this cafe
...

Tourists must not take money out of the country
...

No picnics
...

Can I take your umbrella? ~ Of course you can
...

May we come in?~ Of course
...
May is rather formal
...

I was wondering if I might borrow your car for the afternoon
...
To
do this, we can use can referring to the present or the future and could referring to
the past
...
My parents don't mind
...

At one time anyone could go and live in the USA
...

NOT I may stay up late
...

I'm allowed to stay up as late as I like
...

Be allowed to means that the permission does not depend on the speaker or the
person spoken to
...

May we leave early, please? (= Will you allow it?)
Are we allowed to leave early? (= Is it allowed?/What is the rule?)

c

We use be allowed to (not can or may) in the perfect and the infinitive
...

I didn't expect to be allowed to look round the factory
...
For general permission we use could or was/were
allowed to
...

For an action that someone did with permission, we use was/were allowed to
...


95 Certainty: will, must and can't
1

We can use these verbs to say that something is certainly true or untrue
...
~ It'll be the milkman
...

This can't be Roland's textbook
...

Will expresses a prediction
...
Must means that the speaker sees something as
necessarily and logically true
...

Must and can't are opposites
...
There must be some mistake
...

There has to/has got to be some mistake
...

Carl is sure to/is bound to be sitting in a cafe somewhere
...


2

In questions we normally use can or will
...
• 97(2e)

3

We can use the continuous or the perfect after will, must and can't
...

The bus is ten minutes late
...

This glass is cracked
...

I can't have gone to the wrong house
...

Compare must have done expressing certainty about the past and had to
expressing a past necessity
...
I must have seen it before
...
I had to see it
...


4

Must do is usually a kind of order, a way of telling someone to do something
...

You've got exams soon
...
(order)
Paul isn't at home
...
(logical necessity)

5

We can use would, had to and couldn't when something seemed certain in the past
...
It would be the milkman
...

Harold stared in amazement
...

They should have/ought to have our letter by now
...

In the negative the usual form is shouldn't
...

Should and ought to have the additional meaning 'if all goes well'
...

The train should be on time
...

NOTE

To express probability we can also use be likely to or will probably
...
/We'll probably know the result soon
...
There are one or two things I need
to do there
...
The motorway can get very busy, even on a
Saturday
...

Leon: Well, I didn't want to go too early
...

Leon: Yes, that may not be a bad idea
...
Have you got a timetable?
Simon: I might have
...


1 May and might
a We use may and might to say that something is possibly true
...

That may not/might not be a bad idea
...

You may/might get stuck in traffic if you don't go early
...

There is almost no difference in meaning, but may is a little stronger than might
...

That mightn't be a bad idea
...
We use may not
...

Perhaps/Maybe the picture is valuable
...
/There's a possibility the picture is valuable
...

I think that's a good idea
...


b We do not often use may or might in questions
...

I don't know where the paper is
...

Tina isn't at home
...

I might be playing badminton tomorrow
...

If you're going to the post office, you might get some stamps
...

You might wash up occasionally
...

Could is also possible here
...

I can't repair this lamp
...

Do you want to go to this party? ~ Well, I suppose we might as well
...

You can/could go on the train, of course
...
~ Yes, why not?
If we're short of money, I can/could sell my jewellery
...


b

We use can and could in requests
...

Can/Could you wait a moment, please?
Can/Could I have one of those leaflets, please?
We also use can for an offer
...

Can I give you a lift?

c

Can and could express only a possibility
...

We can/could have a party
...
~ Oh, really? (uncertain intention)

d

For something that is possibly true, we use could
...

The timetable could be in this drawer
...

We can also use may or might here, but not can
...

The motorway could be busy tomorrow
...

You can make wine from bananas
...

Can often has the meaning 'sometimes'
...
(= They sometimes feel lonely
...
(= It sometimes gets busy
...

Americans tend to eat a lot of meat
...


f

Can't and couldn't express impossibility
...

You can't/couldn't have seen Bob this morning
...

Compare can't with may not/might not
...
It must be wrong
...
)
This answer may not/might not be right
...

(= It is possible that this answer isn't right
...

Miranda may have missed the train
...
)
The train might have been delayed
...
)
The letter could have got lost in the post
...
)
NOTE

Could have done can also mean that a chance to do something was not taken
...


98 Ability: can, could and be able to
1 Can and could
We use these verbs to say that something is possible because someone has the
ability to do it
...

Nicola can play chess
...
It's too heavy
...

My grandfather could walk on his hands
...
It has a short form
The negative of can is cannot
can't
As well as physical or mental ability, we also use can/could for a chance, an
opportunity to do something
...

When we lived in aflat, we couldn't keep a dog
...

I (can) speak French
...

b For can/could expressing a perception, e
...
I can see a light, • 62(7)
...

The pupils can already read/are already able to read
...


b

We use be able to (not can) in the perfect and the infinitive or ing-form
...
He hasn't been able to work for some time
...

Being able to speak the language is a great advantage
...

When you have completed the course, you will be able to impress others with your
sparkling conversation
...


PAGE 125

99 Unreal situations: would

But we normally use can to suggest a possible future action
...


3
a

Could and was/were able to
In the past, we make a difference between a general ability and an ability which
resulted in an action
...

Kevin could walk/was able to walk when he was only eleven months old
...

The injured man was able to walk to a phone box
...

We can also express the meaning with managed to or succeeded in
...

Detectives succeeded in identifying the murderer
...

Detectives weren't able to identify/couldn't identify the murderer
...
Could you get tickets? can be a request meaning 'Please get tickets'
...

I could see smoke on the horizon
...


d

To say that someone had the ability or the chance to do something but didn't do it,
we use could have done
...

I could have got tickets, but there were only very expensive ones left
...
• 97(3)
The murderer could have driven here and dumped the body
...


e

Could can also mean 'would be able to'
...
I'd be hopeless at it
...


99 Unreal situations: would
1

Compare these sentences
...
~ Oh, that'll be nice
...
~ Oh, that would be nice
...
Would is a
prediction about an unreal situation, about a barbecue which may or may not
happen
...

It would be nice to have a barbecue
...

No one would pay taxes if they didn't have to
...

For would looking forward from the past, • 80(2)
...

Will/Would you pass me the sugar?
We can also use would in a statement to avoid sounding impolite, especially when
disagreeing with someone
...

I would point out that this has caused us some inconvenience
...


a

Would like is less direct than want, which can sound abrupt
...
(direct, perhaps impolite)
I'd like a drink
...

I like to climb/I like climbing that mountain
...
)
I'd like to climb that mountain
...
)
We can also use would with love, hate, enjoy and mind
...

I'd hate to be in your shoes
...
We've never been there before
...


b

Would rather means 'prefer' or 'would prefer'
...

The guide would rather we kept together
...

The negative is would rather not
...

NOTE

We can also use would sooner
...


4

In some contexts we can use either would or should after I/we
...

I would/should like to thank you for all you've done
...


PAGE

127

101

The

verb

dare

100 Habits: will, would and used to
1 Will and would
We can use these verbs for habits, actions which are repeated again and again
...

Every day Jane will come home from school and ring up the friends she's just been
talking to
...

In those days people would make their own entertainment
...

But we use will as a kind of prediction
...


2 Used to
a

Used to expresses a past habit or state
...

Before we had television, people used to make their own entertainment
...

The meaning is similar to would for past habits, but used to is more common in
informal English
...

There is no present-tense form
...


b

Used is normally an ordinary verb
...

There didn't use to be/never used to be so much crime
...

There used not to be so much crime
...

We used to live in the country
...

We're used to life/We're used to living in the country now
...

In the second example are used to means 'are accustomed to'
...
It means 'not to be afraid to
do something'
...

I daren't look/don't dare (to) look at the bill
...

I don't expect many people dare (to) walk along here at night
...

b We use How dare
...

How dare you speak to me like that?
c I dare say means 'probably'
...


102 Overview: the use of modal verbs
Deciding/Allowing/Telling

Prediction/Possibility
will

Deciding • 71
I'll have coffee
...

Will you help me?
Formal order • 71 (9)
All pupils will attend
...

Prediction (present) • 95
Tom will be at home now
...

shall

Asking what to do • 71(7)
What shall I do?
Shall I help you?
Promise •71(8)
You shall have the money
...


Prediction (future) •71(2)
I/We shall be away next week
...


Prediction (unreal) • 99(1)
A holiday would be great
...

Prediction (past habit) • 100(1)
Tom would always arrive late
...


Logical necessity • 95
You must be tired
...

mustn't
Necessity not to do something
...


PAGE

129

102 Overview: the use of modal verbs

should
Probability • 96
It should be fine tomorrow
...
• 258
It is vital we should meet
...


ought to
Probability • 96
It ought to be fine tomorrow
...


may
Permission • 94
You may go now
...

We may move house
...


Possibility • 97
The plan might go wrong
...

can

Permission • 94
You can go now
...


General possibility • 97(2e)
Maths can be fun
...

Ability • 98
I can play the piano
...


(2b)
(2b)

could
Permission (past) • 94(3)
You could park here years ago
...
I could

Possibility • 97
The plan could go wrong
...
It couldn't go wrong
...

Ability (unreal) • 98 (3e)
take better photos if I had
a better camera
...


PAGE 130

13
The passive
103 Summary
The use of the passive • 104
Compare the active and passive sentences
...

Passive: The report was typed (by the secretary)
...
When the subject is what the action is directed at (the report), then we use a
passive verb
...
This choice depends on what is old or
new information in the context
...

In a passive sentence the agent can be the new and important information (
...
), or we can leave it out if it does not add any information
...

The passive is often used in an official, impersonal style
...

Tenses and aspects in the passive • 105
The letter was posted yesterday
...

The passive with get • 1 0 7
Sometimes we use get instead of be
...

Special patterns
The passive with verbs of giving • 108
The pupils were all given certificates
...

The company is said to be bankrupt
...

A lot of time was spent arguing
...

I had/got the photos developed
...

I hate being photographed
...

I've got some shopping to do
...

OVERVIEW:

active and passive verb forms • 114

104 The use of the passive
1 The topic
Here are two paragraphs
...
J
...

THOMSON, SIR JOSEPH JOHN

ELECTRON

(1846-1940)
British physicist and mathematician
A subatomic particle and one of the
and head of a group of researchers at
basic constituents of matter
...
J
...
Thomson discovered the
Thomson
...
He is regarded as the
and contains the smallest known
founder of modern physics
...

Compare these two sentences, one from each paragraph
...

The electron was discovered by
Thomson
...
The topic of the first sentence is Thomson, and the topic of
the second is the electron
...


13

THE PASSIVE

PAGE 132

When the subject is the agent (the person or thing doing the action), then the verb
is active (discovered)
...
The choice between active and passive is really about whether
the subject is the agent or not, whether we are talking about someone (Thomson)
doing something, or about something (the electron) that the action is directed at
...

NOTE

a Usually the agent is a person and the action is directed at a thing
...

Lightning struck a golfer
...

Here the agent is lightning and the action is directed at a golfer
...

Ambition drove the athletes to train hard
...

b For The victim was struck with a sandbag, • 228(5)
...
The new
information usually comes at or near the end of the sentence
...

The topic is Thomson
...
The
electron is the important piece of new information, the point of interest
...

The electron was discovered by Thomson
...
The new information is that its discoverer was
Thomson
...
Here are some more examples of the agent as point of interest
...

The scheme has been put forward by the government
...

In a passive sentence the point of interest can be other information such as time,
place, manner or instrument
...

The electron was discovered at Cambridge
...

The gas should be lit with a match
...


3 Passive sentences without an agent
a

In a passive sentence we mention the agent only if it is important new
information
...

A DAY IN THE LIFE OF THE WORLD

Every day your heart pumps enough blood to fill the fuel tanks of about 400 cars
...
Nine million cigarettes
are smoked
...
In America 10,000
crimes are committed, and in Japan twenty million commuters cram into trains
...
3 million telegrams are sent
...

(from J
...
This is
already clear from the context
...

A new government has been elected
...

'Hamlet' was written in 1601
...
For the same reason, we do not need to say that the man was arrested
by police or the government elected by the people
...

Charles Dickens was born in Portsea
...

A large number of Sherlock Holmes films have been made
...

The makers of the films and the discoverer of the electron are not relevant
...


c

Sometimes we do not know the identity of the agent
...

The phrase by a thief would add no information
...

My car was stolen by two teenagers
...

Mistakes have been made
...

Compare the active I/We have made mistakes
...
Especially in informal speech, we can use you, one, we, they, people or
someone as vague and 'empty' subjects
...

Active:
You/One can't do anything about it
...

Active:
We/People use electricity for all kinds of purposes
...

Active:
They're building some new houses
...


5 Typical contexts for the passive
We can use the passive in speech, but it is more common in writing, especially in
the impersonal style of textbooks and reports
...

The paint is then pumped into a large tank, where it is thinned
...


13

THE PASSIVE

PAGE 1:

b

To describe historical and social processes
A new political party was formed
...

A lot of money is given to help the hungry
...

This book must be returned to the library by the date above
...

The active equivalent We provide the service
...
is
less formal and less impersonal
...
These sentences have no passive
equivalent
...

He slept soundly
...

But most phrasal and prepositional verbs which have an object can be passive
...
/The cat was run over
...
g
...
These sentences have no passive equivalent
...

The building seemed empty
...
g
...

They can be passive only when they are action verbs
...

Action & passive:
The wall was measured by the decorator
...

but NOT Three metres was measured by the wall
...
g
...

The building is owned by an American company
...


105 Tenses and aspects in the passive
The lowest monthly death toll on French roads for 30 years was announced by the
Transport Ministry for the month of August
...

Some 789 people died on the roads last month, 217 fewer than in August last year
...
The 6,000 lb of drugs were hidden in blocks of
chocolate aboard an American ship that docked in Port Newark, New Jersey, from
Ecuador
...
Be is in the same tense as
the equivalent active form
...

Active:
The Ministry announced the figure
...

(past simple of be + passive
participle)
NOTE For get instead of be, • 107
...

The drugs were found by the police
...

The drugs had been loaded onto the ship in Ecuador
...

Three men were being questioned by detectives last night
...

The men are going to be charged with importing cocaine
...


2

We form negatives and questions in the same way as in active sentences
...

Negative:
The drugs were not found by customs officers
...

Question:
Where were the drugs found?
Has the law been changed?
NOTE

We use by in a question about the agent
...
g
...

The tree was cut down last week
...

Such out-of-date practices should be done away with
...


13

4

THE PASSIVE

PAGE 136

We can sometimes use a participle as a modifier, like an adjective: a broken vase,
• 137
...
The vase was broken can express
either a state or an action
...
It lay in pieces on the floor,
(be + complement)
The drugs were hidden in the ship
...

Action:
The vase was broken by a guest
...

(passive verb)
The drugs were hidden (by the gang) and then loaded onto
the ship
...
• 107

106 Modal verbs in the passive
1

We can use the passive with a modal verb (or an expression like have to)
...

Stamps can be bought at any post office
...

Meals have to be prepared every day
...

NOTE

For an adjective ending in able/ible meaning that something 'can be done', • 285(4i)
...


2

A modal verb can also go with the perfect and the passive together
...

I can't find that piece of paper
...

The plane might have been delayed by the fog
...


107 The passive with get
1

We sometimes form the passive with get rather than with be
...

We get paid monthly
...

If you don't lock your bike, it might get stolen
...
The passive with get expresses action and change, not a state
...
(Note
that the payment of salaries is a small, incidental part of a company's whole
activities
...

NOT Wembley Stadium got built in 1923
...

I forgot to leave the dustbin out, so it didn't get emptied
...

There wasn't enough time to get washed
...


PAGE 137

108 The passive with verbs of giving

The idioms get washed/shaved/dressed/changed are much more common than
wash myself etc
...

There wasn't much time to wash and change
...


3

After get there can be an adjective in ed
...

(= I'd just become interested in the film
...


108 The passive with verbs of giving
1

In the active, give can have two objects
...

Either of these objects can be the subject of a passive sentence
...

The patient is given a sleeping pill
...
g
...
• (3)

2

Here are two ways in which a court case about paying damages might be reported
...
The damages
are the highest ever paid to a road accident victim in a British court
...
The court heard that
Mr Graham Marks was hit by a car as he was cycling along the A303 near
Sparkford in Somerset
...

£ 1 million damages were awarded to a cyclist
...

Both sentences are passive, but one has £1 million damages as its subject, and the
other has a cyclist as its subject
...
The second is about a cyclist, and it tells us what he received
...

Here are some more examples
...

I've been offered a job
...

The residents will be found new homes
...

Active:
They say that elephants have good memories
...

There is an example of each pattern in this paragraph
...
Until recently the circle was popularly believed to be a Druid temple
and a place of human sacrifice, but this is not in fact so
...


1 It + passive verb + finite clause
It is thought that Stonehenge dates from about 1900 BC
...

It was reported that the army was crossing the frontier
...

It is proposed that prices should increase next year
...

Pattern 1:
It is thought that Stonehenge dates from about 1900 BC
...

In Pattern 2 we can use these verbs:
allege
declare
find
assume
discover
intend
believe
estimate
know
claim
expect
mean
consider
feel
observe

presume
prove
report
reveal
say

see
show
suppose
think
understand

The infinitive can also be perfect or continuous, or it can be passive
...

The prisoner is known to have behaved violently in the past
...


110 Passive + to-infinitive or active participle

PAGE 139
NOTE

We can use the pattern with the subject there
...


3 It + passive verb + to-infinitive
Active:
Passive:

The committee agreed to support the idea
...


We can use this pattern only with the verbs agree, decide and propose
...

It was reported by the BBC that the army was crossing the frontier
...

It was agreed by the committee to support the idea
...


1 Infinitive
a

Active:
Passive:

Police advise drivers to use an alternative route
...


We can use this passive pattern with verbs like tell, ask, persuade, warn, advise,
• 122(2a); and verbs like force, allow, • 122(2b)
...

Drivers are advised that an alternative route should be used
...

The hostages were made to lie down
...
This happens after make and after verbs of perception such
as see
...
We use be allowed to instead
...


2 Active participle
Active:
The detective saw the woman putting the jewellery in her bag
...

Active:
The officials kept us waiting for half an hour
...

In this pattern we can use verbs of perception (see) and catch, find, keep, leave,
lose, spend, and waste
...

He was seen running away
...

He was seen to run away
...
Have takes a bare infinitive
and get a to-infinitive
...

I got the garage to service my car
...
Get is informal
...

I had my car serviced
...

This means that I arranged for someone, for example a garage, to service my car; I
did not service it myself
...

You should have/get the job done professionally
...

We're having/getting a new kitchen fitted
...
have/get
...

NOTE

a Compare these two patterns with had
...

Past perfect:
We had fitted a burglar alarm (ourselves) some time before that
...

I must get my homework done
...

Here it is the subject (1, we) who must do the homework and who packed the suitcases
...
The subject is the person to whom something happens
...

My sister has had some money stolen
...

NOTE

Passive forms can sometimes have get instead of be
...

Let's not risk getting caught in a traffic jam
...

a

To-infinitive
I expect to be invited to the wedding
...

I'd like this rubbish to be cleared away as soon as possible
...
• 242(2)
We decided that the rubbish should be cleared away
...

We arranged for the rubbish to be cleared away
...


c

Gerund
Being searched by customs officers is unpleasant
...

I was afraid of being laughed at
...

NOTE

After suggest, propose, recommend and advise we use a finite clause with should
...


d

Perfect gerund
I'm annoyed at having been made a fool of
...

Active:
I'd like someone to clear away this rubbish
...

In the active, the subject of the clause is someone, the agent
...


13

THE PASSIVE

PAGE 142

When the main clause and the infinitive or gerund clause have the same subject,
then we do not repeat the subject
...

(= I expect that I shall be invited to the wedding
...


113 Active forms with a passive meaning
1 Gerund
The active gerund after need, want (= need), require and deserve has a passive
meaning
...

The cupboard wants tidying out
...


2 To-infinitive
a

We sometimes use an active to-infinitive to talk about jobs we have to do
...

I had some homework to do
...

If the subject of the sentence is not the agent, then we use the passive infinitive
...

The homework was to be done by the next day
...

There are a lot of windows to paint/to be painted
...

NOTE

We do not normally use the passive infinitive for leisure activities
...


b

After an adjective phrase, the infinitive is usually active
...

The piano is too heavy to move
...

If we use a phrase with by and the agent, then the infinitive is passive
...

(= The piano is too heavy for one person to move
...

The meal was ready to serve/to be served at eight
...


3 Main verbs
There are a few verbs that we can use in the active form with a passive meaning
...

This sentence doesn't read quite right
...


PAGE 143

114 Overview: active and passive verb forms

114 Overview: active and passive verb forms
Active

1

Tenses and aspects • 105
Present simple
They play the match
...

Present perfect
They have played the match
...

Past continuous
They were playing the match
...

Future
They will play the match
...


2

The match is played
...

The match has been played
...

The match was being played
...

The match will be played
...


Modal verbs • 106
Modal + infinitive
They should play it
...

Modal + perfect infinitive
They should have played it
...


3

Passive

It should be played
...

It should have been played
...


To-infinitive and gerund • 112
To-infinitive
I wanted them to play the match
...

Gerund
They left without playing the
match
...


I wanted the match to be played
...

They left without the match being
played
...


PAGE 144

14
The infinitive
115 Summary
Infinitive forms • 116
An infinitive can be a bare infinitive (e
...
play) or a to-infinitive (e
...
to play)
...

Infinitive clauses • 117
We can put an object or adverbial after the infinitive
...

The to-infinitive as subject and complement • 1 1 8
To break your promise would be wrong
...

The object of the game is to score the most points
...

We got home to find visitors on the doorstep
...

To-infinitive or gerund after a verb • 121
I wanted to play
...

Verb + object + to-infinitive • 122
My parents have invited us to visit them
...

Noun phrase + to-infinitive • 124
I haven't got anything to wear
...


116 Infinitive forms

PAGE 145

For and of with a to-infinitive • 126
It's usual for guests to bring flowers
...

Patterns with the bare infinitive • 127
You could walk round the earth in a year
...

The ride made me feel sick
...
g
...

2

A simple infinitive is the base form of a verb, with or without to
...

To-infinitive:
I'd prefer to sit at the back
...
Which we use
depends on the grammatical pattern
...

It's a pity I missed that programme
...

You'd better have finished by tomorrow
...

I'd rather be lying on the beach than stuck in a traffic jam
...

We cannot use a past form
...


4

A simple infinitive refers to the same time as in the main clause
...

(The pleasure and the meeting are both in the present
...

(The luck and the victory are both in the past
...

I'd like to have seen that programme yesterday
...
)
We use a continuous infinitive for something happening over a period
...

(You're winning at the moment
...

I'd rather not sit at the front
...

NOTE

It can make a difference whether the main verb or the infinitive is negative
...
(= I told you to stay
...
(= I didn't say 'Go'
...
•39(1)
I have to go out, but I don't want to
...

It's better to do it now than (to) leave it to the last minute
...

I'm going to go out and have a good time
...

A ride on a London bus is the best way to see the city
...

An adverbial usually comes after the infinitive, and an object always comes after it
...
Compare the position of suddenly in
these clauses
...

I didn't expect you suddenly to change your mind
...

I didn't expect you to suddenly change your mind
...

Split infinitives are common usage, although some people regard them as incorrect
...
But sometimes we need to
split the infinitive to show that the adverb modifies it
...

The government is planning to secretly test a new and more powerful weapon
...


2

A preposition comes in its normal place, usually after a verb or adjective
...

There's nothing to get excited about
...

NOTE

In more formal English we can begin the clause with a preposition and relative pronoun
...

More formal: I need some information on which to base the article
...

To defrost this fridge takes ages
...

Not to take a holiday now and then is a great mistake
...
More often we use if as an 'empty subject'
referring forward to the infinitive clause
...

Would it seem rude to turn down the invitation?
It's a great mistake not to take a holiday now and then
...
• 131(1)
Defrosting this fridge takes ages
...

Melanie's ambition is to go to Australia
...

The idea was to surprise everybody
...
g
...


119 The to-infinitive expressing purpose and
result
1

A to-infinitive clause can express purpose
...

I'm writing to enquire about activity holidays
...

For other ways of expressing purpose, • 252
...

I'll go and fetch a hammer
...

Americans say I'll go fetch a hammer
...

Mark is coining to look at the photos
...

Laura came home to find her house on fire
...

The to-infinitive can express the idea of 'bad news' following 'good news'
...

I found my keys only to lose them again
...


3

An infinitive clause can also express a comment on the sentence
...

I'm a bit tired of sightseeing, to tell you the truth
...

I plan to visit India next year
...

We hope to be moving into our new flat soon
...

For a list of these verbs and of verbs taking a gerund, • 121
...
Compare these sentences
...

I wanted a game
...

We decided to play tennis
...


2

We can use seem, appear, happen, tend, come, grow, turn out and prove with a
to-infinitive
...
(It was apparently losing height
...
(We met by chance in the street
...

Here the to-infinitive clause is not the object, because seem, appear etc are not
transitive verbs
...
With some of these verbs we can use the empty
subject it
...

The object of the to-infinitive can be subject of a passive sentence
...

Passive:
The computer seems to have been stolen
...

We decided to play tennis
...

But with some verbs this is not possible
...

For verb + finite clause, • 262(1)
...

To-infinitive:
I decided to take a taxi
...


PAGE 149

121 To-infinitive or gerund after a verb

+ to-infinitive
afford • Note a
expect
agree • Note b
fail
aim
get (= succeed)
appear • 120(2)
grow • 120(2)
arrange
guarantee
ask
happen
•
120(2)
attempt
hasten
be • 76
have • 92
be dying • Note c
help • Note e
beg
hesitate
can't wait
hope
care (= want) • Note d learn
choose
long
claim
manage
come • 120(2)
neglect
dare • 101
offer
decide
omit
demand

ought • 93
plan
prepare
pretend
promise
prove • 120(2)
refuse
seek
seem • 120(2)
swear
tend • 120(2)
threaten
train
turn out • 120(2)
undertake
used • 100(2)
wish

+ gerund
admit
advise • Note f
allow • Note f
anticipate
appreciate
avoid
can't help
confess
consider
delay
deny
detest
dislike
enjoy

escape
excuse
face
fancy (= want)
finish
give up
imagine
involve
justify
keep (on)
leave off
mention
mind • Note d
miss

permit • Note f
postpone
practise
put off
quit
recommend • Note f
resent
resist
resume
risk
save
stand • Note a
suggest
tolerate

NOTE

a Afford (= have enough money/time) and stand (= tolerate) go after can/could or be able to
...

Do you think we'll be able to afford to go to India?
I can't stand sitting around doing nothing
...

Brian agreed to pay half the cost
...

c We use be dying (= want very much) only in the continuous
...
/I'm dying for a swim
...

Would you care to come along with us? Do you mind carrying this bag for me?
e After help we can leave out to
...

f When advise, recommend, allow or permit has another object, it takes a to-infinitive
...

They don't allow sunbathing here
...

They don't allow people to sunbathe here
...

I hate to leave/hate leaving everything to the last minute
...

We intend to take/intend taking immediate action
...

NOTE

a With verbs of liking and hating, sometimes the gerund gives a sense of the action really
happening, while the infinitive often points to a possible action
...
It gets really boring sometimes
...
I'm lucky my job is so interesting
...

I love swimming
...

I'd love to go for a swim
...

b Like takes a to-infinitive when it means that something is a good idea, rather than a
pleasure
...

Compare these two sentences
...
(= I didn't complain because it wasn't a good idea
...
(= I complained, but I didn't enjoy it
...

The spectators were already beginning to arrive
...

I soon began to understand what the problems were
...
For stop, • (3e)
...

Don't bother to wash/bother washing up
...

a

We use remember and forget with a to-infinitive to talk about necessary actions
and whether we do them or not
Did you remember to turn off the electricity?
You forgot to sign the cheque
...

We use a gerund to talk about memories of the past
...
It was awful
...
I can't remember turning it off
...

I'll never forget (the time) when we broke down
...


b

We use regret + to-infinitive for a present action, especially when giving bad news
...

We regret to inform you that your application has been unsuccessful
...

Compare patterns with sorry
...

We use a gerund for something that causes fear
...

I always dreaded being kissed by my aunts
...

I'm trying to light a fire, but this wood won't burn
...

Let's try and move the cupboard away from the wall
...
But stop + gerund means to end
an action
...

You'd better stop dreaming and get on with some work
...
But mean + gerund expresses result,
what is involved in something
...
I didn't mean to step on your foot
...
It means getting up early
...
Go on +
ing-form means to continue doing something
...

The band went on playing even after everyone had left
...

We need to leave at eight
...

A gerund after these verbs has a passive meaning
...


122 Verb + object + to-infinitive
1

Some verbs can take an object and a to-infinitive
...

Your landlady wants you to post these letters
...

Here Dave is the object of the verb expected
...
Compare these sentences
...

I expected (that) Dave would meet me
...

I expected to see Dave
...
)
b We can often use a passive infinitive
...
(= I expected (that) I would be met
...

Dave was expected to meet me
...
g
...


14

THE INFINITIVE

PAGE 152

2

We can use the following verbs with an object and a to-infinitive
...

We persuaded our neighbours to turn the music down
...
We
can use advise, ask, beg, command, encourage, instruct, invite, order, persuade,
recommend, remind, request, tell, urge, warn
...

We persuaded our neighbours that they should turn the music down
...

NOT We suggested our neighbours to turn the music down
...

We suggested (to our neighbours) that they might turn the music down
...

Our neighbours were persuaded to turn the music down
...

This portable phone enables me to keep in touch with the office
...

NOTE

a We can use a finite clause after require and intend, but it is a little formal
...

A finite clause after allow, permit or forbid is not very usual
...

b We can use there as the subject of the infinitive clause
...

The regulations permit there to be no more than two hundred people in the hall
...

The government has been forced to act
...

d For get in this pattern, e
...
I got Mike to lend me his electric drill, • 111(1)
...

I'm helping my friend (to) find aflat
...

The police believed the Mafia to have committed the crime
...
We can use announce, assume, believe, consider,
declare, discover, estimate, expect, feel, find, imagine, judge, know, presume, report,
reveal, show, suppose, understand
...

The police believed (that) the Mafia had committed the crime
...
We can sometimes leave out to be,
especially after declare, believe, consider and find
...

c We can use consider but not regard
...

We regard ourselves as a separate nation
...

We understood there to be money available
...
• 109
The Mafia were believed to have committed the crime
...


PAGE
d

153

123

Adjective

+

to-infinitive

Verbs of wanting and liking
I want everyone to enjoy themselves
...

We can use want, wish, (would) like, (would) love, (would) prefer, (would) hate and
can't bear
...

NOT I want that everyone enjoys themselves
...
This is rather formal
...

c After like, love, prefer and hate we can use it when/if + clause
...

My aunt would love it if we took her out for a drive
...

NOT Everyone is wanted to enjoy themselves
...

I'd like the door to be held open
...

It was marvellous to visit the Grand Canyon
...

It is rare to see a horse and cart nowadays
...

For the use of it as empty subject, • 50(5)
...

'Good'/'Bad': marvellous, terrific, wonderful, perfect, great, good, nice, pleasant,
lovely; terrible, awful, dreadful, horrible
Adjectives in ing: interesting, exciting, depressing, confusing, embarrassing, amusing
Difficulty, danger and expense: easy, difficult, hard, convenient, possible,
impossible; safe, dangerous; cheap, expensive
Necessity: necessary, vital, essential, important, advisable, better/best
Frequency: usual, normal, common; rare
Comment: strange, odd, incredible; natural, understandable
Personal qualities: good, nice, kind, helpful; mean, generous; clever, intelligent,
sensible, right; silly, stupid, foolish; careless; wrong; polite, rude

2 The pattern The letter was easy to write
Here we understand the letter as the object of to write
...

The problem is difficult to solve
...
For examples of these adjectives, • (1)
...

NOT The problem is difficult to solve it
...

The problem is impossible to solve
...

It was a marvellous experience to visit the Grand Canyon
...

It's a rare thing to see a horse and cart nowadays
...

It's too difficult to work the figures out in your head
...

This rucksack isn't big enough to get everything in
...

It's a very difficult problem to solve
...

It's a difficult enough problem to keep a whole team of scientists busy
...

We were sorry to hear your bad news
...
)
I'm quite prepared to help
...

You were lucky to win the game
...

Feelings: happy, glad, pleased, delighted; amused; proud; grateful; surprised;
interested; sad, sorry; angry, annoyed; ashamed; horrified
Willing/Unwilling: willing, eager, anxious, keen, impatient, determined, ready,
prepared; unwilling, reluctant; afraid
Some adjectives expressing personal qualities: mean, clever, sensible, right, silly
The adjectives lucky and fortunate
NOTE

a After some of these adjectives we can use a preposition + gerund: happy about writing the
letter
...

Pattern 1: It was mean (of you) not to leave a tip
...

c We can use quick and slow to express manner
...
(= The government has acted quickly
...

The peace talks are likely to last several weeks
...


124 Noun phrase + to-infinitive

PAGE 155

124 Noun phrase + to-infinitive
1 The pattern the need to write
a

We can use a to-infinitive clause after some verbs and adjectives
...

We are determined to succeed
...

Is there really any need to write a letter?
We shall never lose our determination to succeed
...

Everyone laughed at Jerry's attempt to impress the girls
...
g
...

There will be an opportunity to inspect the plans
...
• 132(7)
There's no hope of getting there in time
...

I've got some letters to write
...
(= something that you can read)
The doctor had a number of patients to see
...

NOTE

a For letters to be written, • 113(2)
...

I have some work to do
...
)
I have to do some work
...
)
Other patterns with a noun phrase + to-infinitive
For the pattern with it, e
...
It's a good idea to wear safety glasses, • 1 1 8
...
g
...

For the first person to leave, • 277
...

I just don't know what to say
...

Have you any idea how to open this packet?
No one told us where to meet
...
What to
say means 'what I should say'
...

I was wondering whether to ring you
...

c After what, which, whose, how many and how much we can use a noun
...
The driver wasn't sure which way to go
...

We can also use this pattern after a preposition
...

There's the problem of how much luggage to take
...

Maureen told me how to turn on the heating
...

Compare an indirect order
...
She felt cold
...

We've arranged for a photographer to take some photos
...


2 The pattern It's important for you to finish
It's important for you to finish the course and get a qualification
...

I'm anxious for the matter to be settled
...

There's too much work for you to finish today
...

The light wasn't shining brightly enough for anyone to notice it
...

It's a nuisance for tourists to have to get visas
...
g
...

NOTE

We can also use some nouns related to the verbs and adjectives in Patterns 1 and 2
...

He couldn't hide his anxiety for the matter to be settled
...

It was rude of your friend not to shake hands
...

We can use adjectives expressing personal qualities, e
...
brave, careless, clever,
foolish, generous, good, helpful, honest, intelligent, kind, mean, nice, polite, rude,
sensible, silly, stupid, wrong
...

It was nice of Tom to take the dog for a walk
...
)
It was nice for Tom to take the dog for a walk
...
)

6 For expressing purpose
There are telephones for drivers to call for help if they break down
...


14 THE INFINITIVE

PAGE 158

127 Patterns with the bare infinitive
1 After a modal verb
Nothing can go wrong
...

You should be more careful
...

But note ought to, have to, be able to, be allowed to and be going to
...

You have to put some money in
...

We aren't allowed to walk on the grass
...

I didn't enjoy it
...

They decided to accept the offer rather than go/going to court
...

The official made me fill in a form
...

I'll have the porter bring up your luggage
...

The official forced me to fill in a form
...

I'll get the porter to bring up your luggage
...

Someone saw the men leave the building
...

For more details, • 140(1b)
...
• 110(1b)
The men were seen to leave the building at half past six
...

As for the housework, I do everything except cook
...


b

We sometimes put an infinitive after be when we are explaining what kind of
action we mean
...

What the police did was (to) charge into the crowd
...


PAGE 159

15
The gerund
128 Summary
Gerund forms • 129
A gerund is an ing-form, e
...
walking
...

Gerund clauses • 130
We can put an object or adverbial after the gerund
...

The gerund can also have a subject
...

Some patterns with the gerund •131
Finding the money wasn't easy
...

The difficult part was finding the money
...

I don't like people bossing me around
...

Are you interested in buying this car?
I ran all the way home without stopping
...


129 Gerund forms
1

Active
Simple
Perfect

Passive

playing
having played

being played
having been played

For examples of the passive, • 112
...
g
...

It was nice meeting you
...

NOTE

a There are some spelling rules for the ing-form
...

Gerund: Jogging is good for you
...

But in some contexts it may be difficult to say whether an ing-form is a gerund or
participle, and it is not always important to know the difference
...


3

We use a perfect gerund for something before the time of the main clause
...

(The visit was before the memory
...

Sarah remembered visiting the place before
...

It's difficult not smoking for a whole day
...


130 Gerund clauses
1

A gerund clause can be just a gerund on its own, or there can be an object or
adverbial after it
...

Going on holiday always makes me feel uneasy
...

b An adverb can sometimes come before the gerund rather than after it
...


2

A subject can come before the gerund
...

I dislike people asking me personal questions
...

It's a bit inconvenient you/your coming in late
...

The possessive is more formal, and it is less usual in everyday speech
...

Your coming in late is a bit inconvenient
...


PAGE 161

131 Some patterns with the gerund

131 Some patterns with the gerund
1 Gerund clause as subject
Digging is hard work
...

Keeping a copy of your letters is a good idea
...

In subject position, the gerund is much more usual than the to-infinitive
...
is possible but rather formal
...
• 50(5)
It won't be easy choosing the right colour
...

It won't be easy to choose the right colour
...

The gerund is more usual as subject, but the to-infinitive is more usual after it
...

It's expensive to heat a big house
...

It's no good arguing
...

It might be worth taking the guided tour
...

It was quite an experience going camping
...

It's great fun skiing down a mountain
...

b There are also these patterns with worth
...

The guided tour might be worth taking
...

There won't be any problem parking
...

You won't have any problem parking
...


3 Gerund clause as complement after he
Jeremy's hobby is inventing computer games
...


4 Verb + gerund
a

We can use a gerund after some verbs
...
Do you mind waiting a moment?
I can't help feeling depressed sometimes
...

For a list of verbs taking the gerund or to-infinitive, •121
...
• 262(1)
Someone suggested (that) we might go out for a walk
...

NOT I've finished that I tidy my room
...

The arrangements involve you/your giving everyone a lift
...

I hate people to laugh at me
...
We do not use a to-infinitive in these patterns
...

My husband isn't very good at cooking
...


b

We can also use a gerund after than, as and like expressing comparison
...

Walking isn't as good for you as swimming
...
• (8)

2 The pattern I succeeded in finding out
Jake is thinking of selling his motor-bike
...

Let's get on with addressing the envelopes
...
g
...

People were complaining about having to walk so far
...

Sue insists on everyone reading the letter
...

I'd like to congratulate you on breaking the world record
...

We can use:
accuse
...
for
charge
...
on

deter
...

for
stop
...
from
prevent
...
as
excuse
...

for
thank
...
from
remind
...

for

a We can also use verbs with about, e
...
tell, inform, warn
...

b In the passive, the preposition comes directly after the verb
...


4 The pattern She's keen on riding
A gerund can follow an adjective + preposition
...

What's wrong with borrowing a little money?
We can use:
afraid of

amazed at
angry about/at
annoyed about/at
anxious about
ashamed of
aware of
bad at
bored with

capable of
content with
dependent on
different from/to
exited about/at
famous for
fed up with
fond of
good at

grateful for
guilty of
happy about/with
interested in
keen on
nervous of
pleased about/with
ready for

responsible for
satisfied with
sorry about/for
successful in
surprised at
used to • 100(2c)

worried about
wrong with

5 For joining and to join
a

After some verbs and adjectives we can use either a preposition + gerund or a
to-infinitive, with no difference in meaning
...

We can use these expressions:
aim at doing/to do
amazed at finding/to find
angry at finding/to find
annoyed at finding/to find
content with being/to be
grateful for having/to have

pay for having/to have
ready for taking/to take
satisfied with being/to be
thankful for having/to have
surprised at finding/to find
vote for doing/to do

15

b

THE GERUND

PAGE 164

But sometimes the to-infinitive has a different meaning from the preposition +
gerund
...

NOTE

a Agree with means to think that something is right, but agree to means to make a decision
...
I think it's wrong
...

b We use tell
...
of to report statements and thoughts
...

But tell/remind someone to do something reports an order or reminder
...

Why didn't you remind me to bring a compass?
c Keen on/interested in usually means a general interest, but keen to/interested to means a
wish to do a particular thing
...
He does quite a lot of it
...
He's never cycled in Scandinavia before
...

d Happy about and pleased about express pleasure
...

Sam was pleased about winning/pleased to win a prize
...

I'm pleased to meet you
...

e Afraid to can only express unwillingness caused by fear
...

Many old people are afraid to cross/afraid of crossing the road in case they have an
accident
...

NOT afraid to have an accident
f Anxious to means 'wanting to', but anxious about means 'worried about'
...

Rodney was anxious about making a mistake
...
Ashamed to expresses unwillingness
caused by shame
...

I don't think Rex can afford to pay us back, but I expect he's ashamed to admit it
...
Sorry with a
simple to-infinitive expresses an apology for a present action
...

Sorry to disturb you, but can I have a word?
We also use sorry with a simple to-infinitive to express regret about what we say or hear
...

I was sorry to hear your bad news
...

I hope to see you soon
...
(look forward to + gerund)
We can also put a noun phrase after the preposition to
...

We can use a gerund (but not an infinitive) with the verbs admit to, confess to, face
up to, look forward to, object to, prefer
...

NOTE For used to do and used to doing, • 100(2c)
...
g
...
We can also use a preposition + gerund after a related noun
...

We expressed our gratitude for having had the opportunity
...

How would you like the idea of living in a caravan?
There's a small advantage in moving first
...

Instead of landing at Heathrow, we had to go to Manchester
...

She succeeded in business by being completely single-minded
...

Despite your reminding me, I forgot
...
• 139(3)
Although having slept eight hours, I still feel tired
...

On turning the corner, I saw a most unexpected sight
...
)
In building a new motorway, they attracted new industry to the area
...
)
c We cannot use a passive participle
...

NOT after approved and NOT after been approved

15 THE GERUND

b

PAGE 166

We cannot use a finite clause or a to-infinitive after a preposition
...

b We can use a to-infinitive instead of for to express purpose
...


133 Determiner + gerund
1 The pattern the driving
We can use a gerund after the, this, that, some, no, a lot of, a little, a bit of and
much
...

This constant arguing gets on my nerves
...

No parking
...
)
I've got a bit of shopping to do
...

The driving makes her tired
...
(= all driving, driving in general)
NOTE

a We can use an adjective before a gerund
...

b A gerund is usually an uncountable noun, but we can sometimes use a/an or add a plural s
...

The hostages suffered several beatings
...

Crossing the road here is dangerous
...

But there are also some nouns ending in ing which mean physical objects
...

We had to wait at the crossing
...

d For a driving lesson, • 283(2)
...


2 The pattern the driving of heavy lorries
a

A gerund clause can have an object
...

Playing ball games is not allowed
...

An important part of our work is the keeping of records
...

This pattern with of can be rather formal and is typical of an official, written style
...

I was disturbed by the ringing of the telephone
...
)

b

Instead of a gerund, we often use other abstract nouns in this pattern
...


PAGE 167

16
Participles
134 Summary
Participle forms • 135
A participle can be an ing-form like playing (active participle), or a form like
played, written (past or passive participle)
...

Kate fell asleep watching television last night
...

I waited, my heart beating fast
...

Participle clauses of time, reason etc • 139
I went wrong adding up these figures
...

Verb + object + participle • 140
I saw you talking to the professor
...

have + past participle:
My watch has stopped
...

be + passive participle:
We were stopped by a policeman
...

For The bag lying/left on the table is Sadie's, • 276
...
g
...

I heard you laughing
...

This form is the same as a gerund
...

Although covered by insurance, Tom was annoyed about the accident
...

There were two parcels left on the doorstep
...
For irregular forms, • 300
...

Simple:
They wanted the snow cleared away
...


5

A participle can also be perfect
...

Having been delayed for an hour, the concert started at nine o'clock
...

He hesitated, not knowing what to do
...


136 Participle clauses
1

A participle clause can be just a participle on its own
...

There can be an object or adverbial
...

Cut above the right eye, the boxer was unable to continue
...

NOT We saw a policeman someone chasing
...
g
...


2

A participle can sometimes have a subject
...

If there is no subject, then it is understood to be the same as in the main clause
...

(The men were playing cards
...

Walking across the field, we saw a plane fly past
...
, we saw
...

NOT Walking across the field, a plane flew past
...

Now look at this example
...

This might lead to a misunderstanding because it suggests that the band was sitting at a table
...

Sitting at a table, they listened to the band
...
, they listened
...

But sometimes the subjects can be different when there is no danger of misunderstanding
...

(= Because she knew
...
)
When adjusting the machine, the electricity supply should be disconnected
...
, you should disconnect
...

The subjects do not need to be the same when we use following (= after), considering (= in
view of) and regarding (= about)
...

Considering the awful weather, our Open Day was a great success
...

The subjects can also be different with strictly speaking, having said that and talking of
...

Active:
Boiling water turns to steam
...

Passive:
I had a reserved seat
...

The terrorists used a stolen car
...
The participle modifies
the noun, like an adjective
...

But we cannot always use the pattern
...

NOTE

a Be+ passive participle can express either a state or an action
...
It wasn't theirs
...

b For adjectives in ing and ed, e
...
amusing and amused, • 203
...

fanatically cheering crowds
properly trained staff
We can also form compounds with adverbs or nouns
...

NOT written in pencil notes
NOT at the top of their voices cheering crowds
But for notes written in pencil, • 276
...

an unsmiling face
a disconnected telephone

3

We can use a few past participles in this pattern
...

Passive:
the injured prisoner (The prisoner has been injured
...
)
b For special participle forms, e
...
a sunken ship, • 301
...

a walled city (= a city with a wall)
This happens mostly with compounds
...

The whole family stood waving in the road
...

The girl lay trapped under the wreckage for three days
...

The two actions, for example the standing and the waving, happen at the
same time
...

Angela was busy doing the accounts
...

I'd love to go swimming
...

Come cycling with us
...


b

We use do the + gerund for some kinds of work, especially housework
...

Someone comes in to do the cleaning for us
...
Do the shopping usually
means buying food
...
, do a lot of/a bit of
...

I once did some surfing in California
...

I'm afraid we've got a lot of tidying up to do
...

I can't do sewing
...

We did trampolining once a week at school last year
...
g
...

Mike hurt his hand playing badminton
...

NOTE For conjunction + participle, e
...
Mike hurt his hand while playing badminton, • (3)
...

Coming up the steps, I fell over
...

Coming up the steps tired the old woman out
...

Taking a note from her purse, she slammed it down on the counter
...

This pattern is rather literary
...

She took a note from her purse and slammed it down on the counter
...
The participle usually comes in the first
clause, but it can sometimes come in the second
...

They complained about the room, the wife pointing out that they were promised
a sea view
...

Having filled his glass/Filling his glass, Max took a long drink
...

Having dug a hole in the road, the men just disappeared
...

The clause with the perfect participle can come after the main clause
...


e

In the passive we can use a simple, continuous or perfect participle
...

I don't want to stay out here being bitten by insects
...


16

PARTICIPLES

PAGE 172

2 Comparison of patterns
a

After he had left the building, the man hailed a taxi
...


c

After having left the building,
...


e

Leaving the building,
...
( b ) is also fairly usual, although a little more formal
...
( d ) and (e) are rather literary
...


3 Conjunction + participle
We can use an active or passive participle after when, whenever, while, once, until,
if and although
...

Once opened, the contents should be consumed within three days
...

This pattern is a little more formal than a finite clause such as when you use an
electric saw
...

NOTE

a We can also use a passive participle after as, e
...
as seen on TV
...
• 132(8)

4 Reason
a

A participle clause can express reason
...

(=
...
)
Not feeling very well, James decided to lie down
...

The restaurant having closed, there was nowhere to eat
...

The participle clause can be rather literary
...


b

In the passive we can use a simple, continuous or perfect participle
...

In summer the ducks have it easy, always being fed by tourists
...


c

We can use with before a participle clause with a subject
...

It was a large room, with bookshelves covering most of the walls
...

They pumped waste into the river, killing all the fish
...


6 Conditions
A participle clause can express a condition
...

(= If all is w e l l ,
...

Taken daily, vitamin pills can improve your health
...

Strictly speaking, you can't come in here unless you're a club member
...
But having said that, there are still grounds for
optimism
...
~ Talking of computers, ours broke
down yesterday
...

We heard you arguing with your brother
...


b

A verb of perception can also take an object + bare infinitive
...

We didn't notice anyone leave the building
...

I saw them cut the tree down
...

(= I saw them
...
)
I saw them cutting the tree down as I went past
...
They were cutting it down
...

Bernard watched the horse jump/jumping the fence
...

NOTE

We can use these passive forms
...
We saw the lions being fed
...

We soon got the machine working again
...
He often keeps his patients waiting
...

They caught a student cheating in the exam
...
The participle here means action for a period of time
...

We had/got the machine repaired
...

b After have, get and leave we can use an infinitive for an action seen as a whole
...
• 111(1)
The driver left us to find our own way home
...

Rory suddenly realized he had two dogs following him
...


3 The pattern I spent some time waiting
I've spent half an hour looking for that letter
...

We can also use a participle after spend, waste or lose and an expression of time or
money
...

We were left standing at the side of the road
...

I'd like this drawing (to be) photocopied, please
...

We can use an object + passive participle (or passive to-infinitive) after want, need,
(would) like, (would) love, (would) prefer and (would) hate
...
They do not have
special endings to show that they are nouns, or to show that they are subject or
object
...

the cup
our democracy
an exciting game
Determiners, quantifiers and modifiers come in a fixed order before the noun
...

house(s)
telephone(s)
problem(s)
Uncountable nouns are neither singular nor plural
...
NOT a butter
But we can say a pound of butter
...

peel an onion/a pizza with onion
The plural of nouns • 145
We use the plural for more than one, and for a negative or unknown quantity
...

Have you got any cassettes?
The possessive form • 146
The possessive form of a noun expresses possession and other relations
...

Two nouns together • 147
We often use one noun before another
...


17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

PAGE 176

Phrases after a noun • 148
There can be a phrase after a noun
...
The start of the race means that the
race starts
...
In the summer of 1978 they wired
up a cuckoo clock inside the drinks cabinet so arranged that it would stop
whenever the door was opened
...

They omitted, however, to tell the plane's crew, with the result that a stewardess,
Miss Susan Becker, assumed it was a bomb
...

A Pan-Am spokesman said afterwards that the miniature bottles of whisky on
the plane cost 17 pence each
...

(from Stephen Pile The Book of Heroic Failures)

1 The meaning of nouns
Nouns have many different kinds of meanings
...
Abstract nouns refer to ideas and qualities:
time, result, security
...
A noun can also be a name: Berlin
...
But there are a
number of endings used to form nouns from other words: movement, intention,
difference, kindness, security, landing
...
There are only a few word pairs such as steward/
stewardess
...
The only
endings are for the plural (bottles, • 145) and the possessive (the plane's
crew, •146)
...

Whisky is expensive
...
(plural noun)
They landed at Berlin
...
(pronoun)
It can also be more than one word
...

A lot of planes take off from here
...


2

In a noun phrase there can be determiners, quantifiers and modifiers, as well as a
noun
...

a bomb
the result
this idea
my bag
The determiners are the articles (a, the), demonstratives (this, that, these, those)
and Possessives (e
...
my, your)
...

a lot of money
two people
every photo
half the passengers
Quantifiers are a lot of, many, much, a few, every, each, all, most, both, half, some,
any, no etc
...

Adjective:
small bottles
the exact time
Noun:
glass bottles
an emergency landing
A prepositional phrase or adverb phrase can come after the noun and modify it
...

Quantifier
(+ of)

all
a lot of
a lot of
enough
some
each of

Determiner
a
a
the
these

Adjective
modifier

Noun
modifier

hot
empty

her
the

nice
heavy

soup
glass

Noun
bomb
meal
door
bottles
bottles
friends
exits
dishes
doors

Other
modifiers
for two
here

of the building

17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

PAGE 178

3

Here are some more details about the structure of a noun phrase
...

a lot of money
two hundred and fifty passengers

b

We sometimes use both a quantifier and a determiner
...

We can also use a determiner after a quantifier + of
...


c

Sometimes a quantifier comes after a determiner
...

the many rooms of the house
those few people left
the three brothers
NOTE

We cannot use a lot of or a few in this pattern
...
g
...

a lot of Susan's friends (Compare: a lot of her friends)
the man's seat
all the passengers' meals

e

There can be more than one adjective or noun modifier
...


f

The modifier can be a gerund or participle
...

a plan to catch a thief
a clock hidden inside the drinks cabinet
the stewardess who was serving drinks

h

Next, last and first, second, third etc come after a determiner, not before it
...

my next two jobs
the first six weeks
NOTE

a Compare these examples
...

There were three first prizes, one for each age group
...


i

We can use an adverb before a quantifier or an adjective
...

It can also be the object of a preposition
...

Object:
The stewardess alerted the pilot
...

Adverbial:
That day something unusual happened
...


144 Countable and uncountable nouns
1 Introduction
a Countable nouns can be singular or plural: book(s), hotel(s), boat(s), day(s), job(s),
mile(s), piece(s), pwblem(s), dream(s)
...

We use countable nouns for separate, individual things such as books and hotels,
things we can count
...

b

Many countable nouns are concrete: table(s), car(s), shoe(s)
...
Many uncountable nouns are abstract: beauty, love,
psychology
...

Many nouns can be either countable or uncountable
...

This milk is off
...


2 Words that go with countable/uncountable nouns
Some words go with both countable and uncountable nouns: the boat or the
water
...

Countable
the
a/an
some
Noun on its own
no
this/that
these/those
Possessives
Numbers
a lot of
many/few
much/little
all
each/every

Singular
the boat
a boat
(some boat)
no boat
this boat
our boat
one boat

all the boat
every boat

Uncountable
Plural
the boats
some boats
boats
no boats
these boats
our boats
two boats
a lot of boats
many boats

the water
some water
water
no water
this water
our water
a lot of water

much water
all (the) boats all (the) water

17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

PAGE 180

NOTE

a For some with a singular noun, e
...
some boat, • 179(5)
...

a large number of boats
a large amount of water

3 The of-pattern expressing quantity
a

Look at these phrases
...


b

Here are some more examples of this pattern
...
g
...

A bit of can also mean 'a small amount of
...
For a wine glass, • 147(6)
...

a box of matches
a pound of tomatoes
This can be more convenient than saying six tomatoes
...

a crowd of people a series of programmes a bunch of flowers

d

We can use piece(s) of, bit(s) of and item(s) of with some uncountable nouns
...

a period/moment of calm a degree of doubt a sum/an amount of money

PAGE 181

e

144 Countable and uncountable nouns

Kind, sort, type and make go with either a countable or an uncountable noun
...
For example, information, news and furniture are uncountable
...
NOT an information
There was no news of the missing hiker NOT There were no news
...

I've got a piece of information for you
...


b

Here are some uncountable nouns which may be countable in other languages
...
Their meanings are related to the uncountable
nouns above
...

bag(s)
permit(s)
suitcase(s)
house(s)
camp(s)
thing(s)
jewel(s)
rumour(s)
clothes (• Note e)
vegetable(s)
job(s)
shop(s)
clue(s)
vehicle(s)
journey(s)
shower(s)
coin(s)
laugh(s)
sight(s)
fact(s)
loaf/loaves
storm(s)
hobby/hobbies
machine(s)
suggestion(s)
NOTE

a Damages means 'money paid in compensation'
...

b Knowledge and education can be singular when the meaning is less general
...

A knowledge of Spanish is essential
...

Thanks
...

d Work can be countable: a work of art, the works of Shakespeare
...
• 154(3)
e We cannot use clothes in the singular or with a number
...
We can say four garments or four items of clothing
...

Countable
They had a nice carpet in the living-room
...


b

Uncountable
We bought ten square metres of carpet
...


Animals, vegetables and fruit are uncountable when we cut or divide them
...

Countable
a glass/some glasses of water
my glasses (= spectacles • 155)
a daily paper (= newspaper)
my papers (= documents)
an ice (= ice-cream)
an iron (for ironing clothes)
a tin of beans
a bedside light (= lamp)
a hair/hairs on your collar
a girl in a red dress
I've been here lots of times
...


d

Uncountable
some glass for the window
some writing paper
ice on the road
iron (a metal)
tin (a metal)
the speed of light
comb your hair
wearing even ing dress
I haven't got much time
...

Countable

Uncountable

a drawing/painting (= a picture)
I heard a noise
...

He led a good life
...

Life isn't fair
...
g
...
But some
can be countable, especially for feelings about something specific
...

It seemed a pity to break up the party
...
~ It's a pleasure
...

I'll have a lager
...
(= three cups of coffee)
Two sugars
...
'
These lagers are all the same
...
(= kinds of grass)

'You can get a meal here
...
'

145 The plural of nouns
1 Form
a

A countable noun (door, plane, stewardess) has both a singular and a plural form
...

NOTE

a There are some spelling rules for noun plurals
...


b

Some nouns have an irregular plural, e
...
man

men
...

weekends
bedrooms
motor-bikes
glass dishes
We also add s/es to the end of a noun formed from a verb + adverb
...

Doctors of Philosophy
mothers-in-law
And when an adverb follows a noun in er, we add s/es to the noun
...

women jockeys (= jockeys who are women)
d

After a year or an abbreviation, the plural ending can be apostrophe + s
...

The door was closed
...

There was only one passenger
...


b

We use the plural for more than one
...

We waited for one and a quarter hours
...
I've got one or two jobs to do
...
g
...
• 154(1)

c

For a negative or unknown quantity, we normally use the plural
...

Have you read any good books lately?
NOTE

We can use the singular after no meaning 'not a single one'
...


146 The possessive form
1 Form
To form the possessive we add an apostrophe + s to a singular noun; we add an
apostrophe to a plural noun ending in s; and we add an apostrophe + s to a plural

not ending in s
...

a After a singular noun ending in s, we normally add 's: the boss's office, Chris's address
...
We can pronounce Perkins'
or
b If there is a short phrase after the noun, then the possessive ending comes after the phrase
...

That umbrella is my friend's
...

I found someone's coat here
...

e We can add an apostrophe + s to a phrase with and
...

This is much more usual than Peter's and Zoe's flat
...

Anita is my cousin - my mother's brother's daughter
...

Julia's coat
Emma's idea
my brother's friend the workers' jobs
The possessive usually has a definite meaning
...
But we do not say the with a singular name
...


3 Possessive form or of?
a There is a pattern with of which has the same meaning as the possessive
...
But often only one form is possible
...

b

We normally use the possessive with people and animals
...

It's the house of a wealthy businessman from Saudi Arabia
...

Sometimes both patterns are possible
...

the young man's mother/the mother of the young man

c

We normally use the of-pattern with things
...

Scotland's rivers
the rivers of Scotland
the company's head office
the head office of the company
the magazine's political views
the political views of the magazine

4 Some other uses of the possessive
a

There's a children's playground here
...

The possessive form can express purpose
...
Other examples: a girls' school, the men's toilet, a boy's jacket
...

It was a man's voice that I heard
...
It tells us what kind of voice
...


c

The girl's reply surprised us
...

This pattern is related to The girl replied
...

NOTE The of-pattern is sometimes possible: the actions of Roger
...

Susan's promotion is well deserved
...

NOTE

The of-pattern is possible here: the release of the hostages
...

the release of the information
...

The player's fitness is in question
...
We use it mainly with humans
...


5 The pattern yesterday's newspaper
The possessive can express time when
...

It can also express length of time
...

There's going to be about an hour's delay
...
g
...
A Sunday
newspaper is a type of newspaper, one that appears on Sundays
...

a holiday of three weeks
a delay of one hour
a three-week holiday
a one-hour delay

6 At Alec's, to the butcher's etc
We can use the possessive without a following noun when we talk about
someone's home or shop
...

There's a policeman outside the McPhersons' (house/flat)
...

We can also use company names
...

We ate at Maxime's (Restaurant)
...

NOTE Many companies leave out the apostrophe from their name: Barclays (Bank)
...

a tennis club
money problems
a microwave oven
The first noun modifies the second, tells us something about it, what kind it is or
what it is for
...
But
it is often difficult to tell the difference between two separate nouns and one compound
noun, and the difference is not important for the learner of English
...
g
...
g
...
There are no exact rules about whether we join the
words or not
...

'tennis club
ma'chine-gun
'car park 'fire alarm
But sometimes the main stress comes on the second noun
...


4

The first noun is not normally plural
...
For American English, • 304(2)
...


a

a coffee table (= a table for coffee)
a car park
security cameras
a cricket ball
an oil can (= a can for holding oil) • (6)
NOTE

a The stress is on the first noun: a 'coffee table
...
g
...
• 283(2)

b

a war film (= a film about war)
a crime story
a gardening book
a computer magazine

pay talks

NOTE The stress is on the first noun: a 'war film
...
Compare these two phrases
...
But there are many
exceptions, e
...
'evening classes, a 'Glasgow woman
...


the oven door (= the door of the oven)
factory chimneys
the river bank

the town centre

NOTE

a The main stress is usually on the second noun: the town 'centre
...

the bottom of the valley
the end of the motorway NOT the motorway end
But we can say roadside, hillside, hilltop and cliff top
...


6

A milk bottle is a bottle for holding milk
...
A
bottle of milk is a bottle full of milk
...


a milk bottle
Purpose:
Contents:

a bottle of milk
a wine glass
a glass of wine

a jam jar
a jar of jam

a bookshelf
a shelf of books

7

There are more complex patterns with nouns
...

Eastbourne town centre
a plastic shopping-bag
a life insurance policy
security video cameras
Somerset County Cricket Club
summer activity holiday courses
We can build up phrases like this
...

a comprehensive road atlas
a handy plastic shopping-bag
a 'Sunuser' solar heating system
British Channel Island Ferries
NOTE

We can also sometimes use a phrase with a preposition
...

Clause:
the fact that I got there first • 262 (7)
some of those people who called • 272
a lot of time to spare • 124
Phrase:
all these boxes here
every day of the week
a hot meal for two

2

The phrase after the noun can be a prepositional phrase, an adverb phrase, an
adjective phrase or a noun phrase
...

Adjective phrase:
The police found parcels full of cocaine
...

The phrase modifies the noun, tells us more about it
...

The period just after lunch is always quiet
...

A man with very fair hair was waiting in reception
...

What are the prospects for a peaceful solution?
For noun + preposition, e
...
prospects for, • 237
...
It is rather formal
...

Here is the long-range weather forecast for the month of June
...
Here are some
examples from British newspapers
...

Violence erupted at the mass funeral of African National Congress victims of last
week's massacre at Ciskei
...

We can also use a mixture of phrases and clauses
...


17 NOUNS AND NOUN PHRASES

PAGE 190

149 Nominalization
1

Some noun phrases are equivalent to clauses
...

Someone published the document
...


the residents' protests
the publication of the document
the beauty of the landscape

Expressing an idea in a noun phrase rather than a clause is called 'nominalization'
...

The residents' protests were ignored
...

In written English, this is often preferred to The residents protested, but they were
ignored
...

NOTE

For the subject of the clause we use either the possessive form or the of-pattern
...

the visitor's departure/the departure of the visitor
The scheme succeeded
...

the ringing of the telephone

2

An adverb in a clause is equivalent to an adjective in a noun phrase
...

The landscape is amazingly
beautiful
...

Discover the amazing beauty of the landscape
...

Verb + object

Noun + preposition + object

They published the document
...

They've changed the law
...


the publication of the document
an attack on the President
a change in the law
his answer to the question

The most common preposition here is of
...


PAGE 191

18
Agreement
150 Summary
Singular and plural verbs • 151
Subject-verb agreement means choosing the correct singular or plural verb after
the subject
...


The shops open at nine
...

Two hours is a long time to wait
...

Every cloud has a silver lining
...

Pair nouns • 155
These shorts are nice
...

Number in the subject and object • 157
We all wrote down our names
...

For The French have a word for it, • 288(1d)
...

The house is empty
...

Here we use is with a singular subject and are with a plural
...

The grass is getting long
...

The window is broken
...

The office has a phone
...

The garden looks nice
...

There is agreement with be, • 84(2), have, • 85(2), and a present-simple verb
(look)
...

NOTE

a A modal verb always has the same form
...

b For the subjunctive, • 242
...


3

With a past-tense verb there is agreement only with be
...

The windows were broken
...

The office(s) had lots of phones
...

NOTE

For the subjunctive were, • 242(3)
...

1

TWO or more phrases linked by and take a plural verb
...

Both the kitchen and the dining-room face due west
...

But when the two together express something that we see as a single thing, then
we use a singular verb
...


2

When two phrases are linked by or, the verb usually agrees with the nearest
...

Either my sister or the neighbours are looking after the dog
...

Ten miles is too far to walk
...

Here we are talking about the amount as a whole - a distance of ten miles, a sum of
thirty pounds, not the individual miles or pounds
...

'Star Wars' was a very successful film
...


4

A phrase with as well as or with does not make the subject plural
...

A phrase with and in brackets does not normally make the subject plural
...


PAGE 193

153 One of, a number of, every, there etc

After not only
...

Not only George but also his friends are buying the horse
...

George, my neighbour, often goes to the races
...

The house between the two bungalows is empty
...

Through the trees is the quickest way
...


7

Even if the subject comes after the verb, the verb agrees with the subject
...

Here a great attraction is the complement
...


153 One of, a number of, every, there etc
1

After a subject with one of, we use a singular verb
...


2

When a plural noun follows number of, majority of or a lot of, we normally use a
plural verb
...

The majority of people have complained
...

Here a number of etc expresses a quantity
...

The number of letters we receive is increasing
...

A large amount of money was collected
...

c After a fraction, the verb agrees with the following noun, e
...
potato, plants
...

Almost half (the plants) were killed
...

Every pupil has to take a test
...

Everyone has to take a test
...

Nothing ever happens in this place
...

All the pupils have to take a test
...

NOTE

When each follows a plural subject, the verb is plural
...


18 AGREEMENT

PAGE 194

We use a singular verb after who or what
...

What's happened? ~ Several things
...

What/Which day is convenient?
What/Which days are convenient?
NOTE

A verb after which is singular or plural depending on how many we are talking about
...

Which (of these shoes) go best with my trousers? ~ These, I think
...

None (of the pupils) has/have failed the test
...

The plural verb is more informal
...

No pupil has failed/No pupils have failed the test
...

There was an accident
...

NOTE

In informal English we sometimes use there's before a plural
...


154 Nouns with a plural form
1 Plural noun - plural verb
a

Some nouns are always plural
...
NOT a good
My belongings have been destroyed in a fire
...

NOTE For pair nouns, e
...
glasses, trousers, • 155
...

Plural only

hurt my arm(s) and leg(s)
an old custom
manner (= way)
the content of the message
a saving of £5
do some damage to the car
feel pain(s) in my back

arms (= weapons)
go through customs
manners (= polite behaviour)
the contents of the box
all my savings
pay damages
take pains (= care)

155 Pair nouns

PAGE 195

2 Plural form - singular verb
The news isn't very good, I'm afraid
...

Nouns like this are news; some words for subjects of study: mathematics, statistics,
physics, politics, economics; some sports: athletics, gymnastics, bowls; some games:
billiards, darts, dominoes, draughts; and some illnesses: measles, mumps, shingles
...

Tom laid a domino on the table
...
(= these figures)
Politics takes a plural verb when it means someone's views
...
(= his political opinions)

3 Nouns with the same singular and plural form
A chemical works causes a lot of pollution
...

Works can mean 'a factory' or 'factories'
...

Nouns like this are barracks, crossroads, headquarters, means, series, species, works
...

These chemical works here cause a lot of pollution
...


glasses/spectacles

trousers

2

scissors

A pair noun is plural in form and takes a plural verb
...

Your new glasses are very nice
...
Those tights are cheap
...

But: my glasses case
...

This pair of trousers needs cleaning
...

NOTE

a Three of these nouns can be singular with a different meaning: a glass of water,
a spectacle (= a wonderful sight), a scale of five kilometres to the centimetre
...
g
...

c We can also use pair(s) of with socks, shoes, boots, trainers etc
...


156 Group nouns
1

Group nouns (sometimes called 'collective nouns') refer to a group of people,
e
...
family, team, crowd
...

The crowd was/were in a cheerful mood
...
The choice depends on whether we see the
crowd as a whole or as a number of individuals
...
• 304(1)
b A group noun can be plural
...

c A phrase with of can follow the noun, e
...
a crowd of people, a team of no-hopers
...
With a plural verb we use they,
their and who/that
...

The government want to improve their image
...

The crowd who have gathered here are in a cheerful mood
...
For example, we might refer to
the group's size or make-up, or how it compares with others
...

The union is the biggest in the country
...

The class don't/doesn't understand what the teacher is saying
...


4

Some group nouns are:
army
company
association
council
audience
crew
board
crowd
choir
enemy
class
family
club
firm
college
gang
committee
government
community

group
jury
majority
management
military
minority
navy
orchestra
(political) party

population
press
public
school
society (= club)
staff
team
union
university

NOTE Military, press and public do not have a plural form
...
g
...

Safeway sells/sell organic vegetables
...

NOTE

The United States usually takes a singular verb
...


6

These nouns have a plural meaning and take a plural verb: police, people,
livestock (= farm animals), cattle (= cows), poultry (= hens)
...

Some cattle have got out into the road
...

b When poultry means meat, it is uncountable
...


157 Number in the subject and object
There is sometimes a problem about number with an object
...

The schools have a careers adviser
...
)
The schools have careers advisers
...
)
When a number of people each have one thing, then the object is usually plural
...

They all nodded their heads in agreement
...

Each town has its own mayor
...
Some shelves were put up to display the exhibits
...

We use a/an only with a singular noun, but we can use the with any noun
...

Some shelves were put up
...

Accidents can happen
...

a visitor
an exhibition
The basic use of the articles • 160
A/an is the indefinite article, and the is the definite article
...
This can happen in three different ways
...
Secondly,
when there is only one: the captain
...

A/an to describe and classify • 1 6 1
We use a/an to describe and classify
...

'The Economist' is a magazine
...

The bicycle is a cheap means of transport
...

A plural or uncountable noun on its own can also have a general meaning
...

A/an or one? • 163
We can use either a/an or one with a singular noun
...


159 The form of the articles

PAGE 199

A/an, some and a noun on its own • 164
We use a/an only with a singular noun
...

Singular:
A shelf was put up
...

Uncountable:
(Some) furniture was brought in
...

Music usually helps me relax
...

OVERVIEW:

a/an, some and the • 166

A singular noun on its own • 167
We use a singular noun on its own only in some special patterns
...


Articles in phrases of time • 169
You should get the letter on Thursday
...


Place names and the • 171
Some place names have the
...


Ten pounds an hour etc • 172
There is a special use of a/an in phrases of price, speed etc
...


159 The form of the articles
1

Before a consonant sound the articles are a
they are an
and the

and the

a + consonant sound

an + vowel sound

a shelf
a visitor
a big exhibition

an accident
an exhibition
an interesting display

the

the

the shelf

the accident


...
Note
especially words beginning with o, u or h, or abbreviations
...
g
...
Leaving out

and old-fashioned,
b In slow or emphatic speech we can use a
And now, ladies and gentlemen, a

or an hotel
is a little formal

an
and the
special item in our show
...

Aintree is the
place to be on Grand National Day
...


For the

160 The basic use of the articles
1

HOVERCRAFT STOWAWAY

A hovercraft flying at 40 mph was halted in rough seas when a stowaway was
discovered - on the outside
...
The captain was tipped off by
radio
...

A Hovertravel spokesman said: 'It was a very dangerous thing to do
...
'
(from The Mail on Sunday)

When the report first mentions a thing, the noun has a/an, e
...
a hovercraft and a
stowaway in the first sentence
...

He stopped the craft and a crewman brought the stowaway inside
...

The difference between a/an and the is like the difference between someone!
something and a personal pronoun
...
The man/He was
arrested when he arrived at Southsea
...

NOTE

a For a/an describing something, e
...
It was a very dangerous thing to do,• 161
...
This is the first sentence
of a short story by Ruth Rendell
...

This puts the reader in the middle of the action, as if we already know what house
...
Take this example from
Hovercraft Stowaway in (1)
...


PAGE 201

160 The basic use of the articles

We use the here even though this is the first mention of the captain
...
We use the for something unique in the context - there is only one
captain
...

You'll see a shop with paintings in the window
...

Now look at these examples
...

The Prime Minister is to make a statement
...
We were at home in the garden
...

Could I speak to the manager? (spoken in a restaurant)
...
(spoken while looking at a stereo)
There is only one English Channel, one Prime Minister of a country, one sun in the
sky, one garden of our house and one post office in our neighbourhood
...

We often use the when a phrase or clause comes after the noun and defines which
one is meant
...

I'd like to get hold of the idiot who left this broken glass here
...

He lives in a house overlooking the park
...

We often use the when an of-phrase follows the noun
...

The roof of a house was blown off in the storm
...

NOTE

But we can use a/an before a phrase of quantity with of
...

The Sears Tower is the tallest building in the world
...

I think you went the wrong way at the lights
...

b For next and last in phrases of time, e
...
next week, • 169(8)
...

This decade has seen a revival in the cinema
...

Your cheque is in the post
...

Here the cinema does not mean a specific cinema but the cinema as an institution
...


19

THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE

PAGE 202

Also the countryside, the doctor, the establishment, the media, the (news)paper, the
police, the press, the seaside, the working class(es)
...

Donna has got a job in television/in radio
...

When we talk about the physical things, we use the articles in the normal way
...

Harry turned on the radio/the television
...

I'm looking for a pen
...
(a specific pen)
I'm looking for a pen
...
(a specific hovercraft)
The quickest way is to take a hovercraft
...

a/an

the

Not mentioned before
Do you want to see a video?
(We don't say which video
...

(You videoed one film
...

(There are other films about wildlife
...

This is a big house, isn't it?
Last Saturday was a lovely day
...

It's a long way to Newcastle
...

What kind of bird is that? ~ A blackbird, isn't it?
The Sears Tower is a building in Chicago
...

My sister is a doctor
...

The author of the report is a Scot
...

Mr Liam O'Donnell, a Catholic, was injured in the incident
...
g
...

The author of the report is an American/is American
...
NOT He was Scot
...


PAGE 203

162 The article in generalizations

162 The article in generalizations
This paragraph contains some generalizations about animals
...

The hippo has grown its ears and eyes on the top of its head, and its nostrils on top
of its nose, for lying in water
...
The camel closes its nose against the
blowing sand of the desert, and the seal against the water in which it spends most
of its time
...
E
...
Bowood Animals And How They Live)

For generalizations we can use a plural or an uncountable noun on its own, or a
singular noun with a/an or the
...

A camel can close its nose
...

These statements are about all camels, camels in general, not a specific camel or
group of camels
...


1 Plural/uncountable noun on its own
Blackbirds have a lovely song
...

People expect good service
...

This is the most common way of making a generalization
...

A computer will only do what it's told to do
...

Here a blackbird means any blackbird, any example of a blackbird
...


3 The + singular noun
The blackbird has a lovely song
...

Can you play the piano?
Here the blackbird means a typical, normal blackbird, one which stands for
blackbirds in general
...

NOTE

Sports and games are uncountable, so we use the noun on its own: play tennis, play chess
...
For American usage, • 304(3)
...

The French love eating in restaurants
...

The stereo has a tape deck
...
)
The stereo has one tape deck
...
)

2

We use one for one of a larger number
...

One shop was open, but the others were closed
...

We use one in the of-pattern
...


3

We use one in adverb phrases with morning, day, time etc
...

One day my genius will be recognized
...
g
...
And we can sometimes use a instead of one in a number, e
...
a hundred,
• 191(1) Note b
...
Some + plural or uncountable noun is
equivalent to a/an + singular noun
...

Plural:
There are some rats under the floorboards
...

some rats = a number of rats; some milk = an amount of milk
But we can sometimes use a plural or uncountable noun on its own
...

There's milk in the fridge
...


2

To classify or describe something, • 161, or to make a generalisation, • 162, we
use a/an+ singular noun or a plural or uncountable noun on its own
...

A rat will eat anything
...

Rats will eat anything
...


166 Overview: a/an, some and the

PAGE 205

165 Sugar or the sugar?
1

We use an uncountable or plural noun on its own for a generalization and we use
the when the meaning is more specific
...

Children don't like long walks
...

Can you look after the children for us ?
Without oil, our industry would come to a halt
...

Here sugar means all sugar, sugar in general, and the sugar means the sugar on the
table where we are sitting
...

Life just isn't fair
...

The life of a Victorian factory worker wasn't easy
...

I'm not an expert on Chinese history
...

The meaning is the same
...
Also: town planning/the
planning of towns, Mozart's music/the music of Mozart
...

Life in those days wasn't easy
...

Life in those days is still a general idea; silk from Japan means a type of material
rather than a specific piece of material
...

I need (some) stamps for these letters
...

There's a stamp in the drawer
...

There's (some) paper in the drawer
...

The stamps (I showed you) are valuable
...

This is a nice stamp/a Canadian stamp
...

This is nice paper/wrapping paper
...

This book is a history of the postage stamp
...

How is paper made ?

19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE

67 A singular noun on its own
We cannot normally use a singular noun on its own, but there are some
exceptions
...
• 168
How are you getting on at college?

2

In some phrases of time
...


3

In some fixed expressions where the noun is repeated or there is a contrast
between the two nouns
...

The whole thing has been a fiasco from start to finish
...
• 228(5b)
It's quicker by plane
...

Elizabeth was crowned Queen
...

NOTE

We use a/an when the role is not unique
...


6

With a noun in apposition, especially in newspaper style
...


7

In many idiomatic phrases, especially after a preposition or verb
...

in a hurry
on the whole
take a seat

8

Names of people have no article, • 170, and most place names have no
article, • 171
...
• 13(3)
Put the knife and fork on the tray
...
• 45
Insert plug in hole in side panel
...

School starts at nine o'clock
...

The guilty men were sent to prison
...

Here school means 'school activities', but the school means 'the school building'
...

I'm usually in bed by eleven
...

In bed means 'sleeping/resting', but the bed means a specific bed
...

The guilty men were sen to a high-security prison
...

NOTE

When the noun is part of a name, there is usually no article
...


4

Here are some notes on the most common nouns of this type
...
Also at college etc
work
go to work, leave work, at work (= working/at the workplace); But go
to the office/the factory
NOTE

We do not leave out the before other singular nouns for buildings and places, e
...
the station,
the shop, the cinema, the theatre, the library, the pub, the city, the village
...

in winter
on Monday
But the noun takes a/an or the if there is an adjective before the noun or if there is
a phrase or clause after it
...

The war lasted from 1812 to 1815
...


the winter of 1947
a marvellous summer

3 Months
June is a good month to go away
...


That was the June we got married
...

Americans eat turkey at
Thanksgiving
...

Rosie saw her husband again the Easter
after their divorce
...

Our visitors are coming on
Saturday
...

This happened on a Saturday in July
...


6 Parts of the day and night
They reached camp at sunset
...

At midday it was very hot
...

I can't see in the dark
...
But we use a/an or the for the
physical aspect, e
...
in the dark
...

I had a sandwich for lunch
...

The meal was served at half past seven
...

Bruce and Wendy enjoyed a delicious
lunch at Mario's
...

We're having a party next
Saturday
...

They were having a party the following
Saturday
...

(The) next day, the young man called again
...

Seen from the present:
tomorrow
next week
Seen from the past:
(the) next day
the next/following week

next year
the next/following year

170 Names of people
A person's name does not normally have the in front of it
...

Mrs Parsons just phoned
...
g
...
The use of the first name is informal and friendly
...
Some people use Ms
or
) for a woman,
whether married or not
...
NOT Good morning, mister
...

Doctor Fry
Aunt Mary
Lord Olivier
NOTE

a Some titles can also be ordinary nouns
...

b A title + of-phrase takes the, e
...
the Prince of Wales
...
g
...


2

But sometimes we can use a name with an article
...
(= a person called Laura)
A Mrs Wilson called to see you
...
(= the person called Laura)
The gallery has some Picassos
...

I know a Joan Collins, but she isn't the Joan Collins
...

I didn't mean that Peter, I meant the other one
...
Some names take the,
especially compound names, but some do not: the Black Sea but Lake Superior
...
They are the kind of place it
is (e
...
a lake or a sea), and the grammatical pattern of the name
...

of-phrase:
the Isle of Wight, the Palace of Congresses
Adjective:
the Royal Opera House, the International School
Plural:
the West Indies
But we do not use the before a possessive
...

NOTE

a Look at these uses of a/an and the before a name which normally has no article
...
(= a place called Plymouth)
The Plymouth of today is very different from the Plymouth I once knew
...
(= the place like Venice)
b Even when a name has the (on the Isle of Wight) the article can still be left out in some
contexts such as on signs and labels
...


2

Here are some details about different kinds of place names
...

a trip to Europe
on Bermuda
a holiday in France
through Texas
in Hampshire
New South Wales
Exceptions are names ending with words like republic or kingdom
...

the Netherlands
the Bahamas
the USA
NOTE

Other exceptions are the Gambia and the Ukraine
...

Central America
to North Wales
South-East Asia
in New England
Most other regions have the
...

climbing (Mount) Kilimanjaro
up (Mount) Everest
But hill ranges and mountain ranges have the
...


PAGE 211

d

e

Lakes, rivers, canals and seas
Lakes are without the
...

on the (River) Aire
the Missouri (river)
the Black Sea
in the Pacific (Ocean)
Cities, towns, suburbs and villages
Most are without the
...

f

Roads, streets and parks
Most are without the
...

the High Street
the Great West Road
NOTE

a We use the in this pattern
...

the Edgware Road
b We use the with by-passes and motorways
...


g

Bridges
Most bridges are without the
...

the Humber Bridge (=the bridge over the River Humber)

h

Transport facilities; religious, educational and official buildings; palaces and
houses
Most are without the
...

the Chapel of Our Lady
the American School
the Open University
the Science Museum

19 THE ARTICLES: A/AN AND THE

Theatres, cinemas, hotels, galleries and centres
Most have the
...

Her Majesty's Theatre
at Bertram's Hotel

PAGE 212

to the Empire (Hotel)
the Chrysler Building

NOTE

In the US names with center are without the
...

next to W
...
Smiths
shopping at Harrods
just outside Boots
eating at Matilda's (Restaurant)
Exceptions are those without the name of a person
...

at the Red Lion (Inn)

172 Ten pounds an hour etc
1

We can use a/an in expressions of price, speed etc
...

The speed limit on motorways is seventy miles an hour
...

NOTE Per is more formal, e
...
seventy miles per hour
...

The car does sixty miles to the gallon/to a gallon
...


3

We can use by the to say how something is measured
...

Carpets are sold by the square metre
...

It's my book
...

These words express a relation, often the fact that something belongs to someone
...

This programme is interesting
...

We use demonstratives to refer to something in the situation, to 'point' to
something
...
That and those mean
something further away
...

Emma: Have you got your diary, Sandy?
Sandy: I think so
...

Luke: I can't come on Friday
...
It's
her birthday
...
My diary is the diary that
belongs to me
...
• 146
Luke's diary
our neighbour's birthday

2 Determiners and pronouns
a

Possessive determiners (sometimes called 'possessive adjectives') come before a
noun
...
• 178(lb, lc)
all my money some of your friends a lot of his time one of our neighbours

20

b

POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES

PAGE

We leave out the noun if it is clear from the context what we mean
...
We say mine instead of my diary
...
~ I haven't got mine with me
...
and NOT I haven't got the mine
...
Hers is blue
...

Is this diary yours? NOT IS this diary to you?
NOTE

a We can use the possessive form of a noun on its own
...

But we do not use an apostrophe with a possessive pronoun
...
g
...


3 Form
Determiners
First person
Second person
Third person

Singular
my pen
your number
his father
her decision
its colour

Pronouns
Plural
our house
your coats
their attitude

Singular
mine
yours
his
hers

Plural
ours
yours
theirs

NOTE

a His is male; her is female; and their is plural
...

b His can be either a determiner or a pronoun
...
Has Rory got his?
c Its is a determiner but not a pronoun
...
Does the tiger (eat its young), I wonder?
NOT Does the tiger eats its?
d Its is possessive, but it's is a short form of it is or it has
...

What's the matter? ~ I've hurt my back, NOT I've hurt the back
...

Brian just stood there with his hands in his pockets
...

Verb
Person
Prepositional phrase
The stone hit
the policeman on the/his shoulder
...

Nigel
took
Jemima
by the arm
...

Nigel looked at Jemima and put his hand on her arm
...
To talk about a
person I am friends with, we say one of my friends or a friend of mine
...

The twins are visiting an uncle of theirs
...
It's just a silly idea of his
...

I'm reading a novel of Steinbeck's
...

It's just a silly idea of my brother's
...

I'd love to have my own flat
...

My own means 'belonging to me and not to anyone else
...

The ideas should be your own
...

You'll have to make your own bed
...


b

There is also a pattern with of
...
NOT an own flat
NOTE

Compare the two patterns
...

I don't want to walk home on my own/by myself
...

I'll do my best
...
)
We took our leave
...
)
It was your fault we got lost
...
)
I've changed my mind
...
)

20 POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES

PAGE 216

175 Demonstratives
CHOOSING A GIFT

Debbie: I just want to look at these jugs
...

Felicity: Those glass ones are nice
...
It's a bit expensive, though
...


1 Basic use
We use demonstratives to 'point' to something in the situation
...
That and those refer to something further away
...
These and those are plural
...
g
...


3 Determiners and pronouns
This, that, these and those can be determiners or pronouns
...
We can
leave out the noun if the meaning is clear without it
...

I've read most of this (book)
...

What about this (one)?
What about these (ones)?
If there is an adjective, we cannot normally leave out one(s), e
...
those big ones
...

Near:
this book (here)
this time (now)
Far:
that book (there)
that time (then)

b

When we are in a place or situation or at an event, we use this, not that, to
refer to it
...

How long is this weather going to last?
This is a great party
...

NOTE

When we mention something a second time, we use it or they, not a demonstrative
...

These shoes are wet
...

For these words in indirect speech, • 267(2) Note
...

that waiter (over there)
these people (in here)
We can also use this and that on their own when we identify someone
...
~ Hello, Duncan
...
~ Oh? What did she want?
On the phone we use this when we identify ourselves and that when we ask who
the other person is
...
Is that you, Shirley?
NOTE For American usage, • 304(5)
...

My mother is staying with us this week
...
My mother was staying with us that week
...

It was different when I was young
...

NOTE

a In informal English we can use that/those with something known but not present in the
situation
...

That dress Tanya was wearing yesterday looked really smart
...

This girl came up to me in a pub and
...
'

20 POSSESSIVES AND DEMONSTRATIVES

e

PAGE 218

We can use this or that to refer to something mentioned before
...
This is/That's the problem
...
' That is more usual
...

The rooms are so big
...

Well, if you haven't got television, you can't watch it
...

But when we refer forward to what we are going to say, we use this
...
The government has
...

The temperature of a snake is the same as that of the surrounding air
...

This can happen only when there is a phrase or clause after that/those, e
...
of the
surrounding air
...


PAGE 219

21
Quantifiers
6 Summary
A quantifier is a word like many, a lot of, both, all, enough
...

Large:
The burglars did a lot of damage
...

Whole and part quantities: all, most, both etc • 178
Some quantifiers express the whole or a part of a quantity
...

Part:
Most crime remains unsolved
...

The burglars took some money
...
(= a part of the money)
We use any mainly in negatives and questions
...

Have they done any damage?
But any can also mean 'it doesn't matter which'
...
Come any day you like
...

Quantifiers without a noun • 1 8 1
We can use a quantifier without a noun
...

(most= most burglars)
OVERVIEW: quantifiers • 182
NOTE

For numbers, • 191
...
g
...


21

QUANTIFIERS

PAGE 220

177 Large and small quantities
1 A lot of/lots of, many and much
a These express a large quantity
...
But many goes only before plural nouns and much before
uncountable nouns
...

There aren't many trains on a Sunday
...

There isn't much traffic on a Sunday
...
But, • (1c)
...

Negative:
There aren't many tourists here
...

Very many crimes go unreported
...

There's too much concrete here and not enough grass
...

b We can use quite and rather before a lot of but not before many or much
...

c A great many is rather formal
...


c

A lot of is rather more informal than much/many
...

There aren't a lot of tourists/many tourists here
...

Many tourists come here year after year
...
We use them mainly in positive
statements
...

Plural:
Yes, there are a few night clubs in the city
...

A bit of means the same as a little, but a bit of is more informal
...

There are quite a few night clubs in the city
...


PAGE 221

177 Large and small quantities

b Only gives the phrase a negative meaning
...

This means a smaller quantity than we might expect
...
g
...


b

We can also use few and little without a
...
Compare
these sentences
...

(a few tourists = some tourists, a small number)
Is this a holiday place? ~ No, there are few tourists/not many tourists here
...

(a little traffic - some traffic, a small amount)
It was three in the morning, so there was little traffic/not much traffic
...

NOTE

a We can use very before few/little
...

b We can use a subject with not many/not much
...


3 Special patterns with many and few
a

Many and few can come after the, these/those or a possessive
...

Can you eat up these few peas?
Tim introduced us to one of his many girl-friends
...

Many a ship has come to grief off the coast here
...

This is rather literary
...


c

Many or few can be a complement
...

This is rather literary
...

The scheme has many disadvantages/a lot of disadvantages
...

A dishwasher uses a great deal of electricity
...

Numerous difficulties were put in my way
...
(informal)

b

Small quantities
Several people/A handful of people got left behind
...


21 QUANTIFIERS

PAGE 222

178 Whole and part quantities: all, most, both etc
PACKAGE STEREO SYSTEMS

Package systems are generally advertised on the strength of their features; a
separates system may not have many of these
...

Most package systems have two cassette decks
...
All the systems we tested can copy a tape from one deck to the other in
about half the normal playing time
...
)

1 Patterns
a

Quantifier + noun
every system
both decks

most music

NOTE

These are the possible combinations
...

For some + singular noun, • 179(5}
...
But exceptions are
every and no
...


e

Quantifier + one
each one
either one
We can use either, neither, every, each and any
...

each one of the systems
either one of them

PAGE 223

178 Whole and part quantities

f

Quantifier without a noun • 181
Most have two decks
...


g

Object pronoun + quantifier
I've heard it all before
...

We can use all and both in this pattern
...

They were both tested
...


2 All, most, half and none
a

We can use all/most + noun to make a generalization
...

Most package systems have two cassette decks
...

These are about rabbits, package systems and pollution in general
...

Most people want a quiet life
...

(the people = a specific group of people)

NOTE

a For Rabbits love green food, • 162
...

More than half the pollution in the world could, be avoided
...

A minority of systems have only one deck
...

All (of) our rabbits died from some disease
...
NOT the most of the pubs
Copying takes half (of) the normal playing time
...

We can leave out of after all and half
...

We had some rabbits, but all of them died
...

NOTE

a We can use half a/an to express quantity
...
I could only eat half a slice of toast
...
g
...


c

We can use all after an object pronoun
...
We lost them all/all of them
...

The systems can all copy a tape from one deck to the other
...

Who went to the disco? ~ We all did
...

Package systems mostly/usually have two cassette decks
...
We use it with the of-pattern
...
They all died
...

But not all means 'less than all'
...
Some of them survived
...


3 Whole
We can use whole as an adjective before a singular noun
...
NOT this all idea
You didn't eat a whole chicken!
NOTE

a Compare these sentences
...

We spent every day (of the week) on the beach
...

Did you copy the whole of the tape?

4 Both, either and neither
a

We use these words for two things
...

If you're ambidextrous, you can write with either hand
...

Positive
Two
Three
or more

Negative

Both prisoners
escaped
...


Neither of the prisoners
escaped
...


c

Patterns with both are the same as patterns with all
...

They both play tapes
...

But NOT the both decks

d

We use either and neither before a noun or in the of-pattern
...

Neither of our cars is/are very economical to run
...


PAGE 225

178 Whole and part quantities

e

In positions other than the subject, neither is more emphatic and rather more
formal than not either
...

I like neither of those pictures
...

Neither of those pictures are any good
...


5 Every and each
a

We use these words before a singular noun to talk about all the members of a
group
...

There were flags flying from every/each building
...

Every/Each ticket has a number
...

Every building means 'all the buildings' and implies a large number
...


b

Here are some more examples
...
(= all the shops)
We went into each shop in turn
...
(= all children)
Each child was given a medal with his or her name engraved on it
...
Each can refer to two or more
things but every to three or more
...

Missiles were being thrown from every direction/from all directions
...

There were flags flying from almost every building
...

Every single child was given a medal
...
• 184(5)
Each child had their own medal
...
Each is less usual
...

The meetings are every four weeks
...
(= every second weekend)

d We can use each (but not every) in these patterns
...

Each has a personal tutor
...

They each received a souvenir
...

The tickets are £5 each
...

None of the doors were locked
...

But not every means 'less than all'
...
Some of them were open
...

This next part of the film is exciting
...

(A) part of the film was shot in Iceland
...

We normally use part of only before a singular noun
...

I was out most of the day
...
But when many, much, a few
and a little express part of a quantity, we use of
...

Much of my time is spent answering enquiries
...

NOTE

a We sometimes use a lot of, much of and a little of with a singular noun
...

b Compare a lot of for a large quantity and a large part
...
She must have a lot of clothes
...
(= a large part)

179 Some, any and no
1 Some/any expressing a quantity
a Some + plural or uncountable noun is equivalent to a/an + singular noun
...

For
Here some is usually pronounced
or
, • (3)
...
Some nails = a number of nails
...
We use any mainly in negatives and questions
...

Negative:
1 haven't got any wood
...

NOTE

a In a negative sentence we can sometimes use any+ singular noun
...
~ I can't see any hammer/a hammer
...


PAGE 227

179 Some, any and no

c

In negative sentences we almost always use any and not some
...

I can't find any nails
...

We've won hardly any games this season
...


d

Any is more usual in questions, and it leaves the answer open
...
/No
...

Did you catch any fish? ~ Yes, a few
...

But we use some to give the question a more positive tone, especially when making
an offer or request
...

Did you catch some fish? (I expect you caught some fish
...
)
Could you lend me some money? (Please lend me some money
...
Some is more positive
...

We can use any in a main clause to express a condition
...

(= If there are any problems, they will be dealt with by our agent
...

There was someone in the phone box
...

Have you got anything/something suitable to wear?
Could you do something for me?

2 No
a

No is a negative word
...

There is no alternative
...

The driver had no time to stop
...


b

We can use no with the subject but we cannot use any
...
/A warning was not given
...


c

We cannot use the quantifier no without a noun
...


3 Some expressing part of a quantity
We can use some to mean 'some but not all'
...

Some trains have a restaurant car
...

Some of the canals in Venice have traffic lights
...

= some but not all
Some people enjoy quiz shows
...

NOTE

Compare the use of all and some
...

Specific:
All of these fish are mine
...

Some of these fish are blue
...

You can choose any colour you like
...
I don't mind what you play
...

Everyone knows the town hall
...

Any refers to one part of the whole
...
But it doesn't matter which one - you can ask
any of them
...

b

Compare either and any
...
You can have either of them
...
You can have any of them
...

The door isn't locked
...

What do you want for lunch?~ Oh, anything
...


5 Special uses of some
a

Some + singular noun can mean an indefinite person or thing
...

The flight was delayed for some reason (or other)
...
It is not important who the idiot is
...

I'll be famous some day/one day
...


c

Some can express strong feeling about something
...

It means that the parade was special, perhaps a
Here some is pronounced
large and impressive one
...

This isn't just any parade
...


d

Some before a number means 'about'
...


PAGE 229

180 Other quantifiers

180 Other quantifiers
1
a

Enough and plenty of
We can use enough before a plural or an uncountable noun
...

Have we enough time for a quick coffee?
We can also use the of-pattern
...

NOTE For enough as an adverb, • 212(1b)
...

There'll be plenty of people to lend a hand
...

NOTE

We use plenty of to talk about something which is a good thing
...

The store was very crowded
...


2

Another and some more

a

These express an extra quantity
...

Singular:
Have another sausage
...
I've had enough
...
~ Thank you
...
~ Yes, I will
...


b

Another can mean either 'an extra one' or 'a different one'
...
One isn't enough for us
...
(= a different one)
NOTE We always write another as one word
...
• 179(1)
There aren't any more sausages, I'm afraid
...

I shall need a few more lessons before I can ski properly
...

Can't you put a little more effort into it?
NOTE

We can sometimes use more on its own instead of some more
...

You 're supposed to go out through the other door
...

You take one bag and I'll take the other (one)
...
The others/The rest were thrown away
...

I came on ahead
...
(= the other people)
NOTE

The other day/week means 'recently, not long ago'
...


b

We use another before a number + noun, even when the number is more than one
...

Here we are talking about an extra period, an extra number of days
...

There are two other rooms/two more rooms/another two rooms upstairs
...

DEPARTMENT STORES IN LONDON

There are several large stores in London where you can buy practically anything;
others are more specialized but still offer a wide choice of goods
...

(from R
...
Here are some more quantifiers that we might
use in this context
...

A few are outside the West End
...

None stay open all night
...

Many of them also have hairdressing salons
...
• 189
I tried three doors, and each (one) was locked
...

All open on Saturday
...

All of them open on Saturday
...

But we sometimes use all+ clause meaning 'everything' or 'the only thing'
...

All you need is love
...

All (those) in favour raise your hands
...

c We can use another without a noun or with one
...

We can do the same with the adjective other
...

But when we leave out a plural noun, we use others or ones with an s
...

Some stores sell anything
...


182 Overview: quantifiers

PAGE 231

We can use each without a noun but not every
...

NOT Every can cheese-its own half day
...
We use none instead
...
None (of them) are easy
...
When the quantifier is without a noun, we do not
use of
...

If you want to climb a mountain, there are plenty to choose from
...

Of must have a noun or pronoun after it
...


182 Overview: quantifiers
This overview shows some ways of expressing different quantities
...

Large/small quantity

Whole/part quantity • 178

Total

Majority
• 178(2)

all letters/money (in general)
all (of) the letter (s) / money
the whole letter
every leach letter • 178(5)
each of these letters
Of two • 178(4)
both (your) letters
both of your letters
either letter
either of the letters
most

of

my

most letters/money (in general)
letter
(s)
/
money

Large
• 177(1)

a lot of letters/money a lot
many letters
a large number of letters
much money
a large amount of money
a great deal of money

of the letter (s) / money
many of his letters
much of this letter/money
•178(7)

Neutral

some letters/money

some (of the) letter (s) / money

• 179(1)

a number of letters
an amount of money

• 179(3)

part of that letter/money • 178(6)

21 QUANTIFIERS

Half • 178(2)

PAGE 232

half

(of)

the

letter(s)/money

Small
several letters
several of those letters
(positive) a few letters
a
few
of the letters
• 177(2a)
a small number of letters
a little money
a little of his letter/our money
a bit of money
a bit of that letter/money
a small amount of money
Small
(negative)
• 177(2b)

few letters
few of our letters
not many letters
not many of these letters
little money
little
of
the
letter/money
not much money
not much of that letter/money
hardly any letters/money
hardly any of the letter(s)/money

Zero

no letter(s)/money
• 179(2)
no

none
part

of the letters/money • 178(2)
of
this
letter/money
Of two • 178(4)
neither letter
neither of the letters

22
Pronouns
183 Summary
Personal pronouns • 184
We use personal pronouns for the speaker (I) and the person spoken to (you)
...

Judy isn't coming with us
...

Personal pronouns have both a subject and an object form
...
Wait for me
...

You can't buy much for a pound
...

Reflexive pronouns, emphatic pronouns and each other • 186
Reflexive pronouns refer to the subject of the sentence
...

Emphatic pronouns lay emphasis on a noun phrase
...

We use each other when the action goes in both directions
...

personal pronouns, Possessives and reflexives • 187
Pronouns are related to possessive forms: I/me - my - mine - myself
...

I'll have a cola
...

We can use one to replace a noun phrase with a/an
...
Have you got one?
Everyone, something etc • 189
There are the compound pronouns everyone, something etc
...

NOTE

For question words (who, what etc) used as pronouns, • 27
...

For demonstrative pronouns (this, that, these, those), • 175
...

For relative pronouns (who, whom, which, that), • 271
...

WHAT DOES MATTHEW LOOK LIKE?

Avril: If we said to you now, 'What does Matthew look like?' you probably
wouldn't be able to give as good a description as we could
...

Avril: All right then
...

Avril: Well, he's quite tall, over six foot
...

Lucy: Well, yes, I suppose so
...

Lucy: Not very short
...

Lucy: It's short as opposed to long
...

(from M
...
'Personal' means first person
(the speaker), second person (the person spoken to) and third person (another
person or thing)
...

Singular
First person
Second person
Third person

Plural

Subject Object
I
me
you
you
he
him
she
her
it
it

Subject Object
we
us
you
you
they
them

NOTE

a The pronoun I is always a capital letter,
b You is the only second-person form
...
You're late, all of you
...


We use the subject form when the pronoun is the subject
...
Well, he's quite tall
...

You describe him to me
...
Compare:
Who invited Matthew? ~ I did
...

NOTE

We sometimes use a subject pronoun as complement
...

Who's that? ~ It's me
...

Sarah knows all about it
...

The subject pronoun in this position is old-fashioned and often formal
...
For pronouns after as and than, • 221(5)
...

Matthew and I are good friends
...

We normally put I/me last, NOT I and Matthew are good friends
...

Matthew and me are good friends
...

This happens only in informal English and is seen by many people as wrong
...

It's a present from Matthew and I
...

Well, he's quite tall, NOT Well, is quite tall
...
NOT You describe to me
...
• 42

e

We do not normally use a pronoun together with a noun
...

NOTE

a A pronoun comes after the noun in this pattern with as for
...

In informal speech, we can leave out as for
...

Those new people, I saw them yesterday
...

b In informal speech we can use this pattern
...

It was late, the five o'clock train
...

c We sometimes use a noun phrase after a pronoun to make clear who or what the pronoun
refers to
...
He, Matthew, felt worried
...

A We can sometimes use a phrase after a pronoun to modify it
...

You alone must decide
...


2 We
A plural pronoun refers to more than one person or thing
...
We can include or exclude the person spoken to
...
~ Yes, we'd better hurry
...
~ You'd better hurry then
...
In the conversation at the beginning of 184, Matthew is mentioned only
once
...

What does he look like?
You describe him
...

But we cannot use a pronoun when it is not clear who it refers to
...


2 2 PRONOUNS

PAGE 236

There was a great war between Caesar and the Senate; the armies of the Senate
were commanded by another Roman general, Pompey, who had once been
friendly with Caesar
...
Caesar became master of Rome and the whole of the Roman
Empire in 46 BC
...
Cairns The Romans and their Empire)

Here Caesar and Pompey have to be repeated
...

NOTE

A pronoun usually goes after the full noun phrase, but it can come first
...


b

He/him, she/her and it are singular
...

I like Steve
...

I like Helen
...

I like that game
...

We also use it when talking about someone's identity
...

There's someone at the door
...

Compare these sentences
...

Don't you remember who gave you that vase? It was Celia
...
Compare these sentences
...

It's a really vicious dog
...

The country's oil has given it/her economic independence
...

Look at that baby
...

d We do not normally stress it, but we can stress this/that
...

I like your cousins
...

I like these pictures
...


4 Overview: uses of it
Use

Example

To refer to something
non-human, e
...
a thing,
a substance, an action,
a feeling, an idea or
a statement

I've lost my wallet
...

Look at this water
...
~
It was exhausting
...
It was obvious
...

It's strange that your dream came true
...


Identifying a person
As empty subject • 50(5)
To give emphasis • 51 (3)

PAGE 237

185 Special uses of you, one, we and they

5 They for someone of unknown sex
There is a problem in English when we want to talk about a single person whose
sex is not known
...

1 When the millionth visitor arrives, he will be given a free ticket
...

2 When the millionth visitor arrives, he or she will be given a free ticket
...

3 When the millionth visitor arrives, they will be given a free ticket
...

The use of he in sentence (1) is seen by many people as sexist and is less common
than it used to be
...

In (3) they is used with a singular meaning
...

NOTE

a The problem disappears if we can use a plural noun
...

A student is expected to arrange his or her own accommodation
...

b Sometimes we write he/she instead of he or she
...


185 Special uses of you, one, we and they
1 You
This real conversation contains two examples of the pronoun you meaning 'people
in general'
...

Felix: Long skirt and top, that's what my wife always wears
...

(from M
...

What do you mean? (you = Felix, the person spoken to)
You can wear anything these days
...
One is a third-person pronoun
...

One doesn't/You don't like to complain
...
One is more formal
...

NOT One is going to knock this building down
...

I hope/One hopes things will improve
...

Ice-cream is full of calories
...

It also has a possessive form one's and a reflexive/emphatic form oneself
...

One should look after oneself
...


3 We
We can also mean 'people in general', 'all of us', especially when we talk about
shared knowledge and behaviour
...

We use language to communicate
...

They're going to knock this building down
...

They always show old films on television on holiday weekends
...

They say/People say you can get good bargains in the market
...


186 Reflexive pronouns, emphatic pronouns and
each other
1 Form
We form reflexive/emphatic pronouns with self or selves
...

I fell over and hurt myself
...

We suddenly found ourselves in the middle of a hostile crowd
...

Marion didn't look herself/her usual self
...

Van Gogh painted himself
...
(a picture of someone else)
NOTE

a We can also use a reflexive pronoun in a sub clause
...

Giving themselves a pay rise wasn't very diplomatic of the directors
...

You should get in touch either with Peter or myself
...
We use me, you etc after a preposition of place when it is clear that the
pronoun must refer to the subject
...

My mother likes all the family around her
...

I bought these chocolates for myself
...
( n o t of someone else)
We also use myself etc rather than me etc after a prepositional verb, e
...
believe in
...

We're old enough to look after ourselves
...
• 174(6c)

c

There are some idiomatic uses of a verb + reflexive pronoun
...
(= have a good time)
Did the children behave themselves? (= behave well)
Can we just help ourselves? (= take e
...
food)

d

Some verbs taking a reflexive pronoun in other languages do not do so in English
...

Won't you sit down?
I feel so helpless
...

Such verbs are afford, approach, complain, concentrate, feel + adjective, get up,
hurry (up), lie down, relax, remember, rest, sit down, stand up, wake up, wonder,
worry
...

Tom dressed quickly and went down to breakfast
...

The old man was unable to dress himself
...


22 PRONOUNS

PAGE

240

b Dry in this context takes a reflexive
...

c We often use get washed, get shaved, get (un)dressed and get changed
...

d For have a wash/bath/shave, • 87
...
Self/selves is stressed
...

(= Walt Disney, not someone else)
The town itself is very ordinary, but it is set in lovely countryside
...
In this meaning, it usually comes in
end position
...

Did you do all this electrical wiring yourself?
NOTE

Myself sometimes means 'as for me', 'as far as I am concerned'
...


4 Each other/one another
a

These are sometimes called 'reciprocal pronouns
...

The students help each other/one another with their homework
...

England and Portugal have never been at war with each other/one another
...

Tracy and Sarah are the same size
...


b

Compare the reflexive pronoun and each other
...

c

They've hurt each other
...
the other
...

Each girl wears the other's clothes
...
the other, which means an action in one direction only
...
On their first flight one of the
psychiatrists arrested the other
...
Here are some examples from
real conversations
...

(the one = the car)
Now I will think everywhere I go on an aeroplane 'Is this one going to come
down?' (this one = this aeroplane)
And what other stamps do you like besides Polish ones? ~ English ones
...
(English ones = English stamps)
One is singular and ones is plural
...

NOTE

We cannot use one/ones instead of an uncountable noun, but we can leave out the noun
...
I wanted lined
...
But sometimes we have to
use it if we leave out the noun
...
I like this (one)
...

The building had six windows
...

After which
There are lots of seats still available
...


22 PRONOUNS

b

PAGE 242

Patterns where we have to use one/ones
After an adjective (But • Note)
An orange juice
...

I didn't buy a calculator
...

After the
This television is better than the one we had before
...
Every one had been broken
...

We've got French books and German (ones)
...

My toothbrush is the blue (one)
...
We leave out a
...
(= a phone box)
I don't know anything about weddings
...
(= a wedding)

4

Compare one/some and it/they
...
I'll have to buy one
...
I'll have to buy some
...
You can borrow it
...
(= the boots)
One and some are indefinite (like a)
...


5

Here is an overview of the uses of one and ones
...

Would you like one of these cakes?
• 188(2)
A whisky, please
...

Two coffees, please
...

• 188(3) Replacing a/an + noun I've just baked these cakes
...


189 Everyone, something etc
1

Every, some, any and no form compound pronouns ending in one/body and thing
(sometimes called 'indefinite pronouns') and compound adverbs ending in where
...
There's nobody in there
...
We use everyone
and everybody in the same way
...

The comedian told several jokes
...
(stress on every)
The comedian told several jokes
...
(stress on one)
b All and none do not normally mean 'everyone' and 'nobody'
...

c Compare someone and one
...
(= one person)
One knows what happened
...


b

We use thing for things, actions, ideas etc
...
(= all the things)
There's something funny going on
...
(= no information)
NOTE Nothing is pronounced

c

everywhere = (in) all (the) places
I've been looking everywhere for you
...

NOTE For American someplace etc, • 305 (3)
...
• 179
There's someone in the waiting-room
...

Park somewhere along here
...


3

Pronouns in one/body have a possessive form
...

Somebody's car is blocking the road
...

We need someone strong to help move the piano, NOT -strong someone
Have you got anything cheaper? NOT anything of cheaper
Nobody in our group is interested in sightseeing
...

We can also use else after everyone etc
...
(= to another place)
NOTE

a A phrase with one/body + else can be possessive
...

b We cannot use than after else
...
• 153(3)
Everything was in a mess
...

Everyone was asked what they thought
...

This can also happen with other words in one/body
...
~ I think it's Paul's
...

Someone was injured in the accident
...
(= more than one person)
Something was stolen
...
(= more than one thing)

23
Numbers and measurements
190 Summary
Cardinal numbers •191
one, two, three etc
Ordinal numbers • 192
first, second, third etc
Fractions, decimals and percentages • 193
three quarters
point seven five seventy-five per cent
Number of times • 194
once, twice, three times etc
Times and dates • 195
We use numbers when giving the time and the date
...


191 Cardinal numbers
1

1 one 11 eleven
2 two
12 twelve
3 three
13 thirteen
4 four 14 fourteen
5 five
15
fifteen
6 six
16 sixteen
7 seven
17 seventeen
8 eight 18 eighteen
9
nine
19 nineteen
10
ten
20 twenty

23

NUMBERS AND MEASUREMENTS

PAGE 246

21 twenty-one 100 a/one hundred
22 twenty-two
102 a/one hundred and two
30 thirty 164 a/one hundred and sixty-four
40
forty
596 five hundred and ninety-six
50
fifty
7,830 seven thousand eight hundred and thirty
60 sixty 1,000,000 a/one million
70 seventy
1,000,000,000 a/one billion
80 eighty
90 ninety
NOTE

a Be careful with these spellings: fifteen, eighteen, forty, fifty, eighty
...

There's a hundred/one hundred metres to go!
I've told you a thousand times not to do that
...

A is informal
...
We cannot leave out a or one
...

c Hundred, thousand, million etc are singular except in the of-pattern
...

e We put a hyphen in twenty-one, sixty-five etc, but not before hundred, thousand or million
...
000
...

The hostage spent over fourteen hundred days in captivity
...

i We sometimes use alone dozen for 12
...

We'll have to wait a couple of minutes
...

free for 10 days
450 million trees
the last 2 years
in 24 other towns and cities 35,000 free air miles to be won
aged 2 to 11 inclusive an apartment for 6 see page 10
Sometimes numbers are written in words, especially small numbers
...

There were hundreds of people in the square, NOT eight hundreds of
...

NOTE

We can use a definite number with the of-pattern for part of a quantity
...
Four of the passengers were injured
...

about two years
around a thousand pounds
approximately four miles
Here are some other ways of modifying a number
...
99
at least 3 weeks
sleeps up to 6 people

193 Fractions, decimals and percentages

PAGE 247

5

We also use numbers to identify someone or something, for example on a credit
card, passport or ticket
...

Express Card 4929 806 317 445
'four nine two nine, eight oh six, three one seven, double four five'
Call us on 0568 92786
'oh five six eight, nine two seven eight six'
NOTE

We say 'oh' for the figure 0 in these numbers
...

You've missed out a nought here
...


192 Ordinal numbers
1

We form most ordinals by adding th to the cardinal number, e
...
ten tenth
...
First, second and third are
irregular
...

2

Here are some examples
...

NOTE

a We also use ordinal numbers in fractions, • 193(1), and dates, • 195(2)
...

c An ordinal number usually comes before a cardinal
...


193 Fractions, decimals and percentages
1 Fractions
a

In fractions we use half, quarter or an ordinal number
...

Two thirds of the field was under water
...

For half, • 178 (2b)
...

We waited one and a half hours
...

NOTE

a With one and a half/quarter etc + noun, there is an alternative pattern
...
Compare these phrases
...
After the point we say each figure
separately
...
2
'(nought) point two'
7
...
086
'fifteen point oh/nought eight six'
NOTE Americans say 'zero' instead of nought' or 'oh'
...
85% ('fourteen point eight five per cent')
18 per cent of the total

194 Number of times
1

We can say once, twice, three times, four times etc to say how many times
something happens
...
Isn't that enough?
We usually go out about twice a week
...

NOTE

Once can mean 'at a time in the past'
...


2

We can use twice, three times etc to express degree, to say how many times greater
something is
...

You're looking ten times better than you did yesterday
...
00
8
...
10
5
...
15
9
...
35
10
...
52

four (o'clock)
five (minutes) past eight eight oh five
ten (minutes) past two
two
ten
twelve minutes past five five twelve
(a) quarter past eleven
eleven fifteen
half
past
nine
nine thirty
twenty-five (minutes) to two
one thirty-five
(a) quarter to eleven
ten forty-five
eight minutes to eight
seven fifty-two

NOTE

a We use o'clock only on the hour
...

I usually get home at about six
...

four o'clock/4 o'clock
NOT four o'clock pm and NOT 4
...
We usually prefer a phrase like
half past five in everyday contexts and five thirty for a timetable
...

The train leaves at five thirty/at half past five
...

The match starts at 3
...

Twelve o'clock in the day is midday or noon
...

d We sometimes use the 24-hour clock in timetables
...
30
...

23
...

seventeen minutes past/to six NOT seventeen past/to six
f In informal speech we can leave out the hour if it is known
...

Using half for half past is also informal
...

g Americans also use after and of, e
...
ten past/after two, a quarter to/of eleven
...

15 August August 15 15th August August 15th
3 May May 3 3rd May May 3rd
In speech ordinal numbers are usual
...

'August fifteenth'
NOTE

a 'August fifteen' is also possible
...


23 NUMBERS AND MEASUREMENTS

b

PAGE 250

We say the year like this
...


196 Some other measurements
1 Money
30p

'thirty pence'
'thirty p' /pi:/
£1
...
50 'two pound(s) fifty'
'two fifty'

20c
'twenty cents'
$10
'ten dollars'
$12
...
NOT a £100
b We can talk about a fifty-pence coin or a fifty, a twenty-pound note or a twenty
...

The temperature will fall below zero
...
Most adjectives
express quality; they tell us what something is like
...

The position of adjectives • 199
An adjective can come before a noun
...

This shirt is cheap
...

Some adjectives have different meanings in different positions
...

shoppers eager for bargains
The order of adjectives •202
There is usually a fixed order of adjectives before a noun
...

The delay was annoying
...

The passengers were annoyed
...

There's no work for the unemployed
...

Adjective + prepositional phrase: I'm afraid of heights
...
• 123
Adjective + clause: The passengers were annoyed that no information was given
...
The friendly resort of
Gulftown with its beautiful white sandy beach is only a short walk away
...

An adjective modifies a noun
...
The adjective residential classifies the area, tells us what type of
area it is
...

NOTE

a We use adjectives of quality to answer the question What
...

A d j e c t i v e s of t y p e a n s w e r t h e q u e s t i o n

What

kind of
...

b A modifier can also be a noun, e
...
a summer holiday, a gift shop
...
There are no endings for number or
gender
...
• 218
My wife is older than I am
...


b

Most adjectives have no special form to show that they are adjectives
...
• 285(5)
careful planning
a salty taste
global warming
artistic merit

199 The position of adjectives
1

An adjective phrase can have one or more adjectives
...

An adverb of degree can come before an adjective
...

Will the stadium be large enough?
b We can put a phrase of measurement before some adjectives
...


PAGE 253

199 The position of adjectives

2

An adjective can go before a noun or as complement after a linking verb such as
be, seem, get
...

Attributive:
It is a large stadium
...
(as complement)

3

These adjectives are in attributive position
...

I bought a black and white sweater
...

It's a difficult problem
...


4

These adjectives are in predicative position
...

The sweater was black and white
...

Things are getting so difficult
...
• 11(1)
Why must you make things difficult?
A noisy party kept us awake
...
• 20(l)
How lovely the view is!
How cold your hands are!
An adjective can also be a one-word reply, e
...
Oh, good
...

c For The party seemed noisy and The door banged noisily, • 209(1b)
...

I've got a friend keen on fishing
...
a friend who is keen on fishing
...
as soon as it is possible
...

Chris went to bed later than usual
...

c

Pick the fruit when ripe
...
when it is ripe
...

If possible, I should like some time to think it over
...

This pattern with a conjunction is found mainly in written English and especially
in instructions how to do something
...

Uncertain, the woman hesitated and looked round
...


24

ADJECTIVES

PAGE 254

200 Adjectives used in one position only
Most adjectives can be either in attributive position (nice weather) or in
predicative position (The weather is nice)
...


1 Attributive only
That was the main reason, NOT That reason was main
...

inner ring road
These adjectives are attributive but not predicative: chief, elder (= older),
eldest (= oldest), eventual, former (= earlier), indoor, inner, main,
mere (a mere child = only a child), only, outdoor, outer, principal (= main),
sheer (= complete), sole (= only), upper, utter (= complete)
...

a little/small cottage
The cottage is small
...

Yes, I had the same experience
...

c A noun as modifier can only be attributive
...

It's a metal pipe
...


2 Predicative only
The children were soon asleep
...

One person was ill and couldn't come
...

Some words with the prefix a: asleep, awake, alive, afraid, ashamed, alone, alike
Some words expressing feelings: pleased, glad, content, upset
Some words to do with health: well, fine, ill, unwell
NOTE

a Many of these adjectives can be attributive if they are modified by an adverb
...

a sleeping child NOT an asleep child
a living person NOT an alive person
the frightened animal NOT the afraid animal
There are also other words expressing feelings which we can use attributively
...

a pleased expression
the glad news
an upset stomach
d For more details about well, ill etc in Britain and the USA, • 305(1)
...

(= not false)
a perfect day
The day was perfect
...

(= not good)
poor people
The people are poor
...

(= sure)
I was present
...

(= not on time)

4 A beautiful dancer
In phrases like a beautiful dancer, an interesting writer, a heavy smoker, a frequent
visitor, an old friend, the adjective usually modifies the action not the person
...

(= Her dancing is beautiful
...

(= His visits were frequent
...

(= The dancer is a beautiful person
...

People were anxious for news
...

The adjective + prepositional phrase cannot go before the noun, but it can go
directly after it
...

We walked across a field full of sheep
...

The amount of money involved is quite small
...
(= complicated)
The person concerned is at lunch, I'm afraid
...
(= worried)

24

ADJECTIVES

PAGE 256

There were ten members of staff present
...
(= now)
Judy seems a responsible person
...
(= who did it)
...

The only available tickets/ The only tickets available were very expensive
...

We took the shortest possible route/the shortest route possible
...

the Director General a Sergeant Major the Princess Royal the sum total

3

Adjectives come after a compound with every, some, any and no
...

You mustn't do anything silly
...

beautiful golden sands
a nice new blue coat
The order depends mainly on the meaning
...

Opinion:
nice, wonderful, excellent, lovely, terrible, awful, etc
Size:
large, small, long, short, tall, etc
Quality:
clear, busy, famous, important, quiet, etc
Age:
old, new
Shape:
round, square, fat, thin, wide, narrow, etc
Colour:
red, white, blue, green, etc
Participle forms:
covered, furnished, broken, running, missing, etc
Origin:
British, Italian, American, etc
Material:
brick, paper, plastic, wooden, etc
Type:
human, chemical, domestic, electronic, money (problems), etc
Purpose:
alarm (clock), tennis (court), walking (boots), etc
Words from these groups usually come in this order:
opinion + size + quality + age + shape + colour + participle forms + origin +
material + type + purpose
an old cardboard box (age + material)
a German industrial company (origin + type)
two small round green discs (size + shape + colour)
a large informative street plan (size + quality + type)
a hard wooden seat (quality + material)
a new improved formula (age + participle form)
increasing financial difficulties (participle form + type)
two excellent public tennis courts (opinion + type + purpose)
NOTE

a These rules are not absolute
...
We sometimes prefer
to put a short adjective before a long one
...

a dignified old lady
a pale young man
Here old and young are unstressed,
c Words for material are mostly nouns (brick), but some are adjectives (wooden)
...
Words for
purpose are nouns (alarm clock) or gerunds (walking boots)
...
For example, in the
phrase two excellent public tennis courts, the word tennis is closely linked to courts,
whereas excellent is not linked so closely
...


c

When two adjectives have similar meanings, the shorter one often comes first
...

a peaceful, happy place/a happy, peaceful place

2 And and but with attributive adjectives
a

We can sometimes put and between two adjectives
...

beautiful golden sands (opinion, colour)

b

We use and when the adjectives refer to different parts of something
...

a cheap but effective solution

3 Predicative adjectives
a

The order of predicative adjectives is less fixed than the order before a noun
...

The chair was soft and comfortable
...

The city is old and beautiful
...

The room was nice and warm
...

The solution is cheap but effective
...

The show made us laugh
...

The audience laughed
...

I talked to a very interesting man
...

I find these diagrams confusing
...

This weather is depressing, isn't it?
Don't you feel depressed when it rains?
Adjectives in ing express what something is like, the effect it has on us
...
Adjectives in ed express
how we feel about something
...

Some pairs of adjectives like this are:
alarming/alarmed
exciting/excited
amusing/amused
fascinating/fascinated
annoying/annoyed
puzzling/puzzled
confusing/confused
relaxing/relaxed
depressing/depressed
surprisingly/surprised
disappointing/disappointed
tiring/tired
NOTE These words have the same form as active and passive participles
...

In the England of 1900 little was done to help the poor
...
It cannot refer to just one person or to a
small group
...
The poor is more
impersonal than poor people
...

The old are greatly respected
...

Social/Economic: the rich, the poor, the strong, the weak, the hungry,
the (under)privileged, the disadvantaged, the unemployed, the homeless
Physical/Health: the blind, the deaf, the sick, the disabled, the handicapped,
the living, the dead
Age: the young, the middle-aged, the elderly, the old

PAGE 259

204 The + adjective

The adjective can be modified by an adverb
...

the more/less fortunate
the mentally ill
NOTE

a In a few contexts, the + adjective can mean a specific group rather than people in general
...

b A few adjectives can come after a/an to mean a specific person
...

c There are a few adjectives that we can use as nouns, such as colour words
...

a black (= a black person)
the Greens (= supporters of the green movement)
d For the French, • 2 8 8
...

There are a lot of books on the supernatural
...

The supernatural means 'supernatural happenings in general'
...

The noun phrase takes a singular verb
...


b

A few adjectives can have a more specific meaning
...
(= something that was unexpected)
Have you heard the latest? (= the latest news)
Also: fear the worst, hope for the best, in the dark

c

We use the+ adjective + thing to talk about a particular quality or aspect of a
situation
...

It was an amusing sight, but the annoying thing (about it) was that I didn't have
my camera with me
...


PAGE 260

25
Adverbials
205 Summary
Introduction to adverbials • 206
An adverbial can be an adverb phrase, prepositional phrase or noun phrase
...

Adverb forms • 207
Many adverbs end in ly: quietly, finally, certainly
...

The position of adverbials • 208
Some adverbials come next to the word or phrase they modify
...
They come in front, mid or end
position
...

Types of adverbial
Adverbs of m a n n e r • 209
slowly, with a smile (how?)
Place and time • 210
here, at the post office (where?)
yesterday, next week (when?)
ages, for three weeks (how long?)
Adverbs of frequency • 211
often, every week (how often?)
Adverbs of degree • 212
very, a bit (how?)
Focus and viewpoint • 213
only, especially
medically, from a political point of view
Truth adverbs • 214
probably, on the whole

PAGE 261

206 Introduction to adverbials

Comment adverbs • 215
luckily, to our amusement

Linking adverbs • 216
also, on the other hand
NOTE

For phrasal verbs, e
...
Switch the light off, • 230
...
g
...

For function/role, e
...
I use this room as my office, • 228(6)
...


206 Introduction to adverbials
In this real conversation Liz is telling a friend how she and Tony were stopped by
the police
...
And I can remember very
well that we were in a hurry to get home because Catherine was with a
babysitter, but she wasn't at home, she was in someone else's house, and we
wanted to get back before they were ready to go to bed
...

Liz: Mhm
...

Tony: Hadn't had a drink for days
...
I can remember distinctly that you were going very very slowly as you
saw the police car in front of you, and then you said in a very impatient
fashion, 'Oh, they're doing this on purpose
...
I will
overtake them
...
So they did
...

(from M
...
Barr Listeners)

1

An adverbial can have these forms
...

We wanted to get back
...

You saw the police car in front of you
...

It happened last week
...

Catherine was with a babysitter
...

But very often the adverbial is an extra element
...
You saw the police car in front of you
...

Putting in an extra adverbial adds something to the meaning
...


25 ADVERBIALS

3

PAGE 262

An adverbial can modify different parts of the sentence
...

You were getting really impatient
...

They inspected the car thoroughly
...

Here the adverbials add information about the noun car, the adjective impatient,
the adverb slowly, the action inspected the car and the clause you decided
...
g
...

But many adverbs are formed from an adjective + ly, e
...
quick quickly,
certain

certainly
...

Y changing to i: easy
easily • 294
Adjectives ending in consonant + le: probable
probably • 292(5)
Adjectives ending in ic: magic
magically • 292(5)

2

We cannot add ly to an adjective which already ends in ly
...

We received a friendly greeting
...

NOT friendlily
That isn't very likely
...

Some adjectives in ly are friendly, lively, lovely, silly, ugly, cowardly, lonely, costly,
likely
...

The woman stared in astonishment, NOT astonishedly
But those ending in ted can take an ly ending
...


3

Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives
...

We didn't have a long wait
...


The train was going quite fast
...

I went to bed early
...
For hard, hardly,
late, lately etc, • (5)
...
It is more informal to leave out ly
...

Do you have to talk so loud/loudly?
Get there as quick/quickly as you can
...

Cheap(ly), loud(ly), quick(ly) and slow(ly) are the most common
...
For American usage, • 305(2)
...
g
...
We use ly with longer or less common expressions
...

b Right and wrong are adverbs of manner, but rightly and wrongly express a comment
...

Helen decided rightly to call the police
...

Karen took first place/came first in the race
...

First/Firstly, I'd like to thank you all for coming
...

You've all worked hard
...

(hardly any = almost no)
There's a bank quite near
...
(= almost)
I often stay up late
...
(= recently)
The plane flew high above
The theory is highly controversial
...

Submarines can go very deep
...

Airline staff travel
free
...

(= without paying)
(= uncontrolled)
This ear hurts the most
...
(= usually)

6

Hourly, daily etc are formed from hour, day, week, month and year
...

It's a monthly magazine
...


7

Good is an adjective, and well is its adverb
...

But well is also an adjective meaning 'in good health'
...

How are you? ~ Very well,IFine, thank you
...


208 The position of adverbials
The position of an adverbial depends on what it modifies
...
Its position also depends on what type of adverbial it is
and whether it is a single word or a phrase
...

The shop on the corner is closed
...

For more examples, • 148
...
• 212
That's very kind of you
...


25 ADVERBIALS

PAGE 264

2 Front position, mid position and end position
When an adverbial modifies a verb or a whole clause, there are three main places
we can put it
...

Mid:
I can't really say
...

Sometimes we can also put an adverbial after the subject
...


3 Front position
Sure enough, the police car stopped us
...

In the end our efforts will surely meet with success
...
Most types of adverbial can go here
...

You were getting impatient
...

For an example text, • 49(1)
...

Along that path is the quickest way
...

For there + be, • 50
...

This stereo is definitely faulty
...

Mid position is after an auxiliary verb, after the ordinary verb be on its own, or
before a simple-tense verb
...

booked our tickets
...

right
...

get
the worst jobs
...

NOT I every time get the worst jobs
...

Have you just booked your tickets?
Why do I always get the worst jobs?
b If there are two auxiliaries, then mid position is usually after the first one
...

The shops will soon be closing
...

We've been patiently queuing for tickets
...


PAGE 265

208 The position of adverbials

c We sometimes put an adverb after the subject and before the verb phrase
...

It probably doesn't matter very much
...

I never have to wait long for a bus
...
Compare these sentences
...
(They left it off on purpose
...
(They left it on by mistake
...

The police were driving very slowly
...

Most types of adverbial can come here, especially prepositional phrases
...

I wrapped the parcel carefully, NOT I wrapped carefully the parcel
...

But a short adverbial can go before a long object
...

Here the adverb of manner can also go in mid position
...


c

We often put an adverbial in end position when it is new and important
information
...
It was going very slowly
...

They agreed immediately that the goods would be replaced
...
(an immediate replacement)

6 Order in end position
a

Sometimes there is more than one adverbial in end position
...

Sam waited impatiently outside the post office
...

They inspected the car thoroughly in a very officious manner
...
For example, we usually put an adverbial of
place next to go, come etc
...

Charles came home late
...

There was an accident last night on the by-pass
...

NOTE

A smaller place usually comes before a larger one
...


25

ADVERBIALS

PAGE 266

Manner, time and place usually come before frequency
...

Sarah gets up early occasionally
...

I can usually find my way around quite easily
...

Phil's had to stay late at work, perhaps
...

Wendy is a member
...


209 Adverbs of manner
1 Adjectives and adverbs
a

Look at these examples
...

Kate is fluent in Russian
...


He ate quickly
...

Try to reply sensibly
...
An adverb of manner modifies a verb (ate)
...
For adverbs without ly,
• 207(3-4)
...

Linking verb + adjective

Action verb + adverb

The inspector was polite
...
NOT She listened polite
...
Some verbs can be either
linking verbs or action verbs
...

The milk smelled funny
...


He looked nervously round the room
...

The plants grew rapidly
...

Handle carefully/with care
...

They inspected the car officiously/in an officious manner
...

It must be handled with great care
...


PAGE 267

210 Place and time

3 Position
a

We put an adverbial of manner mainly in end position, • 208(5)
...

'I didn't know whether to tell you or not,' she said anxiously
...

We continued our labours in silence
...

The team were quietly confident
...


b

The adverbial can sometimes come in front position for emphasis
...


210 Place and time
1 Position
a

Adverbials of place and time often go in end position
...

The President made the comment to reporters yesterday
...

The office is closed for two weeks
...


b

They can also go in front position
...
And on Thursday I have to go to London
...


c

Some short adverbials of time can go in mid position
...

We'll soon be home
...


d

An adverbial of place or time can modify a noun
...

Exports last year broke all records
...

Have you replied to the letter yet? ~ No, not yet
...
I haven't had breakfast yet
...

NOTE

We can use yet in mid position, but it is a little formal
...


25 ADVERBIALS

b

PAGE 268

We use still for something going on longer than expected
...

I got up late
...

Does Carl still ride that old motor-bike he had at college?
In negative statements still comes after the subject
...

This is more emphatic than The child hasn't learnt to read yet
...
Compare these sentences
...
(= I still feel ill
...
)

c

We use already for something happening sooner than expected
...

I got up early
...

Have you already replied to the letter? ~ Yes, I have
...
It only
came yesterday
...

Good heavens! It's lunch time already
...

I already 'have typed the report, I tell you
...
It goes in mid position
...

No longer is a little formal
...
It goes in end
position in a negative sentence
...


b

We often use any longer in a negative sentence for something that is about to end
...


4

Long and far

a

We normally use the adverbs long and far only in questions and negative
statements
...

In positive statements we use a long time/way
...

It's a long way to Vladivostok
...

The speech went on too long
...

Let's go back now
...

NOTE

We can also use the comparative and superlative forms in positive statements
...

You threw the ball furthest
...

We all went to the cinema and then afterwards to a pizza restaurant
...
Then/After that there was a discussion
...

I sent the form off, and I got a reply the week after/a week later
...

The bus doesn't usually stop here
...

It's always cold up here
...

Some adverbs of frequency are always; normally, generally, usually; often,
frequently; sometimes, occasionally; seldom, rarely; never
...
Compare
these sentences
...
(= I seldom have breakfast
...
(= I often go without breakfast
...

You sometimes can't get a table here
...
In informal speech we use not often
...

c Never is a negative word
...

Will you never learn?
We use ever mainly in questions
...

But we can also use ever with negative words
...

You hardly ever buy me flowers
...

No one ever said that to me before
...

I never ever want to see that awful man again
...

If you ever feel like a chat, just drop in
...

If ever can go before the subject
...

We do not normally use ever in positive statements
...
NOT I ever have lots to do
...

Normally I tip taxi-drivers
...

Often, seldom and rarely can go in end position, especially with e
...
very or quite
...

A lot (= often) goes in end position
...

NOTE

a Always, never and often in front position are emphatic
...

We can use always and never in instructions
...

b For never, seldom and rarely with inversion, • 17(6c)
...

These phrases can go in front or end position
...

The dog has to have a walk every day
...

Some evenings we don't have the television on at all
...

The committee meets once a month
...

Paul has been married several times
...

We've often been skiing
...
(= perhaps four or five times)

4

The adverbs daily (= every day), weekly etc go in end position
...

+ Adjective: It's very cold
...

You're absolutely right
...

We're a bit busy today
...

+ Adverb:
I come here quite often
...

We hardly ever go out
...

Here are some common adverbs of degree
...

The bottle is only half full
...

NOTE

a We use completely, totally, absolutely etc with words expressing a full or large degree
...
(useless = absolutely no use)
We are absolutely delighted at the news
...

It's very unsatisfactory
...

We were extremely pleased
...

b After a phrase with very we can put indeed for extra emphasis
...


PAGE

271

212 Adverbs of degree

c We often use very with a negative
...

This is more usual than These photos aren't good or These photos are bad
...

It's real cold today
...

f Somewhat, a little, a bit and slightly have an unfavourable sense
...

I felt a bit sick
...

I felt a bit better/somewhat more cheerful
...

It wasn't interesting at all
...

h In informal English we can use that instead of so in a negative sentence
...
They aren't that rich
...

This coat is much too big for me
...


b

Enough comes after the adjective or adverb it modifies
...

Compare too and enough
...
/It isn't big enough (for me)
...

I'm not rich enough
...


2 Modifying a comparative adjective or adverb
This new sofa is much nicer than the old one
...
Try a bit harder
...

Before a comparative we can use (very) much, a lot; rather, somewhat; a little, a bit,
slightly; three times etc
...

We offer easily the best value / by far the best value
...

We offer the best value by far
...

that very tall girl
my fairly low score
a rather nice restaurant
But after a/an we do not normally use so or quite
...
NOT a so tall girl
It's quite an old book
...

You've cut too short a piece, NOT a too short piece
I know just as quick a way
...

I don't like to criticize so famous an artist
...

NOTE

a We can use rather in both patterns
...

b We can use such and rather + a/an + noun without an adjective
...
It's rather a pity you won't be here
...

Sorry
...

Quite in this pattern means something large or special
...
That was quite a party
...
• 179(5c)

5 Quite and rather
a

Stress
In these examples with quite, the adjective is stressed
...
(It's warmer than expected
...
(They've got a lot of money
...

It's 'quite warm
...
(but not as well as I'd hoped)
NOTE We do not stress rather
...
Quite is
unstressed
...

It was quite a good party
...

It's rather/quite depressing here
...

It was rather/quite inconvenient having to change trains twice
...

I expected the party to he dull, but it was actually rather good
...
(It isn't usually so easy
...

Medium degree: 'fairly'

Full degree: 'completely'

The task is quite difficult
...

The film was quite good
...

I feel quite tired
...


212 Adverbs of degree

PAGE 273

With adjectives like difficult, we can use different degrees: fairly difficult, a bit
difficult, very difficult, more difficult etc
...
An impossible task is completely out of the
question; a brilliant film is very good
...

The task is fairly impossible
...

But quite impossible/exhausted etc always means 'completely'
...

What you said is not quite true
...

I quite enjoyed the film
...

Quite + agree/understand = completely
...
You're quite right
...

The offices are right in the centre of town
...

For more examples, • 224(3)
...

I'm really enjoying myself
...

The doorman absolutely refused to let us in
...

In mid position we can use absolutely, completely, totally; just, really; almost,
nearly; hardly, scarcely; quite, rather
...

I completely forgot the time
...

NOTE

The adverb goes before a stressed auxiliary • 208(4) Note c, and also sometimes before a
negative auxiliary
...
The driver almost didn't see the red light
...

The car was badly damaged in the accident
...


25

ADVERBIALS

PAGE 274

c

Some adverbs go in end position when they modify a verb
...

This tooth aches terribly
...


d

We can use much or very much in a negative sentence or question, but we cannot
use much on its own in a positive statement
...

Positive: I like this sweater very much
...


8 Modifying a quantifier
We can use these patterns
...


b

such/rather/quite + a lot (of)
There were such a lot of people there
...


c quite + a few/a bit (of)
We've had quite a few complaints
...


e

hardly any
There was hardly any pudding left
...

You've put far too much salt in
...

Emily works every day, even on Sundays
...

NOTE

Compare even and also
...

(Everyone includes the teacher
...

(The whole class does not include the teacher
...

I knew only one of the other guests
...
He wears them even in winter
...

I only knew one of the other guests
...

We stress the word we want to focus on, e
...
one, winter
...

Saturday is the only day I can go shopping
...

I knew just one of the other guests
...

Only you would do a silly thing like that
...
)
Even the experts don't know the answer
...


c

In official written English, e
...
on notices, only comes after the word or phrase it
focusses on
...

Financially, things are a bit difficult at the moment
...

As far as insurance is concerned, we can fix that up for you
...

The scheme is economically beneficial but environmentally disastrous
...

Perhaps/Maybe Mandy has missed the bus
...

I agree with you basically
...

Clearly the matter is urgent
...


25 ADVERBIALS

PAGE 276

Most of these adverbs can go in front, mid or end position
...
But in a negative sentence we put a truth
adverb after the subject rather than after the auxiliary
...

Service presumably isn't included
...


2

We can also use a prepositional phrase
...

Of course I'll pay you back
...


3

We can also use a clause with I
...

Someone's fused the lights, I expect
...


215 Comment adverbs
1

We use this kind of adverb to make a comment on what we are saying
Luckily no one was killed
...
)
The newspaper wasn't interested in the story, surprisingly
...


2

We can also use an adverb to comment on someone's behaviour
...
(= It was wise of Dick not to interfere
...

I stupidly left the car unlocked
...
)
The man stared stupidly
...

To my surprise, the newspaper wasn't interested in the story
...


4

We can comment on why we are saying something
...


216 Linking adverbs
A linking adverb relates to the previous clause or sentence
...
Here are some real examples
...
Its shape and body
proportions also change as it grows up
...
However, he still found time to take a few violin lessons, and he went on
composing
...
Otherwise
you are charged interest on any balance outstanding
...
They have similar meanings to conjunctions such as and, but, so
and if
...

Ordering:
There are two reasons
...

In conclusion, I'd like to say a few words about future
Summing up:
prospects
...
In other words,
Rephrasing:
they're thinking about it
...
Or rather on Monday
...
There's the car,
for example
...
~ Talking of sausages,
did you know there's a barbecue on Saturday?
I had a lovely lunch
...
By the way, where did
Changing the subject:
you put that file?
Supporting a statement:
I think I'd better be going
...

Dismissing something:
I don't know whether we did the right thing
...

Comparing:
The government sold the telephone service to private
investors
...


PAGE 278

26
Comparison
217 Summary
The comparative and superlative of adjectives • 218
Adjectives can have a comparative form (newer, more modern), and a superlative
form (newest, most modern)
...

The comparative and superlative of adverbs • 219
Adverbs can have a comparative form (faster, more rapidly) and a superlative
form (fastest, most rapidly)
...

There's more traffic on a weekday
...

The new system is more complicated than the old one
...
Nothing is ever as simple as it seems
...

It was the most embarrassing thing that ever happened to me
...

The people in the queue were getting more and more impatient
...


218 The comparative and superlative of adjectives
GOLD AND COPPER

Gold is much softer than copper, so it is easier to hammer into shape
...
A gold knife might look very fine but would not have been much use for
skinning a bear, so from early times gold became the metal for ornaments
...

(from L
...
The biggest buildings, best restaurants, most art
galleries, brightest lights, greatest concentration of big business, largest complex
of theaters and concert houses, best bargain basements, most exclusive couture
houses, and the most specialized services are all here
...

Gold is softer than copper
...

New York is the biggest city in the USA
...

We can compare, for example, the softness of gold and copper, or the size of New
York compared to other cities
...

b The traditional rule is that we use a comparative (softer, more durable) for two items, and
we use the superlative (biggest, most exclusive) for more than two
...

Which of these two photos is better/best?

2 Form
a

These are the regular forms
...
For rules about
which adjectives count as short and which as long, • (4)
...

No doubling of e: fine finer • 292(2)
Doubling of some consonants: hot hottest • 293
Y changing to i: heavy
heavier • 294
b For less soft, least exclusive, • 221(2)
...
Compare the most and a most
...

Degree: It's a most exclusive store
...

I was more sad than angry
...

I was not so much angry as sad
...


26 COMPARISON

b

PAGE 280

There are a few irregular forms
...

The weather is getting worse
...

I feel a lot better now
...

b For farther/further and elder/eldest, • (5)
...

Attributive:
a softer metal
the most specialized services
Predicative:
Gold is softer
...

Jupiter is the biggest planet
...


4 Long and short adjectives
In general, short adjectives take er/est while long ones take more/most
...
Most
two-syllable adjectives count as long but not all of them
...
g
...
Exceptions are adjectives in ed (e
...
pleased,
bored) and the adjectives real, right and wrong
...

Some one-syllable adjectives of abstract meaning take either er/est or more/most,
e
...
clear, free, keen, safe, sure, true, wise
...


b

Two-syllable adjectives (e
...
useful, happy)
The following take more/most (more useful, most useful)
...


PAGE 281

218 Comparative and superlative of adjectives

Two-syllable adjectives ending in y usually take er/est(happier, happiest), although
more/most is possible
...

NOTE

Happy etc can still take er/est, even with a negative prefix: unhappier, untidiest
...


c

Adjectives of three or more syllables (e
...
difficult, magnificent)
These always take more/most (more difficult, most difficult)
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
We use them as adjectives and adverbs
...

I can't walk any farther/further
...

Let's hope there are no further problems
...
They go before
the noun
...

c

Latest and last
Latest means 'furthest ahead in time' or 'newest'
...

Last means 'before' or 'final'
...

This is the last time I lend anyone my car
...
Next refers to one of a sequence of
things coming one after the other
...
(= the stop after this)

26 COMPARISON

PAGE 282

219 The comparative and superlative of adverbs
1

Some adverbs have the same form as adjectives, • 207(3-5)
...

You'll have to work harder if you want to pass the exam
...

Tim got to work a few minutes earlier than usual
...

If we all help, we'll get the job finished sooner
...

Comparative
well
badly
far

Superlative

better
worse
farther/further

best
worst
farthest/furthest

I find these pills work best
...

NOTE For comparison with far, • 218(5a)
...
This includes almost all adverbs in ly
...

The first speaker presented his case the most convincingly
...

NOTE

Some adverbs can be with or without ly
...

Such adverbs have two different comparative and superlative forms
...


220 More, most, less, least, fewer and fewest
We can use these words to compare quantities
...

most (= the largest number)
You've got the most cassettes of
anyone I know
...


more (= a larger amount)
They play more music at weekends
...


fewest (= the smallest number) • Note
You've got the fewest cassettes of
anyone I know
...

least (= the smallest amount)
This station plays the least music
...

There are fewer cars on the road in winter
...

There are less cars on the road in winter
...


221 Patterns expressing a comparison
MOTELS IN THE USA

Many motels are every bit as elegant, comfortable, and well-equipped as the most
modern hotels
...
If the motel does not have a restaurant, there are always
restaurants nearby
...
Even less expensive
motels often have a swimming pool
...

(from USA Travel Information)

1 More, as and less
We can say that something is greater than, equal to or less than something else
...

Some motels are as comfortable as hotels
...

NOTE

We can make comparisons with same, like, similar and different
...

Motels are like hotels
...
Motels are not very different from hotels
...

Paris is my favourite city
...
)
Wood is superior to/preferable to plastic as a material
...
(= was more than)

2 Less and least
a

Less and least are the opposites of more and most
...

A motel will cost you less
...

We go out less often these days
...

It's cheaper/less expensive
...


b

Whether we say, for example, warmer or less cold depends on our point of view
...

We choose less cold here because we are talking about how cold the house was, not
how warm it was
...

It was cold, but it wasn't as cold as outside
...
Less + adjective can be a little
formal
...

Many motels are as comfortable as hotels
...

NOTE

a We can use as in idiomatic phrases
...

The temperature is often as high as 40 degrees
...
)

b

In a negative statement we can use either as or so
...
Some motels are not as comfortable/not so comfortable as a good hotel
...

I don't drink as much/so much coffee as you do
...


c

In attributive position, as + adjective goes before a/an
...

Such replaces so in a phrase with a/an
...


d

We use as (not so) with the second item in the comparison
...

Copper isn't as valuable as gold
...

No one scored as many points as Laura did
...

Gold is softer than copper, NOT Gold-is softer as copper
...

The motel was less expensive than I had expected
...

There were more people in town than usual
...

I'm not as tall as him/as tall as he is
...

NOTE I'm not as tall as he is formal and old-fashioned
...

I liked the last hotel we stayed in
...

Gold isn't very suitable for making tools
...

It's more difficult to find your way in the dark
...

It's going to be the most exciting pop festival ever
...

It's the most marvellous painting I've ever seen
...

NOTE

a An of-phrase can come in front position for emphasis
...

b We sometimes use a pattern with one of/some of
...


8 Much bigger etc
We can use an adverb of degree in patterns expressing a comparison
...
• 212(2)
This is by far the best method
...

I'll need a lot more paper
...

The plant grew taller and taller
...

There's more and more traffic all the time
...


2

We use this pattern with the and a comparative to say that a change in one thing
goes with a change in another
...

The further you travel, the more you pay
...


PAGE 286

27
Prepositions
223 Summary
Introduction to prepositions • 224
A preposition is a word like in, to, for, out of
...

for sale
in a hurry
by mistake
NOTE

There are also many idioms where a preposition comes after a verb, adjective or noun
...


224 Introduction to prepositions
1

A preposition usually comes before a noun phrase
...

until tomorrow
through there
at once
We can also use some prepositions before a gerund
...

NOT We're thinking of to move house
...

We're hoping for a win
...

NOT We're hoping for that we'll win
...

I'd better make a list of what we need
...


2

The preposition and its object form a prepositional phrase
...

They walked towards the setting sun
...

It sometimes comes after a noun
...

3

We can modify a preposition
...

Wh-question:
Who did you go to the party with? • 25(3)
Infinitive clause:
I've got a tape for you to listen to
...
• 105(3)
Relative clause:
That's the article I told you about
...

Preposition:
I waited for Max outside the bank
...

There was no lift
...

Adverb:
Max went into the bank and I waited outside
...

There was no lift
...

A verb + adverb like walk up, get in is a phrasal verb
...
• 250(1)
Preposition:
We must be ready before their arrival
...


27 PREPOSITIONS

225 Prepositions of place
1 Basic meanings

There are some people
in/inside the cafe
...


There's a television
on the table
...
There's
a dog under(neath)
the table
...
There's
a small table under/
below the window
...


The road goes through
a tunnel
...
The lorry is
coming out of the tunnel
...


The bus is at the bus
stop
...


The lorry is travelling
away from York and
towards Hull
...

Their table is close to/
near the door
...
The lorry
is behind the car
...


The woman is walking
along the pavement
past the supermarket
...
The bank is across
the road
...
They are
all round/around him
...

(=on the other side of)

The man is leaning
against the wall
...
NOT inside of NOT off of and NOT behind of,
although outside of is possible,
b Two other prepositions of place are throughout and within
...

The epidemic spread throughout the country/all over the country
...
(= inside)
c Beneath is rather literary
...

d Around and about mean 'in different directions' or 'in different places'
...

There were piles of old magazines lying around/about the flat
...

Position:
There was a barrier across the road
...


b

At usually expresses position, and to expresses movement
...

Movement:
We went to the café
...

Position:
We were sitting in the café
...

Movement:
We went into the café
...

NOTE

We sometimes use in and on for movement, especially in informal English
...

But sometimes the choice of preposition depends on the meaning
...

We walked (from the car park) onto the beach
...

They laid the body on a blanket
...


3 Other meanings
a

Some prepositions of place can also express time
...


b

Prepositions of place can also have more abstract meanings
...
(= interested in)
Ian comes from Scotland
...
/He lives in Scotland
...
(= too good to be criticized)
We are working towards a United States of Europe
...
(= supporting)
City are among the most successful teams in the country
...
g
...


226 Prepositions of place: more details
1 At, on and in

She's at her desk
...


They're in the drawer
...
We use it when we see something as a point in space
...

There's someone at the door
...

We met at Daphne's party, didn't we?
We use at+ building when we are talking about the normal purpose of the
building
...
(= watching a play)
I bought these dishes at the supermarket
...
She's still at school
...

I had a cup of coffee at Angela's (house/flat)
...
We use it for a surface
...

There were lots of pictures on the walls
...

Paris is on the Seine
...

NOTE

We also use on in this special sense
...


c

In is three-dimensional
...

I had f i v e pounds in my pocket
...

Compare in and at with buildings
...
(= inside the building)
We were at the library
...

There were shelves over the fireplace and a bookcase in the corner
...
You turn left there
...

We finally arrived in Birmingham/at Land's End
...

You have to change trains at Birmingham
...

I've lived in the village all my life
...

at 52 Grove Road
at your house
at the station
at home/work/school

at the seaside
at the back/end of
a queue

on 42nd Street (USA)
on the third floor
on the platform
on the page
on the screen
on the island
on the beach/coast
on the right/left
on the back of an
envelope

in Spain/Bristol
in Grove Road
in the lesson
in a book/newspaper
in the photo/picture
in the country
in the middle
in the back/front of
a car
in a queue/line/row

2 Above, over, below and under
a

Above and over have similar meanings
...

We do not normally use above to mean horizontal movement
...

And we do not use above for an area or surface
...

Someone had spread a sheet over the body
...

There are well over fifty thousand people in the stadium
...

Temperatures will rise above freezing
...

The two leaders discussed world affairs over lunch
...

The horse jumped over the wall
...


c

Below is the opposite of above; under is the opposite of over
...

We do not normally use below for a horizontal movement or for an area or surface
...

The town lies under a thick black cloud of smoke
...
• (2a) Note a
Temperatures will fall below freezing
...


226 Prepositions of place: more details

PAGE 293

3 Top and bottom
On top of is a preposition
...

We can also use top and bottom as nouns in phrases like these
...

The ship sank to the bottom of the sea
...
You go through a tunnel, a doorway, a crowd of
people, and so on
...

I looked through the telescope
...
You go from one side to the other across a surface such
as a lawn or a playground, or a line such as a river or a frontier
...

Sometimes we can use either through or across, depending on whether we see
something as having three or two dimensions
...


c

We use along when we follow a line
...
Compare these sentences
...

We walked across the canal by a footbridge
...

We're going to Doncaster
...

We're going towards Doncaster now
...

Go/come/walk + up to usually expresses movement to a person
...

NOTE

As far as means going a certain distance
...


27 PREPOSITIONS

PAGE 294

6 Near, close and by
a

Near, near to and close to mean 'not far from'
...

NOTE

Near (to) and close to have comparative and superlative forms
...

I was sitting closest to the door
...

The animals were very tame
...

Nearby means 'not far away'
...

The preposition by means 'at the side of' or 'very near'
...

Come and sit by me
...

We live next to the fish and chip shop
...


7 In front of, before, behind, after and opposite
a

When we talk about where something is, we prefer in front of and behind to before
and after
...

The car behind us ran into the back of us
...
But we also
use before and after to talk about what order things come in
...

K comes after J
...

The thief ran across the road with a policemen after him
...
Compare in front of and opposite
...

People were standing opposite the theatre waiting to cross the road
...

Gerald was sitting opposite me at lunch
...

The ball went between the player's legs
...

For expressions such as a link between, • 237(2c)
...

I was hoping to spot Marcia among the crowd
...

See you at one o'clock
...

a

We met in 1985
...

at half past five at breakfast (time)
at that time
at the moment
We also use at with holiday periods of two or three days
...

A sporting career can be over at thirty
...

on Tuesday
on 7th August

on that day

on Easter Sunday

NOTE

On can also mean 'immediately after'
...


c

We use in with longer periods
...

in the afternoon
in the mornings
But we use on if we say which day
...
Compare these sentences
...
(= in the middle of the night)
The windows are shut at night
...

I received the letter last Tuesday
...
NOT in this week
You can take the exam again next year
...
NOT at every time
A week later I got a reply
...
NOT in tomorrow morning
NOTE

a We can use other prepositions
...

b In informal English we can sometimes leave out on before a day
...

c We do not use a preposition with these days (= nowadays)
...

A For the with last and next, • 169(8)
...

Something else a bit unusual happened (on) that day
...

They agreed to meet (on) the following Sunday
...

Columbus crossed the Atlantic in seventy days
...

We can also use in for a time in the future measured from the present
...

NOTE

a Compare these sentences
...
(= you need half an hour)
I'm going out in half an hour
...

I'll be back within/inside an hour
...
g
...
g
...
It means the whole period
...

We cannot use during + length of time
...
NOT It went on during a week
...

The population grew rapidly during/throughout the 19th century
...


b

We can also use during when something happens one or more times in the period
...

I suddenly felt ill during the show
...


PAGE 297

227 Prepositions of time

c

During is a preposition; while is a conjunction
...

Someone told me the news when/while we were having a cup of tea
...

Over the next few days, Simon and Kay saw a lot of each other
...

NOTE

The adverb over means 'finished'
...


5 For and since
a

We use for with a period of time to say how long something continues
...
NOT during hours • (4)
I once stayed at that hotel for a week
...

NOTE

We do not normally use for before a phrase with all or whole
...


b

We often use for and since with the perfect to say how long something has
continued or when it started
...

We haven't been to the theatre for months
...

The Parkers have lived here since 1985
...

We've been waiting since twelve o'clock
...

for two years
for a week
for two days
for a few minutes
since 1990
since last week
since Monday
since half past two
NOTE

a We can sometimes leave out for in informal English
...

b We use during for a period which is a definite time
...

c Compare these sentences
...

I'll stay (for) ten minutes
...

I'll wait until four o'clock
...

I'm
leaving in ten minutes
...

Ago comes after the length of time
...
(= ten years before now)
We last went to the theatre months ago
...

Giles left the company last year
...

(= ten years before last year)

27

PREPOSITIONS

6 Till/until and by
a

We use till/until to say when something finishes
...

We sat in the pub till/until closing-time
...

b For from now to next April, • (7b)
...

c We can use up to in a positive sentence
...

d Till/until does not express place
...
NOT till/until the bridge
But it can be a conjunction
...


b

We can use not
...

Sue didn't get up till/until half past ten
...

I'm always up by eight o'clock
...

Compare before
...


7 From and between
a

We use from for the time when something starts
...

From seven in the morning there's constant traffic noise
...

Tickets have been on sale since last Wednesday
...

The cricket season lasts from April to September
...

NOTE Americans can use through, e
...
from Friday through Monday
...

Not many people work between Christmas and New Year's Day
...

We were talking about the weather
...
(= The BBC says
...
(= opposing)
We can have this pizza for tea
...

I'm reading a book by Iris Murdoch
...

You'd do anything for the sake of peace and quiet
...
(= head of the department)
Can I use a pencil instead of a pen?
I went to a lecture on Einstein
...

This car does at least fifty miles to the gallon
...


2

With has these meanings
...
(= We were together
...
(= He has long hair
...
• (5)
They set to work with enthusiasm
...
(= Because people were watching
...

Who's the man without any shoes on?
They set to work, but without enthusiasm
...

Who's the man without shoes on?
But we do not normally leave out a/an after with or without
...


3

Of has a number of different meanings
...

She's an actress of great ability
...
)
These souvenirs are of no value
...


4

Some prepositions have the same meaning as a conjunction
...

(= because the weather was bad)
Such prepositions are as well as, in addition to, besides, • 244(3); in spite of,
despite, • 246(4); as a result of, in consequence of, • 247(2); because of, due to, in
view of, on account of, • 251(3)
...


a

We use with to talk about an instrument, a thing we use to carry out an action
...

Just stir this with a wooden spoon, could you?
By is more abstract
...

I paid by credit card
...

They broke the door down by force
...

They got in by breaking down the door
...

The door was broken down by two men/with a hammer
...


b

We also use by + noun for means of transport
...

I prefer to travel by train
...
g
...

We do not use by to mean a specific bike, car etc
...
NOT ill go by my bike
...

On foot means 'walking'
...
NOT go by foot
NOTE

Look at these examples expressing movement
...

Nancy got on/off her bike/the bus/the train
...


c

We can also use by for means of communication, e
...
by letter/post, by phone, by
telegram/telex/fax
...

I sent the information by post
...
= Andy hasn't got a phone
...

Maria has come along as our guide
...
)
I'm having to use the sofa as my bed
...
)
We can sometimes leave out the after as
...

She slapped his face
...

I think Louise looks a bit like Marilyn Monroe
...

He speaks as an expert
...

He talks like an expert, but really he knows nothing
...

Like everyone else, I have to pay my taxes
...

It's unlike Fiona to be late
...


PAGE 301

7

229 Idiomatic phrases with prepositions

We use except (for), apart from and but to talk about an exception
...

I hate fish
...


229 Idiomatic phrases with prepositions
1

There are very many idiomatic phrases beginning with a preposition
...
Here are some examples
...

Mark always drives at top speed
...

I'd like to buy this picture if it's for sale
...

You have to pay half the cost of the holiday in advance
...
I'm in a hurry
...

Did you go there on holiday or on business?
Mr Jones is on leave this week
...

There are so many different computers on the market
...

I heard it on the radio
...


2

These pairs are different in meaning
...

We arrived at the hotel in time for dinner/to have dinner
...
23
...
(= with plenty of time to spare)
We arrived just in time for dinner
...

There were many arguments, but in the end/at last we reached agreement
...

NOTE

Compare in the beginning and at the beginning
...

The students return to Oxford at the beginning of the academic year
...

I couldn't get the car out
...

It's a long journey
...


28
Phrasal verbs and patterns with
prepositions
230 Summary
Verbs with adverbs and prepositions • 231
A verb can combine with an adverb or preposition
...

Verb + preposition (prepositional verb): We looked at the menu
...
A phrasal verb sometimes
has an object
...

We put away the dishes
...

Phrasal verb meanings • 232
There are many phrasal verbs with an idiomatic meaning
...
(= invented)
Prepositional verbs • 233
There are also many prepositional verbs
...

We were waiting for a bus
...

Verb + adverb + preposition • 235
The gang got away with a large amount of jewellery
...

Noun + preposition • 237
We didn't get an answer to our question
...

Come in and sit down
...

These adverbs are sometimes called 'particles'
...
g
...


2 Verb + preposition
A verb + preposition is called a 'prepositional verb'
...

We didn't go into all the details
...
g
...

The preposition always has an object: believe in God, look into the matter, insist
on absolute silence
...

NOTE

Sometimes an adverbial can come between the verb and preposition
...
/I was looking at the photo carefully
...

Intransitive:
Suddenly all the lights went out
...


b

When a phrasal verb has an object, the adverb can usually go either before or after
the object
...

We woke up the neighbours
...

We woke the neighbours up
...
Is it the object (the neighbours), or is
it the action of the phrasal verb (woke up)?
...
We certainly woke up the neighbours
...
We woke people up
...


But when the object is a pronoun, the adverb goes after it
...
I threw it away
...
We woke them up
...


28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS

PAGE

d

When the object is a long phrase, the adverb goes before it
...

We woke up just about everyone in the street
...


e

304

The adverb usually goes before other adverbials (e
...
nervously, on time)
...

The plane took off on time
...
Compare the adverb away and the preposition for
...

Lisa gave her computer away
...

NOT Lisa paid the meal for
...

Lisa gave it away
...

NOTE

a The preposition comes at the end in some patterns
...

I've given up drinking alcohol
...

Tom found out (that) the story was untrue
...

Don't you believe in paying your taxes? • 132(2)
The answer you get depends on who you ask
...
g
...

Some words are always prepositions, e
...
at, for, from, into, of, with
...
g
...


c

With phrasal verbs, the stress usually falls on the adverb, especially when it comes
at the end of a clause
...

What time did you get 'up?
With prepositional verbs, the stress usually falls on the verb
...

It de'pends on the weather
...

Phrasal:
The rest of the food was thrown away
...

Prepositional:
The children are being looked after by a neighbour
...

We usually stress the adverb (thrown a'way) but not the preposition ('looked after)
...
This gives the adverb extra emphasis
...

Five minutes later along came another bus
...
But when the
subject is a pronoun, there is no inversion
...

NOTE

We cannot normally use this pattern with a preposition
...

Sue was at the airport an hour before take-off
...

We usually stress the verb: 'take-off
...

Sam attacked the wasp with a rolled-up newspaper
...

an outbreak of rioting the amused onlookers
We stress the adverb: 'outbreak
...

You'll have to turn round here and go back
...

These verbs express movement
...

I've given up smoking
...
(= become popular)
NOTE

Sometimes the adverb adds very little to the meaning
...


b

Sometimes there is a one-word verb with the same meaning as the phrasal verb
...

Scientists are trying to find out/discover the reason why
...

The problem won't just go away/disappear
...

You have failed to keep up/maintain your monthly payments
...

They've put off/postponed the match until next week
...


28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS

c

PAGE 306

Some verbs can take a number of different adverbs
...

Enthusiasm for the project has fallen off
...
(= quarrelled)
I'm afraid the deal fell through
...

The cat got up a tree and couldn't climb down
...

A pedestrian was knocked down by a car
...


d

A phrasal verb can have more than one meaning, often a concrete and an abstract
meaning
...
Gavin is bringing in the groceries
...
(= introducing)

2 Some common adverbs
Here are some adverbs used in phrasal verbs
...

out= to different people
gave out/handed out copies of the worksheet, shared out the food between them
out= aloud
read out the rules for everyone to hear, shout out, cry out, speak out (= express
an opinion publicly)
out= clearly seen
can't make out the words, stand out in a crowd, pick out the best, point out a
mistake
over= from start to finish
read over/check over what I've written, think over/talk over a problem, go over
the details, get over an illness
up = growing, increasing
blowing up balloons, pump up a tyre, turn up the volume, step up production,
bring up children
up = completely
lock up before leaving, eat/drink it up, clear up/tidy up the mess, use up all the
sugar, pack up my things, sum up (= summarize), cut up into little pieces

3 More phrasal verbs
A car drew up/pulled up beside us
...

What time did you get up?
You'd better look out/watch out or you'll be in trouble
...

We can put you up in our spare bedroom
...

We're too busy to take on more work
...

Why not take up a new hobby?
No one washed up after the meal
...

We'll be away on holiday next week
...
(= in fashion)
The match is off because of the weather
...
(= not at home)
The party's over
...
(= finished)
What's up? (= What's the matter?/What's happening?)

28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS

PAGE 308

233 Prepositional verbs
1

A prepositional verb is a verb + preposition, e
...
ask for, depend on
...
Some verbs can
take a number of different prepositions
...

We spent an hour looking round the shops
...

The police are looking into the incident
...

NOTE

a A few prepositional verbs have the same meaning as a one-word verb
...

We got to/reached the airport just in time
...

I paid the taxi-driver/the bill
...

The committee approved the plans
...
(= think it right)

2

There are many prepositional verbs
...

The man admitted to/confessed to the crime
...

We apologize for the delay
...

We arrived at/in Ipswich ten minutes late
...

I don't believe in eating meat
...

I came across the article in a magazine
...

I want to concentrate on my maths
...

We managed to cope with all of these difficulties
...

I'll have to deal with/see about the arrangements
...

The price depends on when you travel
...

You didn't fall for that trick, did you?
I don't feel like doing any work
...

Has anything like that ever happened to you?
We're hoping for an improvement in the weather
...

Why do other people always interfere in/with my affairs?
Someone was knocking at/on the door
...


PAGE 309

233 Prepositional verbs

You just can't live on £80 a week
...

An idea has just occurred to me
...

Seventy countries participated in the Games
...

I ran into/bumped into Alex yesterday
...

The professor is researching into tropical diseases
...

If all else fails, people will resort to violence
...

I'll have to see to/attend to the arrangements
...

What does BBC stand for?
Let's stick to our original plan
...

Tim suffers from back-ache
...
(= is like)
You'll have to wait for the results
...

For prepositional verb + gerund, e
...
insisted on playing, • 132(2)
...

a Yes, you're right
...

We all agreed to/with the suggestion
...

Tony is giving me a lift
...

The United Nations has called for a cease-fire
...
It isn't important
...
(= like)
Someone has to care for the sick
...
(= handle)
The company deals in commercial properties
...

I was dying for/ longing for a coffee
...

The huge losses resulted from poor management
...


a

About can come after many verbs
...

They complained about the noise
...

NOTE

a Compare ask about, ask for and ask after
...
('Please tell us
...
('Please give us
...
(= asked how you are)
b We can also use on with comment and report
...

c Discuss takes a direct object
...



...

The Prime Minister spoke of / about prospects for industry
...

I was thinking about that problem
...
(= it wouldn't come into my mind)
We're thinking of/about taking a holiday
...
Congratulations
...
Where is it?
Last night I dreamt about something that happened years ago
...
(= it wouldn't enter my mind)
NOTE I've heard from Max means that Max has written to me or phoned me
...

We were talking to our friends
...


NOTE

a Ring and phone take an object
...

I had to phone my boss
...

The children laughed at the clown
...

The farmer shouted at us angrily
...


4

We do not normally use a preposition after these verbs: accompany, answer,
approach, control, demand, desire, discuss, enter, expect, influence, lack, marry,
obey, reach, remember, request, resemble, seek, suit
...
NOT She entered into the room
...
NOT They control over the city
...

her entry into the room
their control over the city
b Compare leave (= depart) and leave for (a destination)
...
(= goes from Exeter)
The train leaves for Exeter at ten fifteen
...

The walkers were heading for/making for the coast
...

The police searched the whole house
...


234 Verb + object + preposition
Verb

Object

Preposition

Some companies spend a lot of money on advertising
...

Do you
regard this building as a masterpiece?
In the passive, the preposition comes directly after the verb
...

We've been invited to the wedding
...

People admire the man for his courage
...

The man was arrested/punished/fined for hitting a policeman
...

They blamed me for forgetting the tickets
...

The man was charged with/accused of robbery
...

We congratulated Jane on passing her driving test
...

Heavy fines deter/discourage motorists from speeding
...

Can't we do something about the problem?
Can I exchange francs for pesetas?
You can insure your luggage against theft
...

I've learnt something from the experience
...

Most people prefer the new system to the old
...

They've replaced the old red phone boxes with new ones
...

Tom had to share a bedroom with Andy
...

The proposal struck me as a good idea
...

You have to translate the article into English
...

For this pattern with a gerund, e
...
thank her for helping, • 132(3)
...

Excuse/Forgive me for interrupting
...


3

Compare these pairs of sentences
...

I blame our problems on the government
...

The manager presented a watch to Harry
...

The school provided tea for the visitors
...

The men stole £500 from the club
...

The school supplied the visitors with tea
...


28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS

PAGE 312

4

Sometimes the verb + object + preposition has an idiomatic meaning
...
(= look after)
You have to give way to traffic on the main road
...
(= ignored)

5

We can use about, of and to after some verbs expressing speech and thought
...

Has anyone told you about the new timetable?
I asked Dave about his plans
...

The management will inform the staff about/of the proposed changes
...

NOTE

a We can also use against after warn
...

b Compare remind about and remind of
...
(= told me not to forget)
Tracy reminds me of her elder sister
...

Lots of people write letters to the Queen
...

NOTE

Compare throw to and throw at
...

Rachel was so angry with Tom that she threw a plate at him
...
This is sometimes called
a 'phrasal-prepositional verb'
...


Adverb Preposition

fell
down
looked out
gazed up
Hold
on

on the ice
...

at the stars
to your hat
...
Here are some examples
...
(= pay a short visit)
Martin left half an hour ago
...

We were making good progress until we came up against the bureaucracy
...

I'm trying to cut down on sugar
...
(= abolished)
You've got to face up to the situation
...
(= use if necessary)
I've got back-ache
...

I don't mind
...


236 Adjective + preposition

PAGE 313

The gang got away with several valuable works of art
...
(= do a job)
Do you get on with your flat-mate? (= Are you good friends?)
I'll get round to fixing that door one day
...
(= accept)
You can't go back on what you promised
...
(= suffering from)
Ben has decided to go in for teaching
...
(= continue)
You drive so fast I'll never keep up with you
...
(= behave as expected)
Are you looking forward to your holiday?
Slow down
...

We need heroes to look up to
...

The man owned up to a number of burglaries
...

I'm going to send off/away for my free map
...

Verb

Object

Adverb

We won't let
anyone else in
Diana has taken us
up

Preposition
on the secret
...


236 Adjective + preposition
1

Some adjectives can take a preposition
...

You'll be late for work
...

The place was crowded with tourists
...

afraid of/frightened of/scared of/terrified of the dark
ashamed of myself
confident of victory
crazy about/enthusiastic about aeroplanes
curious about the affair
eager for news excited at/about the prospect
fed up with/bored with housework
impressed with/by the performance
interested in ballet
jealous of/envious of rich people
keen on fishing
nervous of heights proud of her achievements
satisfied with/content with my score
tired of walking
worried about/upset about this setback
We can use at or by with alarmed, amazed, astonished, confused, shocked, and
surprised
...

For the pattern with a gerund, e
...
tired of walking, • 132(4)
...


28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS

PAGE 314

NOTE

Sometimes the choice of preposition depends on the meaning
...

About and at are more general
...

We're pleased at/about the election result
...

Polly was annoyed at/about the mix-up over her ticket
...

c Sorry for means sympathy for someone
...
I'm nearly ready
...
He had a miserable time
...

I'm anxious about my health
...

e Concerned takes about, for or with
...
(= worried about)
We're concerned for her safety
...
(= about, involved in)
f We are grateful to a person for an action
...


3

We use good at etc to talk about ability
...
(= He can skate well
...

I'm hopeless at languages
...

Physical exercise is good for you
...

To say how we behave towards another person we use good to, rude to etc
...
You've helped me a lot
...


4

Here are some more examples of adjective + preposition
...

nothing wrong with me

PAGE

315

237

Noun

+

preposition

237 Noun + preposition
1

Some nouns can take a particular preposition
...

Verb/Adjective + preposition
Noun + preposition
He objected to the idea
...

protection from the cold
I'm interested in art
...
our anger at what happened
Sometimes the verb takes a direct object but the noun takes a preposition
...

my answer to the question
They demanded more money
...

a discussion of/about/on politics today
Sometimes the choice of preposition depends on the meaning
...


a

Advantage
England had the advantage of playing at home
...


b

Chance, possibility
the chance/opportunity of a quick profit

c

no possibility of an agreement

Connection, difference etc
a link/connection with another murder
a link/connection between the two murders
Jill's relationship with Hugo
the relationship between them
the contrast with the other side of town
the contrast between the two areas
the difference between American football and soccer
an alternative to conventional medicine
a substitute for wood

d Effect, influence
The new law has had some effect on people's behaviour
...

e

Increase etc
an increase/a rise in crime
a reduction/decrease in sales
a delay in approving the plan

an increase la rise of ten per cent
a reduction/decrease of four per cent
a delay of two months

28 PHRASAL VERBS AND PATTERNS WITH PREPOSITIONS

PAGE 316

f

Method, answer etc
a way/method of improving your memory
the question of finance
the answer/solution/key to the problem
a scheme for combating crime
the cause of/reason for the accident

g

Need, wish etc
These nouns take for: appetite, application, demand, desire, need, preference,
request, taste, wish
...

There's no chance/hope of getting there in time
...


h

Opinion, belief etc
your opinion of the film his attitude to/towards his colleagues
a belief in conservative values
an attack on the scheme
no regard/respect for our institutions sympathy for the losers
people's reaction to the news

i

Report, complaint etc
a report on/about agriculture
a comment on/about the situation
an interview with the President about the military action
a complaint about the noise

j

Student, ability etc
a student of law
great ability in/at music
a knowledge of the rules
research into waste-recycling
her skill at handling people
an expert on/at/in work methods
some experience of/in selling
NOTE

Compare success in, success at and make a success of
...

I never had any success at games
...


k

Trouble etc
having trouble with the computer
What's the matter with it?
some damage to my car
a difficulty over/with the arrangements
a lack of money

29
Sentences with more than one
clause
238 Summary
Types of clause • 239
A sentence has one or more main clauses
...
We use
and, or, but and so to join main clauses
...

We use because, when, if, that etc in a sub clause
...

It was late when I got home
...

I was too tired to do anything else
...

Clause combinations • 240
A sentence can consist of a number of main clauses and sub clauses
...

They found an interpreter who spoke all three languages
...

I wish the climate here was warmer
...

The subjunctive • 242
We can use the subjunctive in a few formal contexts
...

We'd rather there were a doctor present
...
He took the lift up to the 86th floor, found a convenient window and
jumped
...
There was a live show going out, so the
interviewer decided to ask the would-be suicide a few questions
...

(from J
...

The man went up to the 86th floor and he jumped
...

Two main clauses linked together are 'co-ordinate clauses'
...

The man went up to the 86th floor and (he) jumped
...

NOTE

a For ways of punctuating two main clauses,• 56(2)
...

I've peeled the potatoes and (I've) washed them
...

c We can join more than two clauses
...

He took the lift up, found a convenient window and jumped
...

We can take a taxi or (we can) wait for a bus
...
• 246
There was a show going out, so they asked him some questions
...

He jumped off and survived
...
(= so)

c

The two clauses can be separate sentences
...
And he jumped
...
But then something amazing happened
...

The painter and the interviewer had a chat
...
• 202(2,3)

2 Sub clauses
a

Sometimes one clause can be part of another
...

He admitted that he'd changed his mind
...
In a sub clause we can use because, when, if, that etc
...

He admitted that he'd changed his mind
...


c

A sub clause is part of the main clause, in the same way as a phrase is
...

Adverbial:
A gust of wind caught him on the way down
...

Object:
He admitted his mistake
...


PAGE

319

240

Clause

combinations

Another kind of sub clause is a relative clause
...

This clause modifies a man
...

He regrets now that he jumped
...

A finite clause can be a main clause (He regrets now) or a sub clause (that he
jumped)
...

The wind caught him and (it) blew him through the window
...

To tell you the truth, I was terrified
...

The people watching the show were astonished
...

The show having finished, the man left the studio
...

I feel tired if I stay up, but I can't sleep if I go to bed
...
They both have a
sub clause with if
...

George knew that Amy was very ill and wouldn't live much longer
...


2

Look at these sentences with two sub clauses
...

Although it was hard work, I enjoyed the job because it was interesting
...


3

We can also use non-finite clauses to build up more complex sentences
...

The gallery intends to buy more pictures painted by local artists
...

'Eventually we took off, but instead of landing at Zurich, we had to go to Basle,
which meant a longer, and an added train journey
...
'
(from M
...

Sentence 1
Main clause
Eventually we took off,
Main clause
but we had to go to
Basle,

Sub clause
instead of
landing at
Zurich,

Sub clause
which meant a
longer, and an
added train journey
...


241 Tenses in sub clauses
1 Sequence of tenses
a

The verb in a sub clause is usually in the same tense as the verb in the main clause
...

Even some people who have tickets aren't able to get into the stadium
...

Even some people who had tickets weren't able to get into the stadium
...

I came home early yesterday because I didn't feel very well
...

NOTE

Compare direct speech
...
'

b

For the present simple in a sub clause of future time, • 77
...


241 Tenses in sub clauses

2 Verbs after wish
a

Wish - would
I wish people wouldn't leave this door open
...

This pattern expresses a wish about the future, for example a wish for a change in
someone's behaviour, or a wish for something to happen
...

I wish you wouldn't smoke
...

Bob wishes he knew what was going on
...
I'm hopeless at it
...
We cannot use would here
...


c

Wish -past perfect/could have
I wish I had never bought this toaster
...

I wish you'd told me you had a spare ticket for the show
...

This pattern expresses a wish about the past
...

NOT I wish you would have told me
...

If only Simon would reply to my letter
...
It often expresses regret
...
I'd have loved to go
...

If only the train gets in on time, we'll just catch the two o'clock bus
...

If you 'd only told me, I could have gone
...

Past simple:
Suppose we were rich
...
)
Imagine you wanted to murder someone
...
)
Past perfect:
I wish I had reserved a seat
...
)
I'd rather you'd asked me first
...
)
The past simple expresses something unreal in the present, something that is not
so
...
We can use these
patterns with suppose, supposing, imagine; wish, • (2); if only, • (2d); would
rather; if, • 257; as if/as though
...

It's time I got my hair cut
...

We can also use these patterns
...

It's time to get the tea ready
...

Gary behaves as if he owns/owned the place
...

Suppose/Supposing something goes/went wrong, what then?
What if you don't/didn't have enough money to get home?

242 The subjunctive
1

The subjunctive is the base form of a verb
...

The Opposition are insisting that the Minister resign
...

We can use the subjunctive in a that-clause after verbs and adjectives expressing
the idea that an action is necessary, e
...
ask, demand, insist, propose, recommend,
request, suggest; advisable, anxious, desirable, eager, essential, important,
necessary, preferable, willing
...

We recommend that both schemes go ahead
...
It is used more in American English
...

The committee recommended that the scheme should go ahead
...

NOTE

After an adjective we can use a to-infinitive
...


3

There are some expressions that we use for something unreal, e
...
suppose, wish,
would rather, if, as if/as though, • 241(3)
...

Suppose the story was/were true
...

But were is a little formal and old-fashioned here, except in the phrase if I were you
(= in your place)
...


30
And, or, but, so etc
243 Summary
We can use a conjunction to link two main clauses together in a sentence
...

We can use an adverb or a prepositional phrase to link the meaning of two main
clauses or two sentences
...

Tom had no food
...

Tom had to buy some food
...

Words meaning 'and' • 244
and, too, as well (as), either, also, in addition (to), besides, furthermore, moreover,
both
...
, not only
...

Words meaning 'or' • 245
or, either

...
,
neither
...


Words meaning 'but' • 246
but, though, however, nevertheless, even so, all the same, although, even though,
in spite of, despite, whereas, while, on the other hand
Words meaning 'so' • 247
so, therefore, as a result (of), in consequence (of)

244 Words meaning 'and'
1

We can use and to link two clauses
...

The adverbs too and as well are more emphatic than and
...
He lectured on Shakespeare, too/as well
...

The negative is either
...

NOT I haven't got a bike too/as well
...

Gene Tunney was a boxer, and he also lectured on Shakespeare
...

I've got all my usual work, and in addition I've got to write a report
...
Besides, it is cheap to produce
...
What's more, I have no umbrella
...

The country had suffered greatly during the war
...

These matters are giving cause for concern
...

And then and on top of that are informal
...
And then there's the expense
...
On top of that, my sister is staying with us
...

I've got all my usual work, plus I've got to write a report
...

Gene Tunney was a university lecturer as well as a boxer
...

We can also use along with and together with before a noun
...

Together with a film crew, they are walking towards the South Pole
...
and or not only
...

Gene Tunney was both a boxer and a Shakespeare scholar
...


245 Words meaning 'or'
We use or to express an alternative
...
or is more emphatic
...

You can go either right or left
...

Either you do the job yourself, or we pay someone to do it
...

NOTE

a We can also use alternatively
...
Alternatively, we can find somewhere else to hold it
...

We'd better hurry, or (else) we'll be late/otherwise we'll be late
...
or, but neither
...

The road was closed
...

The road was closed
...

A deaf-mute is someone who can't hear or speak
...

Neither the post office nor the bank was/were open
...

We found an Information Centre, but it was closed
...
It was closed, though
...
Though is rather informal
...
• (3)
We found an Information Centre, though it was closed
...

These pens are cheap/may be cheap, but they're useless
...

The Great Fire destroyed much of London
...

These adverbs are a little formal
...
They can
also sometimes go in mid position or after the subject
...

We can also use even so and all the same
...

She has lots of friends
...

NOTE

Yet and still are usually adverbs of time; • 210(2)
...
It is a little formal
...

Still can be an adverb meaning 'but'
...
Still, you won't find me on an aeroplane
...
The sub clause comes
before or after the main clause
...

I drank the beer although I didn't want it
...

I didn't want the beer, but I drank it
...

The team lost, though/although they played quite well
...

My father runs marathons, even though he's sixty
...

Much as I like Tom, he does get on my nerves sometimes
...


4

We can use the prepositions in spite of and despite with a noun or gerund
...

The family always enjoy themselves in spite of having/despite having no money
...

NOT in spite of the Great Fire destroyed much of London
But we sometimes use in spite of/despite the fact that, especially if the two clauses
have different subjects
...

But although is usually neater
...

In the sentence The team lost but they played well, the conjunction but expresses
the idea that playing well is in contrast with losing and is therefore unexpected
...

I'm right-handed but my brother is left-handed
...
To
express this idea of difference, we can also use the conjunctions whereas or while
...

We can also use the adverbial on the other hand to link two sentences
...

Birmingham is a big city
...

NOTE

We use on the contrary only when we mean that the opposite is true
...
On the contrary, it's quite small
...

It hasn't rained for ages, (and) so the ground is very dry
...
It comes at the beginning of a clause
...
It often goes in mid position, but it can go in
front or end position or after the subject
...
The ground is therefore very dry
...

We lost our way, so we were late
...

The computer was incorrectly programmed, and as a result/and in consequence
the rocket crashed
...

As a result of and in consequence of are prepositions
...


3

The ground is so dry (that) the plants are dying
...

The place looked such a mess (that) I couldn't invite anyone in
...
So and such express degree;
• 212(4)
...


PAGE 327

31
Adverbial clauses
248 Summary
Introduction to adverbial clauses • 249
An adverbial clause plays the same part in a sentence as other adverbials do
...
(adverbial phrase)
I listen to music while I'm driving
...

While driving I listen to music to pass the time
...

Clauses of reason • 251
I bought this coat because it was cheap
...

Other adverbial clauses • 253
Sue parked the car where she had the day before
...

Whoever, whatever etc • 254
Whoever suggested the idea, it's still nonsense
...
g
...

For result, e
...
so/such
...

For conditions, e
...
if, unless, • 255
...
g
...


249 Introduction to adverbial clauses
1

An adverbial clause is part of the main clause in the same way as other adverbials
are, such as an adverb or prepositional phrase
...

We could play cards after the meal
...


31

2

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

PAGE 328

The clause usually goes in front position or end position
...

We could play cards if you like
...

NOTE

It is possible but less usual for the adverbial clause to go in the middle of the main clause
...


3

The order of clauses depends on what is new and important information
...

I arrived about ten minutes after the start of the meeting
...

Here I was late relates back to ten minutes after the start
...
But now look at this example
...
Well, because he was telling me his problems, I was late
...
The information I was late
is new
...


a

We can use an infinitive or participle clause
...

Dave lay in bed thinking
...

While waiting, Colin paced up and down
...
• 132(8)

b

With some conjunctions, we can form a short clause without a verb
...

These conjunctions are when, while, once, until, where, if and although
...


250 Clauses of time
1

We form an adverbial clause of time with a conjunction
...

The doorbell rang as/while I was changing
...

Have some coffee before you go
...

NOT by the postman comes
Once you've learnt to swim, you'll never forget
...

Till/Until the cheque arrives, I can't pay my rent
...

For before you go referring to the future, • 77
...

Lots has happened since your last visit
...
• 132(8a)
I always have a shower after taking exercise
...
• 139(3)
Take care when crossing the road
...

We can also use a participle without a conjunction
...

Having glanced at the letter, Helen pushed it aside
...
For more
examples, • 66(2b)
...

While Ann was in hospital, she had a visit from her teacher
...

We can also use when here
...

We were cycling along when we saw a fox
...

We can also use when for one thing coming straight after another
...


b

When can also mean 'every time'
...

I cycle to work when it's fine
...

Whenever/Every time Max calls, he brings me flowers
...

As we drove further north, the weather got worse
...
• 222(2)

d

Just as means 'at that exact moment'
...


5

To emphasize the idea of one thing coming immediately after another, we can use
these conjunctions
...

The minute/The moment you hear any news, let me know
...

Martin had no sooner sat down than the phone rang
...

In both patterns we can use inversion
...

Hardly had I started work when I felt a pain in my back
...
• 307(3)

31

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

PAGE 330

251 Clauses of reason
1

We form an adverbial clause of reason with a conjunction such as because
...

As the weather is often warm, many of the homes have swimming pools
...

Seeing (that) it's so late, why don't you stay the night?
Now (that) I've finished the course, I have to look for a job
...
• 247
I was tired, so I made mistakes
...
We can use it to answer a question
with why
...

c We sometimes use because to give a reason for saying the main clause
...

I didn't go to the exhibition because I was busy
...

I didn't go to the exhibition because I was interested
...

In the second sentence there is extra stress on interested
...

The soldiers were exhausted for they had marched a long way
...


2

We can also use a participle clause
...

Having finished the course, I have to look for a job
...

The new welfare scheme was abandoned because of the cost
...

The scheme was abandoned in view of the fact that it was proving unpopular
...

I had a look just out of curiosity
...

Considering (that) he's seventy, George is remarkably fit
...

George is seventy, you know
...


252 Clauses of purpose
We can use a to-infinitive clause to express purpose
...

In order to and so as to are more emphatic
...

The company borrowed money (in order) to finance their advertising
...

(In order) to save time we'll fax all the information
...

I wrote it in my diary so as not to forget
...

You should keep milk in a fridge so that it stays fresh
...

Why don't you take a day off so that you can recover properly?
In order that is formal and less common than so that
...

NOTE

a We use so that rather than a to-infinitive when the two clauses have different subjects
...

But after for we can use a subject + to-infinitive
...

b In informal English we can use so instead of so that
...

Purpose: I took a day off so (that) I could recover properly
...

But generally we use so that for purpose and so for result
...

He kept his shirt on so that he wouldn't get sunburnt
...


We can use for with a noun to express the purpose of an action
...

Why not come over for a chat?
To express the general purpose of a thing, we normally use for with a gerund
...

The small scale is for weighing letters
...

I need a saw to cut this wood
...

NOT I got the scale out for weighing the letter
...

We use a ruler for measuring/to measure things
...
• 126(6)
For the scale to register correctly, it has to be level
...

Sebastian takes the teddy bear everywhere he goes
...

Why can't I live my life how I want to live it?
Jessica behaved as/like she always does
...

It is safer to use as
...

But we can use like as a preposition
...

b We can use look as if, look as though and look like (informal) to describe how
something looks
...

We can also use this pattern for what we can see is probably going to happen
...

We can also use look like + gerund with the same meaning
...


3 Comment and truth
As you know, things are difficult just now
...

As far as I can tell, there's nothing wrong
...

Here the sub clause explains in what way the main clause is true
...

Leaving out that is informal
...

Whoever plays in goal, we're bound to lose
...

Whenever I ring Tracy, she's never there
...

We can use whoever, whatever, whichever, whenever, wherever and however
...

For Whoever plays in goal wears this shirt, • 2 8 1
...

I won't change my mind no matter what you say
...


PAGE 333

32
Conditional clauses
255 Summary
The use of conditional clauses • 256
We often use if to express a condition
...

Here there is a conditional clause (If you're going into college) and a main
clause (I could give you a lift)
...

Open:
If it rains tomorrow, I won't go
...

Verbs in conditional sentences • 257
There are many different combinations of verb forms
...

If I complain, no one ever takes any notice
...

If I complained, no one would take any notice
...

Should, were, had and inversion • 258
We can use inversion in clauses with should, were and had
...

If, as long as, unless, in case etc • 259
Besides if we can use other conjunctions to express a condition
...


256 The use of conditional clauses
1

This real conversation contains some conditional clauses
...
Or you can even send us a letter
...

Reader: That's the number on the back?

32

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

PAGE 334

Librarian: No, that's the class number
...
It's usually about six numbers
at least
...

Reader: Uh-huh
...

(from M
...
For example, a condition can be
open or unreal
...

Unreal: If you'd arrived ten minutes later, we would have been closed
...

(You may join the library)
...
(You did not arrive later
...

I'm tired
...

The meaning here is similar to You're tired, so let's have a rest
...

If you're going into town, could you post this letter for me?
If you need more information, you should see your careers teacher
...

We can go for a walk if you like
...

If you're walking along the cliff top, don't go too near the edge
...


257 Verbs in conditional sentences
1 Introduction
a

We can use many different verb forms in conditional sentences
...

If you haven't got television, you can't watch it
...

If someone else has requested the book, you would have to give it back
...

In general we use verb forms in conditional sentences in the same way as in other
kinds of sentences
...
When we talk about something unreal we often use
the past (if you lived) and would (you would have four birthdays)
...

Well, if your friends left half an hour ago, they aren't going to get to Cornwall by tea time
...
These patterns are usually
called Types 1, 2 and 3
...

Type 2: If the company failed, we would lose our money
...

There is another common pattern which we can call Type 0
...


c

The if-clause usually comes before the main clause, but it can come after it
...


2 Type 0 conditionals
a

The pattern is if
...
+ present
...

If you heat iron, it expands
...

We can use when instead of if
...

(= Every time I reverse the car,
...

If the team win tomorrow, they get promotion to a higher league
...
It leaves open the question of whether the team will win
or not
...

If you're practising on the drums, I'm going out
...
'+ present
...

If it rains, the reception will take place indoors
...

The milk will go off if you leave it by the radiator
...
It leaves open the question of whether
it will rain or not
...

We do not normally use will in an open condition
...

NOTE

a We can use will in the if-clause for a result, something further in the future than the
main clause
...

b We can use shall instead of will after I/we
...


b

As well as the present simple, we can use the continuous or perfect
...

If I've finished my work by ten, I'll probably watch a film on TV
...

If we miss the train, we can get the next one
...

If you phone at six, they might be having tea
...

If you're going out, take your key
...

c

A present tense in the if-clause can refer to the present
...

If it's raining already, I'm definitely not going out
...

If everyone will help, we'll soon get the job done
...

We can also use will in the if-clause for a request
...


4 Type 2 conditionals
a

The pattern is if
...
+ would
...

If Phil lived nearer his mother, he would visit her more often
...

Here the past tense expresses an unreal condition
...

We do not use would for an unreal condition
...

NOTE

We can use should instead of would after I/we
...


b

We do not usually mix the patterns for open and unreal conditions
...


c

We also use the Type 2 pattern for a theoretical possibility in the future
...

If we caught the early train, we'd be in Manchester by lunch time
...

Compare Types 1 and 2 for possible future actions
...

Type 2: If we stayed in a hotel, it would be expensive
...
(We may or may not stay in a
hotel
...

NOTE

It can be more polite to use the Type 2 pattern because it is more tentative
...

Shall we go along the by-pass? ~ Well, if we went through the town centre, it would
probably be quicker
...

If the sun was shining, everything would be perfect
...

As well as would, we can use other modal verbs such as could or might in the
main clause
...

If we could roll the car down the hill, we might be able to start it
...

If you wouldn't mind holding the line, I'll try to put you through
...

If you'd just sign here, please
...

If you'd like to see the exhibition, it would be nice to go together
...

Perhaps Mike took a taxi
...

I used to live near the library
...


b

We can use a Type 2 pattern as the past of a Type 1
...
If you accept the invitation, you will regret it
...
And
now you are regretting it, aren't you?

c

We can combine a past condition with a future result
...


6 Type 3 conditionals
a

The pattern is if
...
+ would + perfect
...

If I'd phoned to renew the books, I wouldn't have had to pay a fine
...

We'd have gone to the talk if we'd known about it
...
)
Here the past perfect refers to something unreal, an imaginary past action
...

We cannot use the past simple or perfect in the main clause
...

NOTE

Would have (or had have) is not used in the if-clause except in very informal speech
...

But many people regard this as incorrect
...

If I could have warned you in time, I would have done
...

If I'd written the address down, I could have saved myself some trouble
...

NOTE

We can also use continuous forms
...


c

We can mix Types 2 and 3
...

If you hadn't woken me up in the middle of the night, I wouldn't feel so
tired now
...

If you know London so well, you shouldn't have got lost
...

1

We can use should in an if-clause to talk about something which is possible but
not very likely
...

NOTE

We can also use happen to
...
• 242(3)
If the picture was/were genuine, it would be worth thousands of pounds
...

(= Without Emma,
...

If the decision were to go against us, we would appeal
...

Should anyone ring, could you take a message?
Should we not succeed, the consequences would be disastrous
...

Were the decision to go against us, we would appeal
...

Had you taken a taxi, you would have got here on time
...

But an if-clause is more common, especially in informal English
...
)
When the doctor comes, can you let her in? (The doctor will come
...

If I could see into the future, I'd know what to do
...
)
But in some contexts we can use either if or when
...

I'd like a room facing the street if (that is) possible
...

For if so and if not, • 43(3e)
...

If the figures don't add up, (then) we must have made a mistake
...


4 As long as, provided etc
As well as if, we can also use as/so long as and provided/providing (that) to express
a condition
...

I don't mind you using my bike provided (that) you take care of it
...

Provided/Providing (that) is a little formal
...

We are willing to accept your offer on condition that payment is made within seven days
...

I've lost my timetable
...

c We can use the prepositions in case of and in the event of
...
(= If you have any difficulty,
...

With a bit more time, we could do a proper job
...
)
But for the climate, Edinburgh would be a perfect place to live
...

What if the tickets don't get here in time?
Suppose/Supposing there's nowhere to park?

32 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES

PAGE 340

6 Unless
a

Unless means 'if
...

We're going to have a picnic unless it rains/if it doesn't rain
...

Unless you refund my money, I shall take legal action
...

We won't have a picnic unless it's fine
...


b

When an unreal condition comes before the main clause, we cannot use unless
...
If it hadn't fallen, it would have won the race
...

But we can use unless after the main clause, as an afterthought
...
No one could have overtaken it, unless it had fallen
...

Alex wlll be upset if you don't come to the party
...

NOTE

The adverb otherwise means 'if not'
...
Otherwise I shall take legal action
...

Touch me and I'll scream
...
)
Go away or I'll scream
...
)

7 In case
You should insure your belongings in case they get stolen
...
because they might get stolen
...

We can use should
...

Compare if and in case
...

(= I'll draw it out at the time when I need it
...

(= I'll draw it out because I might need it later
...

NOTE For in case in American English, • 307(2)
...
or
I wouldn't go on a camping holiday, even if you paid me
...

Joanne wouldn't want a dog even if she had room to keep one
...

Whether it's summer or winter, our neighbour always wears a pullover
...

Joanne remembered that it was Thursday
...

No one knew if/whether the rumour was true
...

I hope (that) everything will be OK
...

As object
I noticed that the door was open
...

As subject
That he could be mistaken didn't seem possible
...

After a preposition
We had a discussion about who should be invited
...

After a noun
You can't deny the fact that you received the message
...

I expected that we would be late
...

We'll have to decide if/whether we can afford it
...


33

NOUN CLAUSES

PAGE 342

Compare a noun phrase and noun clause as object
...

Clause:
We didn't know what time it was
...

We would be late
...

What time was it?
what time it was
A clause with if/whether relates to a yes/no question
...
• 269(2)
NOT We didn't know what time was it
...

I knew (that) you wouldn't like this colour
...
• 263
You said you had the number
...

We can sometimes use a to-infinitive with a question word or whether
...


262 Patterns with noun clauses
1 The pattern You know that we haven't any money
a

A noun clause can be the object of a verb
...

No one believes (that) the project will go ahead
...

I wonder whether that's a good idea
...

I'll ask when the next train is
...


b

With think and believe, we usually put a negative in the main clause, not in the
noun clause
...

I think we haven't got time is less usual
...

I don't suppose you're used to this weather
...


PAGE 343

c

262 Patterns with noun clauses

Here are some verbs we can use before a noun clause
...
Some verbs take
a to-infinitive or gerund but not a noun clause, e
...
aim, avoid, finish, involve,
offer, refuse
...


d

Sometimes there is a phrase with to
...

We explained (to the driver) that we hadn't any money
...

Sometimes there is an indirect object
...

In this pattern we can use advise, assure, convince, inform, notify, persuade,
promise, reassure, remind, show, teach, tell, warn
...
• 265(3)
For details about tell and say, •266(1)
...


2 The pattern The problem is that we haven't any money
A noun clause can be a complement of be
...

The difficulty was how Emma was going to find us in the crowd
...

That everyone got back safely was a great relief
...

But it is more usual to use Pattern 4
...

NOT Everyone got back safely was a great relief
...

Whether I'll be able to come depends on a number of things
...
• 50(5)
It was a great relief that everyone got back safely
...

It's hard to say if/whether it's going to rain (or not)
...

NOTE

a We can also use the fact that or the idea that
...

b For it as empty object, • 50(5b)
...

c For it with seem, happen etc, • 50(5c)
...

d For the passive pattern It was decided that we should take this route, • 1 0 9
...

The government is looking into what needs to be done
...

We cannot use if
...
Compare these sentences
...

No one told me (that) Nicola was ill
...

I was surprised (at) how cold it was
...

Other expressions are to ask (about), aware (of), to care (about), certain (of/about),
conscious (of), curious (about), to decide (on/about), a decision (on/about),
to depend (on), to inquire (about), an inquiry (about), to report (on/about), sure (of/about),
to think (of/about), to wonder (about)
...

There was a discussion about when we should leave
...


PAGE 345

262 Patterns with noun clauses

6 The pattern I'm afraid that we haven't any money
a

We can use a that-clause after some adjectives
...

We were worried (that) there were no life guards on duty
...

Some adjectives in this pattern are:
afraid
convinced
impatient
amused
delighted
pleased
annoyed
determined
proud
anxious
eager
sorry
aware
glad
sure
certain
happy
surprised
confident
horrified
willing
conscious
NOTE

We can often use should
...

The organizers were anxious that nothing should go wrong
...

I wasn't sure when the visitors would arrive
...

I was surprised how upset Tom seemed
...


7 The pattern The fact that we haven't any money
is a problem
We can use a that-clause after some nouns, mainly ones expressing speech or
thought
...

You can't get around the fact that it's against the law
...

We do not usually leave out that in this pattern
...

Direct speech: 'I like football,' Emma said
...

Verbs of reporting • 265
We use verbs of reporting such as say, tell, ask, answer
...

Emma told me she likes football
...

Nick: I won't be at the club next week
...

(speaking to Polly at the club now)
Here there are changes of person (I he), place (at the club
here) and time
(next week

this week)
...

Emma said she liked football, but she never watches it
...

Reporting questions • 269
In an indirect question we use a question word or if/whether
...

Vicky wants to know if Emma likes football
...

' Could you fill in the form, please?'
They told/asked us to fill in the form
...

'I can lend you some money
...


PAGE 347

264 Introduction to indirect speech

264 Introduction to indirect speech
1 Direct speech
We use direct speech when we report someone's words by repeating them
...
(from a story)
Gould was the first to admit "We were simply beaten by a better side
...


2 Indirect speech
a

Instead of repeating the exact words, we can give the meaning in our own words
and from our own point of view
...

Gould admitted that his team were beaten by a better side
...
We sometimes use that, but in informal English we can leave it out,
especially after say or tell
...

You told me (that) you enjoyed the visit
...

Gould admitted having lost to a better side
...
• 122(2c)
NOTE

a We use a comma after said, admitted etc and before direct speech, but not before
indirect speech
...
'
Fiona said it was getting late
...
There is a comma
after the indirect speech
...

There will be no trains on Christmas Day, British Rail announced yesterday
...

c For according to, • 228(1)
...

Louise thought Wayne was a complete fool
...


c

We can mix direct and indirect speech
...

But Brian believes watching the kids grow up and learn new things is the biggest
joy a dad can experience
...
'

34 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

PAGE 348

In indirect speech we do not need to use a verb of reporting in every sentence
...
(The names have been changed
...

In the second offence Wilson had burgled premises and taken a briefcase
containing takings from a shop
...

In the second and third paragraphs we could use a verb of reporting
...

Mr Andrews added that police had
...


265 Verbs of reporting
1

We use verbs of reporting to report statements, thoughts, questions, requests,
apologies and so on
...

You mentioned that you were going on holiday
...

You might ask the waiter to bring another bottle
...

Some verbs express how a sentence is spoken
...


2

These are verbs of reporting
...

Angela was talking to Neil
...

But we do not use talk or speak as verbs of reporting
...

NOT The President talked/spoke that he was confident of success
...

No one told me you were leaving
...

These verbs are tell, inform, remind, notify, persuade, convince and reassure
...

The police ordered the men to lie down
...

This happens mainly in literary English, for example in stories and novels
...

'I'm afraid not,' the woman replied/replied the woman
...

We cannot put a personal pronoun (e
...
he, she) after the verb
...


5

We can also use nouns such as announcement, opinion, remark, reply, statement
...

The statement that no action would be taken was met with disbelief
...

Polly is sure we'll enjoy the show
...

Celia told me she's fed up
...

Andy told me all the latest news
...
NOT Celia said me she's fed up
Dave never says anything
...

We can use ask with or without an indirect object
...

For tell and ask in indirect orders and requests, • 270(1)
...

NOTE

a We can use a that-clause or a wh-clause
...

Celia told me what's wrong
...

Celia didn't tell me/didn't say what was wrong
...

'What time is it?' he asked/said
...

'The time i s
...

He said what time it was
...

Debbie told us about her new boy-friend
...

Debbie talked about her new boy-friend
...

What did she tell you/say about her new boy-friend?
No one has told us anything/said anything about the arrangements
...

Paul told (us) a very funny story/joke
...

You mustn't tell (people) lies
...


3

After say we can use a phrase with to, especially if the information is not reported
...

What did the boss say to you?
But when the information is reported we use these patterns
...

This is much more usual than The boss said to me he's leaving
...

'I'm OK,' Celia told me
...


'Are you OK?' Celia asked (me)
...
Kate rings the electrician
...

A moment later Kate reports this to Martin
...

Now the speaker is different, so I becomes the electrician or he
...

But next day the electrician does not come
...

Kate: You said you would be here at nine this morning
...
And the
promise is now out of date, so will becomes would
...
)
Whenever we report something, we have to take account of changes in the
situation - a different speaker, a different place or a different time
...
But remember that
the changes are not automatic; they depend on the situation
...

'This steak is nice
...

'I like that
...
She said she liked it
...

The forecast says it's going to rain
...

I've heard they might close this place down
...
For written words, • 64(2f)
...

'I'm hungry
...

NOTE

After a present-tense verb of reporting, the past tense means past time
...


b

When we see the statement as in the past, the verb of reporting is in a past tense
...

Karen told me yesterday that she knows the way
...


2 The meaning of the tense change
When the verb of reporting is in a past tense, we sometimes change the tense in
indirect speech from present to past
...

7 know the way
...

'I'm hungry
...


b

We can change the tense when it is uncertain if the statement is true
...

We'd better not go out
...

I hope it doesn't rain
...
The forecast said it was going to rain
...
We are more interested in
the fact of the rain than in the forecast
...
We are expressing the idea that it is a forecast, not a fact
...

'I'm not interested in money
...

'Our policies will be good for
The party said its policies would be good for the
the country
...


d

When a statement is untrue or out of date, then we change the tense
...

The forecast said it was going to rain, and it did
...

Oh, they live in Bristol, do they? I thought they lived in Bath
...
star
...

'I feel ill
...

'You're crazy
...

'We're losing
...

'I've got time
...

'We haven't finished
...

'She's been crying
...
g
...


b

If the verb is past, then it changes to the past perfect
...
'
He told us he had bought the shirt
...
' They said they had been having lunch
...

'Paul had been there before
...

NOTE

a We do not need to change a past-tense verb when it refers to a complete action
...

But when it refers to a state or a habit, there can be a difference in meaning
...
And he did look awful
...
But he'd got over it
...

'I've seen the
film
...

'I saw the film last week
...

'I'd seen the film before, but I
She said she'd seen the film before
...
'
c We do not change a past-tense verb when it means something unreal
...
'
My sister says she wishes she had a dog
...
'
The girls thought it was time they went
...
' Amy said that if she knew, she'd tell us
...

'You'll get wet
...

'I can drive
...

'It may snow
...

The changes are will
would, can could and may
might
...

'A walk would be nice
...

NOTE

a Sometimes we use different patterns to report sentences with modal verbs
...

b Shall for the future changes to would
...

'I shall complain
...

I said I would/I should complain
...

'What shall I do?'
She asked what she should do
...

'I must go now
...

But when must expresses certainty, it does not usually change
...

Compare mustn't and needn't
...
' I told Kevin he mustn't lose/he wasn't to lose the key
...
'
I told Kevin he needn't wait/he didn't have to wait
...

'I must go soon
...


269 Reporting questions
1

We can report a question by using verbs like ask, inquire/enquire, wonder or
to know
...

Where did you have lunch?
~ In the canteen
...

Who have you invited?
~ Oh, lots of people
...


I asked Elaine where she had lunch
...

Peter is wondering who we've invited
...


For the pattern We were wondering where to go for lunch, • 125
...

Is there a waiting-room?
Dan was asking if/whether there's a waiting~ Yes, over here
...

Have you bought your ticket?
Mandy wants to know if Steve has bought his
~ No, not yet
...

We can use or not to emphasize the need for a yes/no reply
...

They want to know whether or not it's safe
...
if or not it's safe

In a reported question the word order is usually like a statement
...

NOT I asked Elaine when she did have lunch
...

NOTE

a When the question word is the subject, the word order does not change
...

b In informal English we can sometimes invert the subject and be
...

And we use inversion in the indirect speech when the main clause goes at the end, as a
kind of afterthought
...


3 4 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH

PAGE 354

We can use a wh-clause or if/whether after say, tell etc when we are talking about
the answer to a question
...

I've found out what time the flight gets in
...
? •33
Could you tell me where the post office is, please?
In an indirect question, the tense can change from present to past in the same way
as in a statement
...

Who are you waiting for?
Alex wondered who I was waiting for
...


270 Reporting orders, requests, offers etc
1 Orders and requests
a We can use tell/ask + object + to-infinitive
...
'
The teacher told us to wait outside
...
'
She's always telling me to relax
...

'Would you mind not smoking?'
Our hostess asked Alan not to smoke
...

NOTE

a For more details about this pattern, • 122(2a)
...

We were told to wait outside
...

The teacher said to wait outside
...
Compare these patterns
...

'Please sit down
...

e We can use a pattern with ask for and a passive to-infinitive
...

f We use ask for + noun phrase when someone asks to have something
...

g To report a request for permission we use ask if/whether
...


b

We can also report the sentences like this
...

Our hostess asked Alan if he would mind not smoking
...

The teacher said we had to wait/we were to wait outside
...

NOTE

After most verbs of reporting, we can use a clause with should
...


PAGE 355

270 Reporting orders, requests, offers etc

2 Offers, warnings, apologies etc
We can report these kinds of sentences with say or ask, or we can use offer, warn,
apologize etc
...
'
Sue offered to lend me some money
...

Here are some patterns we can use
...
'
'Thank you very much
...
'
'Be careful
...
'
Verb + to-infinitive
'I'm not going to walk all that way
...

I thanked the driver
...

He warned us about the path
...


Verb + object + to-infinitive
'You really ought to get some help
...
'

Mark advised us to get some help
...


Someone suggested sharing the cost
...


e

Verb + preposition + gerund
'I'm sorry I messed up the
Roland apologized for messing up the
arrangements
...

Also: complain about, confess to, insist on, object to

f

Verb + object + preposition + gerund
'It was your fault
...
'

g

They blamed James for not telling
them
...

Lorna admitted (that) she had lost the photo
...
• 242(2)
Jeff insisted that we should have a break
...

Also: advise, promise, remind

PAGE 356

35
Relative clauses
271 Summary
Introduction to relative clauses • 272
An adjective or prepositional phrase can modify a noun
...

Adjective:
the red team
Phrase:
the team in red
Relative clause:
the team wearing red
the team who were wearing red
Some relative clauses do not have commas
...

Identifying: What's the name of the player who was injured?
(The clause tells us which player is meant
...

(The clause tells us what kind of player is meant
...
They are adding clauses and
connective clauses
...

(The clause adds information about Jones
...

(The clause tells us what happened next
...

These pronouns can be the subject or object of the clause
...

Object:
We got on the first bus that we saw
...

We can leave out the pronoun when it is not the subject
...


PAGE

357

272 Introduction to relative clauses

Relative clauses with commas • 274
In an adding clause or connective clause we cannot use that, and we cannot leave
out the pronoun
...

Whose • 275
The player whose goal won the game was Jones
...

The player injured in the leg had to leave the field
...


Which relating to a clause • 278
United won easily, which pleased their fans
...


The relative pronoun what • 280
United's fans got what they wanted
...


272 Introduction to relative clauses
1

SEVERN BODY CLUE

A body recovered from the River Severn at Tewkesbury at the weekend is
thought to be a man who disappeared from the Midlands in January, police
said yesterday
...
Each clause relates to a noun (body, man)
...
The pronoun joins the relative
clause to the main clause
...
He disappeared in January
...


35

2

RELATIVE CLAUSES

PAGE 358

There are different ways of modifying a noun
...

For example, a man from the Midlands is more usual than a man who comes from
the Midlands
...

He is thought to be someone who disappeared from the Midlands in January
...

He who would climb the ladder must begin at the bottom
...


a

Identifying clauses
A clause can identify the noun, say which one we mean
...

I can't find the book that I was reading
...

NOTE

When there is an identifying clause, the determiner before the noun is usually the, not my,
your, etc
...

NOT I like my course that I'm doing now
...


b

Classifying clauses
A clause can classify the noun, say what kind we mean
...

We're looking for a pub that serves food
...


c

Clauses used for emphasis
We can use a relative clause in a pattern with it in order to emphasize a phrase
...
• 51(3)

4

The following kinds of relative clause are separated from the noun, usually by a
comma
...


a

Adding clauses
A clause can add extra information about a noun
...

The clause who founded the Academy at Athens adds extra information about
Plato
...


PAGE 359

272 Introduction to relative clauses

b

Connective clauses
A clause can tell us what happened next
...

We use a connective clause to link two actions
...

I shouted to the man, and he ran off
...


a

Compare the identifying clause and the adding clause
...
One car left the road
and hit a tree, and the other one ended up on its roof
...

Adding:
A car had to swerve to avoid a horse and left the road
...

The identifying clause tells us which of the two cars is meant
...
It does not identify the car because in this
context there is only one
...

Identifying:
the driver of the car which hit a tree
Adding:
the driver of the car, which hit a tree
Before the adding clause there is a pause
...


c

Compare the classifying clause and the adding clause
...

(Some cars should be banned because they cause pollution
...

(All cars should be banned because they cause pollution
...
The adding clause adds
information about cars in general
...
These two examples are from real conversations
...

The train was just pulling out of the station that we were supposed to
connect with
...
But separating the noun and its relative clause can be
awkward, and in writing we often avoid it
...

At the moment I can't think of any good films that I'd like to see
...


35

RELATIVE CLAUSES

PAGE:

When we use a relative pronoun, we do not use a personal pronoun as well
...

We were talking about the factory that the police believe someone set fire to (it) deliberately
...
These are identifying and classifying clauses
...

Who was the girl who arrived late?
It was a dream which came true
...
• 184(3b)
We can use that with any noun
...

With people, who is more usual than that
...

NOTE

The forms are the same whether the noun is singular or plural
I don't know the girl/girls who arrived late
...

The young man who/that lives on the corner rides a motor-bike
...
)
I've got a computer program which/that does the job for me
...
)
NOTE

In general, who is more usual than that as subject of the clause
...

Anyone who/that knows the facts must disagree with the official view
...

It's the same actor who/that we saw at the theatre
...
)
You can get back the tax which/that you've paid
...
)
We often leave out the relative pronoun
...


PAGE 361

273 Relative clauses without commas

NOTE

Who and that are both possible as the object
...

We can supply you with everything (that) you need
...

It's the same actor who/whom we saw at the theatre
...

Whom is formal and rather old-fashioned
...
• (5)

4 Prepositions in relative clauses
a

The relative pronoun can be the object of a preposition
...

(I share a flat with him
...
)
In informal English the preposition comes in the same place as in a main clause
(share aflat with, talking about)
...
• (5)
I'll introduce you to the man I share aflat with
...

I'll introduce you to the man who/whom I share a flat with
...

The person with whom Mr Fletcher shared the flat had not paid his rent
...

We cannot leave out whom or which here, and we cannot use who or that
...

Clauses without pronouns are very common in informal English
...

The parcel I posted on Monday still hasn't got there
...

He certainly could not have committed the crime he was accused of
...

That man who was sitting next to Angela never said a word
...

• 276
That man sitting next to Angela never said a word
...

I don't think there's anyone I can really trust
...

This is the worst summer 1 can remember
...


35 RELATIVE CLAUSES

PAGE 362

6 Overview: who, whom, which and that
People
Subject
Object of
verb

Object of
preposition

Things

the man who was talking
the man that was talking
the man who we met
the man that we met
the man we met
the man whom we met
the man who we talked to
the man that we talked to
the man we talked to
the man whom we talked to
the man to whom we talked

the music which was playing
the music that was playing
the music which we heard
the music that we heard
the music we heard
the music which we listened to
the music that we listened to
the music we listened to
the music to which we listened

274 Relative clauses with commas
1

An adding clause (or 'non-identifying clause') adds extra information
...

A bank robber escaped from prison last week, after climbing aboard a helicopter
that had been hijacked by an armed accomplice, in Brittany
...

(from Early Times)

The clause adds extra information that the reader may not know
...

There are often adding clauses in informative texts
...

For the difference between identifying and adding clauses, • 272(5)
...

We can also use dashes or brackets
...

The new manager is nicer than the old one - whom the staff disliked
...

The drugs, which were hidden in bars of chocolate, have a street value
of £20 million
...
And we
cannot leave out the pronoun from an adding clause
...

Tim's hobby is photography, on which he spends most of his spare cash
...

It is more informal to leave the preposition at the end
...

The police received a number of bomb warnings, all of which turned out to be
false alarms
...
)
In the chair lift were two people, one of whom was slightly injured
...


5

We use the same patterns in connective clauses to say what happened next
...

Mike dropped a box of eggs, all of which broke
...

The people whose cars were damaged complained to the police
...
)
Tania is someone whose courage I admire
...

Madame Tussaud, whose waxworks are a popular attraction, died in 1850
...

I wouldn't fly with an airline whose safety record is so poor
...
)
The others were playing a game whose rules I couldn't understand
...

The others were playing a game the rules of which I couldn't understand
...


3

Whose + noun can be the object of a preposition
...

Phyllis is the woman whose cottage we once stayed at
...

Those people taking photos over there come from Sweden
...

(= the telephone which was ringing on his desk)
To Robin, sunbathing on the beach, all his problems seemed far away
...

For this pattern with there + be, • 50(3)
...


35

RELATIVE CLAUSES

b

An active participle can also refer to a state
...

(= all the equipment which belongs to the club)
Fans wanting to buy tickets started queuing early
...

They've put up a sign warning of the danger
...

People travelling into London every day are used to the hold-ups
...

The gang who stole the jewels got away
...


2 Passive participles
We can use a passive participle in a relative clause without a pronoun or an
auxiliary
...

(= applications which are sent in)
Stones thrown at the train by vandals smashed two windows
...

(= a body which has been recovered from the river)
The first British TV commercial, broadcast in 1955, was for toothpaste
...

Industrial training is the subject being discussed in Parliament this afternoon
...

a ringing telephone
But we cannot normally put a whole relative clause before the noun
...

Which was the first country to win the World Cup at rugby?
(= the first country which won the World Cup)
The last person to leave will have to turn out the lights
...

William Pitt was the youngest person to become Prime Minister
...

NOTE

a We can also use a passive to-infinitive
...

b For I've got some letters to write, • 124(2)
...

The team has lost all its matches, which doesn't surprise me
...
)
Anna and Matthew spent the whole time arguing, which annoyed Laura
...

In this pattern the relative clause with which is an adding clause
...
We cannot use that or what instead of which in this pattern
...

The house where I used to live has been knocked down
...

We use where after nouns like place, house, street, town, country
...
We use why after reason
...

Where I used to live has been knocked down
...

The house (that) I used to live in has been knocked down
...

Do you remember the time (that) we all went to a night club?
The reason (that) I can't go is that I don't have time
...

We walked up to the top of the hill, where we got a marvellous view
...


280 The relative pronoun what
We can use what in this pattern
...

(= the things that we need to pack)
I was going to buy a new coat, but I couldn't find what I wanted
...

NOT the coat what I wanted
We can use what in indirect speech
...

We can also use what in a special pattern to emphasize a phrase
...


35

281

RELATIVE CLAUSES

Whoever, whatever and whichever
Look at these examples
...

(= the person who designed this building - no matter who it is)
I'll spend my money on whatever I like
...

(= the date that we choose - no matter which it is)
We cannot use who in this pattern
...

But we can use what
...


PAGE 366

PAGE 367

36
Word-building
282 Summary
Compounds • 283
Some words are formed by combining two different words to make a compound
...

Prefixes • 284
We can add a prefix to a word
...
A prefix adds something to the meaning
...

Suffixes • 285
We can add a suffix to a word
...

We won't forget the fact that you've been so kind
...

The pattern with the abstract noun is neater
...
g
...


Words belonging to more than one class • 287
Some words belong to more than one class
...

The shoes cost £50
...

a Canadian town
He's a Canadian
...

handbag
teacup
weekend
armchair
We stress the first noun, e
...
'handbag
...
For details about two nouns together, • 147
...
Compare these patterns
...


2 Gerund + noun
We can use a gerund to classify a noun, to say what type it is or what its purpose is
...
We stress the gerund, e
...
the 'dining-room
...

Gerund:
a 'sleeping pill (= a pill for helping you to sleep)
Participle:
a sleeping 'child (= a child who is sleeping)

3 Noun + gerund
A gerund can have a noun object in front of it
...

I'm tired of sightseeing
...

We stress the noun, e
...
'coin-collecting
...
Compare a gerund clause
...


4 Compounds with participles
We can form compounds with active or passive participles
...


5 Compounds with numbers
We can use a number + noun to modify another noun
...
But for a three days' visit, • 146(5)
...

We can also use a number + noun + adjective
...
It adds something to the meaning
...

re (= again):
rewrite a letter, re-enter a room, remarry
semi (= half):
semi-skilled workers, a semi-conscious state
mono (= one):
monorail, monolingual, a monotone
multi (= many):
a multinational company, a multi-storey car park
super (= big/more):
a superstore, a superhuman effort, a supersonic aircraft
sub (= under/less):
subnormal intelligence, sub-zero temperatures
mini (= small):
a minibus, a miniskirt, a minicomputer
pre (= before):
the pre-war years, prehistoric times
post (= after):
a post-dated cheque, the post- war period
ex (= previously):
his
ex- wife, our ex-Director
inter (= between):
inter-city trains, an international phone call
trans (= across):
a transatlantic flight, a heart transplant operation
co (= together):
co-exist, a co-production, my co-driver
over (= too much):
overcrowded, ill from overwork, an overgrown garden,
overweight
under (= too little):
undercooked food, an understaffed office, underpaid
out (= more/better):
outnumber the opposition, outplayed their opponents,
outlived both her children
pro (= in favour of):
pro-government forces, pro-European policies
anti (= against):
anti-nuclear protestors, anti-aircraft guns
mis (= badly/wrongly):
misuse, misbehave, misgovern, miscount, a
misunderstanding

2

There are some negative prefixes used to express an opposite
...


b

in:

inexact, independent, indirect, inexpert, an injustice
NOTE

We do not use in before l, m, p or r
...

illegal, illogical; immobile, immoral, impossible, impatient; irrelevant, irresponsible

c

dis:

dishonest, disunited, disagree, disappear, dislike, disadvantage

d non: non-alcoholic drinks, a non-stop flight, a non-smoker
e de:
defrost a fridge, the depopulation of the countryside,
the decentralization of government

36 WORD-BUILDING

PAGE 370

285 Suffixes
1 Introduction
A suffix comes at the end of a word
...
There is sometimes a change of stress and a

...
g
...
g
...

Not all combinations are possible
...
The words have to be learnt as
vocabulary items
...
We can use an abstract noun in nominalization
...


their agreement

a

Verb + ment:

b

Verb + ion/tion/ation/ition: correct
correction, discuss
discussion,
produce
production, inform
information,
invite
invitation, add
addition,
repeat
repetition

c

Verb with d/t

d

Verb + ance/ence:

e

Adjective in ent

payment, movement, government, arrangement,
development

sion:

decide

decision, permit

permission

performance, acceptance, existence, preference
ence:

silent
silence
Others are absence, intelligence, independence,
violence
...


f Adjective + ty/ity:
g

Adjective + ness:

h

Verb + ing:

certainty, royalty, stupidity, nationality, security
happiness, illness, freshness, forgetfulness, blindness
a building, my feelings

3 Nouns for people
a Verb + er/or:

walker, owner, builder, driver, doctor, editor
There are very many such nouns, especially with er
...
g
...


b

Noun/Verb/Adjective + ist: journalist, motorist, nationalist, tourist
NOTE We can use ism to form an abstract noun, e
...

journalism, nationalism
...
g
...


e

Noun + ess:

waitress, actress, hostess, stewardess, princess

a Most nouns for people can mean either males or females, so friends, students, doctors,
motorists etc include both sexes
...
g
...
Some words to do with family relationships are different
for male/female : husband/wife, father/mother, son/daughter, brother/sister, uncle/aunt
...
But some other words with ess are less usual and are now seen as
sexist
...

b There is also a suffix man /m n/, which has a female equivalent woman, e
...
'postman/
'postwoman
...
Some of these
are now seen as sexist, especially in a business context, and we can say business executive,
chairperson/chair, salesperson/sales representative, spokesperson, although the suffix person
is still not accepted by everyone
...
Compare er and ee
...
It has two
thousand employees/workers
...


b

Adjective + en:

shorten, widen, brighten, harden, loosen
These verbs are formed from concrete adjectives
...
g
...


e

Noun + less:

f

Noun + ous:

g

careless, hopeless, worthless, powerless

Noun + y:

Less means 'without'
...

dangerous, luxurious, famous, courageous
salty, healthy, thirsty, wealthy, greedy

36

h

WORD-BUILDING

Noun + ly:

PAGE 372

friendly, costly, cowardly, neighbourly, monthly

i Verb + able/ible: eatable, manageable, excusable, acceptable, comprehensible,
defensible
These mean that something 'can be done'
...
(= It can be washed
...
g
...

j Verb + ing:

exciting, fascinating • 203

k Verb + ed:

excited, fascinated • 203

6 Adverbs
We form many adverbs from an adjective + ly, e
...
quickly
...

It was very hot
...

Also: blood bleed,food feed,full fill, lose loss, proud pride,
sell sale, shoot shot, sing song, sit seat, tell tale

2

There can be a different consonant sound
...

That's my belief
...

Verb:
You mustn't delay
...

Noun:
a short delay
my hope of victory
Some words of this kind are answer, attack, attempt, call, care, change, climb,
control, copy, cost, damage, dance, delay, doubt, drink, drive, experience, fall, help,
hit, hope, interest, joke, laugh, look, love, need, promise, rest, ride, run, search, sleep,
smile, sound, swim, talk, trouble, visit, wait, walk, wash, wish
...


2

Some verbs and nouns differ in their stress
...

Verb:
How do you trans'port the goods?
Noun:
What 'transport do you use?

288 Nationality words

PAGE 373

The stress can make a difference to the vowel sounds
...

NOTE For nouns formed from phrasal verbs, e
...
hold-up, •231(7)
...

He pocketed the money
...
(= put wallpaper on it)
The man was gunned down
...
(= taken by ship)
Some others are bottle (wine), box, brake, butter (bread), garage (a car), glue,
hammer, mail, oil, parcel, (tele)phone
...

This wind will soon dry the clothes
...
(= become dry)
Some words of this kind are calm, cool, dry, empty, narrow, smooth, warm, wet
...
g
...
• 285(4b)

288 Nationality words
1

We form nationality words from the name of a country: Italy
Italian,
France
French, Japan Japanese
...

NOTE Some of these words do not refer to a political nation, e
...
European, Jewish
...

Do you speak Russian?
I don't know any Greek
...

There are some Russians staying at the hotel
...


d

Referring to a whole people
Italians are passionate about football
...

These expressions take a plural verb
...
g
...


a Russian novel

36

WORD-BUILDING

PAGE 374

2

There are different kinds of nationality words
...
We can add s to form a plural noun
...

(The) Americans think they can see Europe in a week
...
g
...

The Greeks invented democracy
...


b Some end in ese: Chinese, Portuguese
...

Several Chinese (people) were waiting in the queue
...

The Chinese welcome/Chinese people welcome western tourists
...


c

With some words, the adjective is different from the noun
...
/She's a Dane
...
/I like (the) Danes
...

NOTE

From Britain we form the adjective British
...

The nouns Brit and Briton are not very usual in spoken British English
...

This usage is rather journalistic
...
The Americans say Britisher
...

The British prefer houses to flats
...
/He's an Englishman
...

Also: Welsh/a Welshman, Irish/an Irishman, French/a Frenchman, Dutch/a
Dutchman
...

The English are/English people are reserved
...

The English woman works at the university
...

He's Scottish
...

How do you like Scottish people/Scots?
We use Scotch mainly in fixed expressions such as Scotch whisky
...

Adjective
Africa
America
Asia
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Britain
China
Czech Republic
Denmark
England Europe
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Holland
Hungary
India
Ireland
Israel
Italy
Japan
Mexico
Norway
Pakistan
Poland
Portugal
Russia
Scotland
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Thailand
Turkey
Wales

Person/man

A whole people

African
American
Arab/Arabic
Asian
Australian
Austrian
Belgian
Brazilian
British
Chinese
Czech
Danish
English
European
Finnish
French
German
Greek
Dutch
Hungarian
Indian
Irish
Israeli
Italian
Japanese
Jewish
Mexican
Norwegian
Pakistani
Polish
Portuguese
Russian
Scottish
Spanish
Swedish
Swiss
Thai
Turkish
Welsh

an African
an American
an Arab
an Asian
an Australian
an Austrian
a Belgian
a Brazilian
• (2c) Note
a Chinese
a Czech
a Dane
an Englishman
a European
a Finn
a Frenchman
a German
a Greek
a Dutchman
a Hungarian
an Indian
an Irishman
an Israeli
an Italian
a Japanese
a Jew
a Mexican
a Norwegian
a Pakistani
a Pole
a Portuguese
a Russian
a Scotia Scotsman
a Spaniard
a Swede
a Swiss
a Thai
a Turk
a Welshman

Africans
(the) Americans
(the) Arabs
Asians
(the) Australians
(the) Austrians
(the) Belgians
(the) Brazilians
the British
the Chinese
(the) Czechs
(the) Danes
the English
Europeans
(the) Finns
the French
(the) Germans
(the) Greeks
the Dutch
(the) Hungarians
(the) Indians
the Irish
(the) Israelis
(the) Italians
the Japanese
(the) Jews
(the) Mexicans
(the) Norwegians
(the) Pakistanis
(the) Poles
the Portuguese
(the) Russians
(the) Scots
the Spanish
(the) Swedes
the Swiss
(the) Thais
(the) Turks
the Welsh

PAGE 376

37
Word endings: pronunciation and
spelling
289 Summary
Some words have grammatical endings
...
A verb can have an s-form, ed-form or ing-form: asks, asked,
asking
...
A word can also end with a suffix: argument, idealist, weekly, drinkable
...


The s/es ending • 290
match

matches

The ed ending •291
wait

waited

Leaving out e • 292
make

making

insure

insurance

The doubling of consonants • 293
big

bigger

regret

regrettable

Consonant + y • 294
easy

easily

beauty

beautiful

290 The s/es ending
To form a regular noun plural or the s-form of a verb, we usually add s
...

kisses
watches
bushes
taxes
But if the word ends in e, we add s
...

potatoes
tomatoes
heroes
echoes
But most add s
...

Voiceless:
hopes
, fits
, clocks
, rides
, throws
Voiced:
cabs
, days
Sibilant:
loses
or
or
or
, bridges
, washes

4

The possessive form of a noun is pronounced in the same way
...

Mr Jones's
the boss's

291 The ed ending
1

The ed-form of most regular verbs is simply verb + ed
...

moved
continued
pleased
smiled
NOTE

For the doubling of consonants before ed, • 293
...


2

The ending is pronounced /t/ after a voiceless sound, /d/ after a voiced sound and
after /t/ or /d/
...

make
making
shine
shining
But we keep a double e before ing
...

type

typed

late later fine finest

3 We usually leave out e before other endings that start with a vowel, e
...
able, ize, al
...

enforce
enforceable
courage
courageous
We can also keep the e in some other words: saleable/salable, likeable/likable, mileage/milage
...

hate hates nice
nicely

care

careful

NOTE

Exceptions are words ending in ue: argue
argument, true truly, due duly
...


5

To form an adverb from an adjective ending in a consonant + le, we change e to y
...

dramatic
dramatically
idiotic
idiotically
NOTE An exception is publicly
...
We double the consonant
before a vowel
...

foggy
...

stay staying

slow

slower fix fixed

We do not double when there are two consonants
...

keep keeping

3

broad

broader

The rule about doubling is also true for words of more than one syllable, but only if
the last syllable is stressed
...

'open 'opening

'enter

'entered

NOTE

In British English there is some doubling in an unstressed syllable
...

travel
travelling
tunnel
tunnelled
marvel
marvellous
jewel
jeweller
We also double p in some verbs
...
g
...


4

When a word ends in ll and we add ly, we do not write a third l
...

study
studies
lorry
lorries
Before most other endings, the y changes to i
...

day days buy buyer

stay

stayed

But pay, lay and say have irregular ed-forms: paid
Also day daily
...

the lady's name the ladies' names
b A one-syllable word usually keeps y before ly: shyly, slyly, dryly/drily
...

d We do not change y in by: stand-bys, lay-bys
...

copy

copying

hurry

NOTE

We change ie to y before ing
...

hands
dates
buses
...

But some nouns have an irregular plural
...

Vowel and consonant changes • 296
man
men
wife
wives
Nouns which do not change in the plural • 297
one/two aircraft
one/two sheep
Irregular plural endings
...

foot
tooth

feet
goose
geese
man
men
teeth
mouse
mice
woman

women

NOTE

a We also use men and women in words like Frenchmen, sportswomen
...

Several people were waiting for the lift
...

A people is a large group such as a nation
...

One day the peoples of this world will live in peace
...

loaf
loaves
thief
thieves
life
lives
Also: calves, halves, knives, leaves, shelves, wives, wolves
NOTE

Some other nouns in f/fe are regular: chiefs, beliefs, cliffs, roofs, safes
...
g
...


298 Irregular plural endings

PAGE 381

3

Some nouns have a regular written plural in ths, but the pronunciation of th
changes
...
g
...
Some have alternative forms,

4

The plural of house is houses

5

The usual plural of penny is pence, e
...
fifty pence
...


297 Nouns which do not change in the plural
Some nouns have the same form in the singular and plural
...

Plural:
Two aircraft were shot down
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
• 154(3)
NOTE

a Some measurements (e
...
pound, foot) can be singular after a plural number, e
...
two
pound/ pounds fifty
...


298 Irregular plural endings
1

2

en
child

children

ox

oxen

a
criterion
curriculum

criteria
phenomenon
curricula

phenomena

medium

NOTE Some nouns in on and um are regular, e
...
electrons, museums
...


4

5

ae
formula

formulae / formulas

es
analysis

analyses

crisis

crises

hypothesis

hypotheses

media

PAGE 382

39
Irregular verb forms
299 Summary
A regular verb takes the endings s, ed and ing
...
For more details, • 58
...

Base form:
Did you write the letter?
Past tense:
I wrote the letter yesterday
...

We also use the irregular forms after a prefix such as re, un, out, mis
...

He undid the knot
...

a drunken riot

300 List of irregular verbs
Base form

Past tense

Past/passive participle

300 List of irregular verbs

PAGE 383

Base form

Past tense

Past/passive participle

39 IRREGULAR VERB FORMS

Base form

PAGE 384

Past tense

Past/passive participle

300 List of irregular verbs

PAGE 385

Base form

Past tense

Past/passive participle

39 IRREGULAR VERB FORMS

Base form

PAGE 386

Past tense

Past/passive participle

300 List of irregular verbs

PAGE 387

Base form

Past tense

Past/passive participle

NOTE

a For verbs which have forms both in ed and t, e
...
burned / burnt, dream / dreamt, • 303(11)
...

They've costed the project
...


...

g The third person singular of go is goes
For gone and been, • 84(6)
...

i The third person singular of have is has
j For the difference between lay and lie, • 11 (2) Note b
...

k The third person singular of say is says
1 Shined means 'polished': I've shined my shoes
...

m We use sped for movement
...

But we say speeded up (= went faster),
n Weave is regular when it expresses movement
...


39 IRREGULAR VERB FORMS


...
Compare these sentences
...

The metal has melted
...

a drunken spectator
a shrunken old man
a proven fact
a blessed relief
a learned professor
NOTE

These participles can have special meanings and are used only in limited contexts
...


PAGE 389

40
American English
302 Summary
The grammar of British English and American English is very similar
...

Differences with verbs • 303
Differences with noun phrases • 304
Differences with adjectives and adverbs • 305
Differences with prepositions • 306
Differences with conjunctions • 307
American spelling • 308
There are also some spelling differences, such as GB colour, US color
...
A good dictionary such as the Oxford Wordpower
Dictionary or the Oxford Advanced Learner's Dictionary will give American variants
in spelling, pronunciation and usage
...


303 Differences with verbs
1 Linking verb + noun phrase
The British can use a noun phrase after a linking verb such as be, seem, look, feel
...

She seemed (to be) a competent pilot
...

US:
It looks like/It looks to be a lovely evening
...


40

AMERICAN ENGLISH

PAGE 390

2 Do for an action
The British sometimes use do to refer to an action
...

You should reply if you haven't (done) already
...

US:
He practices the piano, but not as often as he might
...

But Americans use do so
...


3 Do for emphasis
The British can use do to emphasize an offer or invitation in the imperative form
...

This usage is less common in American English
...

Americans also avoid the emphatic Do let's
...

• 19 (6a)
GB/US:
Let's not invite them
...

NOTE Let's don't invite them is possible in informal American English but not in Britain
...
The British may use them
several times in a conversation, but this would sound strange to an American
...
They do not often use them to
persuade or argue
...

US (spoken):
I've got some money
...


PAGE

391

303 Differences with verbs

b

Negatives and questions with have and have got
GB/US:
We don't have much time
...

Have you got enough money?
GB only:
We haven't much time
...

Do you have to go?
GB only:
You haven't got to go
...
(= He has a new job
...
(= It has become better
...
(= He has a new job
...
(= He has found a new job
...
(= It has become better
...

Mainly US:
We had the waiter bring another bottle
...
• 65(2)
GB/US:
I've just met an old friend
...

Have you ever seen St Paul's Cathedral?
I've never had a passport
...

Mainly US:
I just met an old friend
...

Did you ever see the Empire State Building?
I never had a passport
...

GB/US: Have you ever been to Scotland?
US only:
Have you ever gone to Florida?

8 Will and shall
The British use will or shall in the first person, • 71(2)
...

GB:
We will/shall contact you
...


40

AMERICAN ENGLISH

PAGE 392

The British use shall in offers, but Americans prefer should
...
? in suggestions
...
The British can also use
them as modal verbs
...

Do we dare to ask?
Mainly GB:
He needn't see the inspector
...
The
negative is can't
...

GB/US:
There's no reply
...

US only:
There's no reply
...


11 Learned and learnt
Some verbs have both regular and irregular forms: learned or learnt,
dreamed /dri:md/ or dreamt /dremt/ etc
...
The British say dreamed or dreamt; the Americans say dreamed
...

GB/US: dive - dived - dived fit - fitted - fitted
US only:
dive - dove - dived fit-fit-fit
NOTE Fit is irregular in America only when it means 'be the right size'
...

US:
The suit fit him very well
...

GB/US:
The tailor fitted him with a new suit
...
In Britain the
subjunctive is rather formal
...

Mainly GB:
My parents prefer that my brother lives/should live at home
...


PAGE 393

304 Differences with noun phrases

304 Differences with noun phrases
1 Group nouns
The British can use a singular or a plural verb after a group noun
...

Holland isn't/aren't going to win
...

US:
The committee needs/need more time
...

US:
Holland isn't going to win
...
There are some exceptions in Britain but Americans
almost always use a singular noun
...


4 The with hospital and university
The British talk about a patient in hospital and a student at (the) university, • 168
...


5 This and that on the telephone
People in both countries say This is
...

GB:
Who is that?
Mainly US:
Who is this?

6 The pronoun one
Americans do not often use one meaning 'people in general'; and they do not use
one's or oneself
...

US:
You must consider your legal position
...


40 AMERICAN ENGLISH

PAGE 394

7 Numbers
The British use and between hundred and the rest of a number, but Americans can
leave it out
...

Americans often say July fourth
...


305 Differences with adjectives and adverbs
1 Well, ill etc
The adjectives well, fine, ill and unwell referring to health usually come in
predicative position
...

But they can be attributive, especially in America
...
In Britain be sick means to vomit, to bring up food
...


2 Adjectives and adverbs
In informal speech we can sometimes use an adjective form instead of an adverb
...

GB/US:
That
was really nice of her
...

Mainly US:
That was real nice of her
...


3 Somewhere and someplace
In informal American English everyplace, someplace and noplace can be used as
well as everywhere, somewhere and nowhere
...

US only:
Let's go out someplace
...
Americans prefer look out the window
...
Americans prefer around the park
...

GB/US: I'm all right now, except for a headache
...


3 Through and till/until
Americans can use through for the time when something finishes
...

GB/US:
They
will stay in London (from January) till/until April
...
With until April they may
leave before the end of April
...

GB/US: They will stay in London until the end of April
...
This is rather formal
...

Your room is different from/than ours
...

Americans can leave out and from this pattern
...

Mainly US:
Go take a look outside
...

Americans use so or lest
...

Mainly GB:
Go quietly in case anyone hears you
...

Mainly US:
Go quietly lest anyone hear you
...

In America, in case often means 'if
...


3 Immediately
Americans do not use immediately as a conjunction
...

GB only: Immediately I saw him, I recognized him
...

Some words end in tre in Britain but in ter in America: center, liter
...

In Britain there is doubling of l in an unstressed syllable; • 293(3) Note
...

Here are some words with different spellings
...

action verb a verb that refers to something happening or changing, e
...
do, walk,
buy, speak • 62
active See passive
...
g
...
• 274
adjective a word like big, new, special, famous • 197
adjective phrase An adjective phrase is either an adjective on its own, e
...
sweet,
tall, hopeful, or an adjective with an adverb of degree, e
...
very sweet, a lot taller,
quite hopeful
...

Adverbs are words like easily, there, sometimes, quite, possibly
...

adverb phrase An adverb phrase is either an adverb on its own, e
...
carefully,
often, probably, or an adverb which is modified by an adverb of degree, e
...
very
carefully, more often, quite probably
...
We did
everything in a hurry
...

adverbial clause In the sentence I'll ring you when I get home, the clause when I
get home functions as an adverbial
...
• 248
agent The agent is the person, animal or thing doing the action
...
In a passive sentence there is
sometimes an agent after by: I was told the news by Max
...
•150
apostrophe In the phrase Karen's friend there is an apostrophe between Karen
and s
...
• 14
article A/an is the indefinite article, and the is the definite article
...

attributive the position of an adjective before a noun, e
...
a cold day
auxiliary verb a verb such as be, have, do, will, can which we use with an ordinary
verb • 60 (2)
bare infinitive an infinitive without to, e
...
come, drive •115
base form the form of a verb without an ending, e
...
come, call, decide
classifying relative clause a relative clause that tells us what kind is meant, e
...
a
computer that will correct my spelling • 272 (3b)
clause The sentence We stayed at home is a single clause
...
We stayed at home is the main clause,

GLOSSARY

PAGE 398

and because it rained is the sub clause
...
The verb can be finite or non-finite
...
See
finite
...
g
...

• 217
complement a noun phrase or adjective phrase that comes after a linking verb
such as be: You're the boss, Al looked unhappy, • 9
...
See also object complement
...
g
...
g
...
An abstract noun refers to an idea, quality
or action, something we cannot see or touch, e
...
science, excitement, stupidity,
routine
...
g
...
• 255
conjunction A conjunction is a word like and, but, because, when, that, which
links two clauses
...

continuous a verb form with be and an active participle, e
...
The film is starting
now
...
g
...
g
...
• 212
demonstrative This, that, these and those are demonstrative determiners or
pronouns
...
g
...

direct speech See indirect speech
...
g
...
~ Where has she gone? • 35(1)
echo tag a short question form expressing interest, e
...
I play chess
...
g
...
• 1 8 6
empty subject In the sentence It was raining, it is an empty subject
...

empty verb In expressions like have a wash, give a laugh, have and give are empty
verbs
...
• 87
end position at the end of a sentence
exclamation a special pattern with how or what, e
...
What a time you've been! or
any sentence spoken with emphasis and feeling, e
...
Quick!

PAGE 399

GLOSSARY

finite A finite verb is one like goes, waited, was causing, have seen, will be, can
carry
...
It can be the verb in
a simple one-clause sentence
...
g
...
A clause is a finite clause (she goes to college) or a
non-finite clause (going to college), depending on whether the verb is finite or
not
...
g
...
We
use formal language to be polite, or on official occasions
...
I am afraid I have no information is more
formal than Sorry, I don't know
...
g
...

future continuous a form with will + be + active participle: I will be playing golf
all afternoon
...
• 79
gender The words waiter (male/masculine) and waitress (female/feminine) are
different in gender
...
g
...
I've given up
smoking
...
g
...
I like sitting outside
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
Have a good time
...
The indirect object often expresses the person receiving something
...
In an indirect
question, we put the question in a sub clause: Could you tell me how much this
picture is?
indirect speech Direct speech is reporting someone's words by repeating them: 'I
know the answer,' Karen said
...
• 263
infinitive The infinitive is the base form of the verb, e
...
They let us stay the night
...
g
...
• 115
infinitive clause a clause with an infinitive as its verb, e
...
He decided to open the
box
...

informal We use an informal style in everyday conversation and when we write to
a friend
...


GLOSSARY

PAGE 400

ing-form the form of a verb with ing added, e
...
making, flying, used as gerund or
active participle
...
g
...
You must listen to me
...
In the question Has the
play started? there is inversion of subject and auxiliary verb (The play has
started
...

linking adverb e
...
also, however, finally • 216
linking verb a verb like be, seem, become, look, feel that can take a complement
• 9
literary A literary style is a formal style typical of literature, of writing
...
g
...
A main clause can have a sub clause, e
...
I woke up when the alarm
went off
...
A main clause can stand on its own, but a sub clause is part of the main
clause
...
g
...
Hearing a
knock, he jumped up
...

manner An adverbial of manner tells us how something happens, e
...
sadly, in a
hurry
...
g
...
For details • 208(4)
...

modifier/modify In the phrase a narrow street, the adjective narrow is a modifier
...
It changes our idea of the street by giving more
information about it
...
We
stopped suddenly
...
g
...
• 17
nominalization expressing the meaning of a clause (e
...
They are enthusiastic) in
a noun phrase (Their enthusiasm is obvious
...

noun a word like desk, team, apple, information •141
noun clause In the sentence I knew that England had won, the noun clause that
England had won functions as the object
...
• 260
noun phrase a noun or pronoun on its own, e
...
butter, Helen, you, or a group of
words that can function as a subject, object or complement, e
...
a shop, my bag,
a lot of spare time • 143
object In the sentence He was wearing a sweater, the noun phrase a sweater is the
object
...
See also indirect object,
prepositional object
...
g
...
They voted her their leader
...

participle clause a clause with a participle as its verb, e
...
Arriving home, I found
a parcel on the doorstep
...

passive The sentence Someone stole my coat is active, but My coat was stolen is
passive
...
• 103
passive gerund e
...
No one likes being made to look foolish
...
g
...
g
...
g
...

past continuous a form with the past of be and an active participle: It was raining
at the time
...
g
...
How long has he known?
past perfect a form with had and a past participle, e
...
/ had answered the letter
the week before
...
• 68
past simple the past tense without an auxiliary, e
...
it stopped, they left • 65
perfect a verb form with have and a past participle, e
...
The film has started
...
g
...

perfect infinitive e
...
to have done, to have waited
perfect participle e
...
Having paid the bill, we left
...
Others are
promise, apologize, suggest, refuse
...
Second person relates to the
person spoken to (you)
...

personal pronoun e
...
/, you, he, we • 184
phrasal verb a verb + adverb combination, e
...
get up, look out, turn off
phrase a word or group of words that is part of a clause, e
...
your friend (a noun
phrase), was asking (a verb phrase) • 4
plural A plural form means more than one
...

positive I'm ready is positive; I'm not ready is negative
...
g
...
g
...

prefix Minibus has the prefix mini
...
• 284
preposition a word like on, by, to, with • 223
prepositional object In the sentence We sat on the floor, the noun phrase the floor
is a prepositional object, the object of the preposition on
...
g
...
g
...

prepositional verb a verb + preposition combination, e
...
look at, pay for,
believe in
present continuous a form with the present of be and an active participle, e
...
we
are waiting • 64

GLOSSARY

PAGE 402

present perfect a form with the present of have and a past participle, e
...
it has
arrived, we have begun • 65
present perfect continuous a form with the present of have + been + active
participle: she has been working all day • 67
present simple the present tense without an auxiliary, e
...
we know, she travels
• 64
pronoun A pronoun is a word that functions like a noun phrase, e
...
you, he,
ourselves, someone
...
g
...
g
...
g
...
• 27
reflexive pronoun a pronoun such as myself or themselves referring to the subject,
e
...
David blamed himself for the accident
...

The verb call has a regular past tense called
...

relative adverb where, when and why in a relative clause, e
...
the hotel where we
stayed • 279
relative clause a clause that modifies a noun, e
...
the woman who called
yesterday, the car you were driving, people going home from work • 271
relative pronoun a word like who, which, that in a relative clause, e
...
the person
who started the argument
s-form the form of a verb with s or es added, e
...
The weather looks good
...
It consists of one or more clauses
...
) or question mark (?) or exclamation mark (!)
...
g
...
(both present), I realized I had
given the wrong answer
...
g
...
• 29(4) See also yes/no short answer
...
g
...
In the short form we use an apostrophe in place of part of the word
...
g
...
Car is singular; cars is plural
...
g
...


PAGE 403

GLOSSARY

sub clause See main clause
...
In a statement the subject comes before the verb
...

subjunctive The subjunctive is the base form of a verb
...
g
...

• 242
suffix The adverb calmly has a suffix ly
...

• 285
superlative Superlative forms are oldest, most famous, most sharply etc
...

tag See question tag
...
g
...

transitive verb a verb that takes an object, e
...
We enjoyed the meal
...
• 8
truth adverb e
...
definitely, possibly, maybe • 214
uncountable noun a noun that cannot have a/an in front of it and has no plural
form, e
...
gold, petrol, music, • 144
...

verb In the sentence The parcel arrived yesterday, the word arrived is a verb
...

verb of perception e
...
see, hear, feel, smell
verb of reporting a verb used to report what someone says or thinks, e
...
say, tell,
answer, promise, think • 265
verb phrase a verb or a group of words that functions as a verb, e
...
opens, went, is
coming, had waited, can swim, must have seen • 57
viewpoint adverbial e
...
economically, weather-wise • 213(3)
voiced/voiceless These consonant sounds are voiceless:

...
All vowel sounds are voiced
...
The other letters, e
...
b, c, d,f, are
consonants
...
For
and a weak form

...
g
...
g
...
Did anyone call? ~ No
...
or No, they didn't
...
For example, 158 means section
158, and 221(3c) means part 3c of
section 221
...

a/an
summary 158
as + adjective + a 221 (3c)
alone hundred 191(1) Note b
leaving out 42(3), 45(2), 45(4)
many a 177(3b)
50 miles an hour 172
with possessive 174(5)
quite a, such a 212(4)
a bit (adverb) 212(1a) Note e, f, 212(7c)
+ comparative 212(2)
a bit more/less 212(8f)
a bit of 177(2a)
a bit of a 212(4) Note b
+ gerund 133(1), 138 (2c)
quite a bit of 212(8c)
a few 177(2), 178(7a)
quite a few 2l2(8c)
a great many 177(1b) Note c
a little
adverb 212(1a) Note f, 212(7c)
+ comparative 212(2, 8f)
+ gerund 133(1)
quantifier 177(2), 178(7a)
a lot
+ comparative 212(2, 8f), 221 (8)
degree 212(7c)
frequency 211(2)
a lot of 177(1), 178(7)
agreement 153(2)
+ gerund 133(1), 138(2c)
quite a lot of 212(8b)
abbreviated clause
with adjective 199(5)
leaving out words 36
patterns with participles 134
participle relative clauses 276
with so/not 43
special styles 45
abbreviations
with a/an 159(2)
capital letters 56(6h)
plural 145(1d)
ability 98
ability
ability at/in 237(2j)
+ to-infinitive 124(1a)
able ending 285(5i)
able
comparison 218(4b)
able to 98(2,3)

about 228(1)
after adjective 236(2)
= approximately 191(4)
and around 225(1) Note d
+ gerund 132(2, 3)
after noun 237(2i)
after say/tell 266(1) Note c
after verb 233(3), 234(5)
about to 78(1a),80(3)
above 225(1), 225(3b), 226(2a)
absent from 236(4)
absolutely 212(1a) Note a, 212(7a)
absolutely no 17(6b)
abstract noun
countable/uncountable 144(1b)
linking with previous text 48(3)
+ of 133(2b)
suffixes 285(2)
without the 165
absurd
quite absurd 212(5c)
the absurd 204(2a)
accept
+ noun clause 262(1c)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
accommodation: uncountable 144(4b)
accompany + object 233(4)
according to 228(1)
accusative: see object pronoun
accuse
...
g
...
for 234 (2)
arrive
arrive at/in 233(2)
there arrived 50(4)
articles 158
see also a/an, the
as
with a/an 212(4)
+ adjective 199(5b), 221(3)
as far/long 210(4b)
conjunction (manner) 253(2)
conjunction (reason) 251(1)
conjunction (time) 250
+ gerund 132(1b)
and like (conjunction) 253(2) Note a
and like (preposition) 228(6)
+ participle 139(3) Note a
+ present 77(1)
+ pronoun 221(5)
role (as Chairman) 167(5)
pattern with as/though 246(3) Note
weak form 55(1b)
as a result 247(2)
as a result of + gerund 132(8a)
as far as
...
for+ gerund 132(3), 270(2f)
blame
...
from 234(2)
both 178(4)
both
...
with 132(3), 234(2)

PAGE 411

chat: have a chat 87(2)
cheap
and cheaply 207 (4)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
check
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
check over 232(2)
cheering: uncountable 144(1b)
chief: position of adjective 200(1)
chiefs 296(2) Note
children 298(1)
choice + to-infinitive 124(1a)
choir: group noun 156(4)
choose
with/without object 8(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
choose what to do 125(2)
church without the 168(4)
cinema with the 160(5), 168(4) Note
claim
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
clapping: uncountable 144(4b)
class
group noun 156(4)
with/without the 160(5), 168(4)
classifying
a/an 161, 164(2)
adjective 198(1)
gerund 283(2)
possessive form 146(4b)
relative clause 272(3b), 272(5c)
clause
adverbial clause 248
conditional clause 255
finite and non-finite 59
gerund clause 130, 131(1, 3)
infinitive clause 117
noun clause 260
participle clause 134, 136
relative clause 271
as subject taking singular verb 152(6)
as truth adverbial 214(3)
clause combinations 240
clause of manner 253(2)
clause of place 253(1)
clause of purpose 252
clause of reason 251
with participle 139(4)
clause of time 250
with participle 139(1-3)
clause patterns 7
clause types 239
clean out 232(2)
clear (adjective)
comparison 218(4a)
clear to 236(4)
clear what to do 125(2)
clear (verb)
clear off 232(2)
clear up 232 (2)
cleft sentence 51 (3)
clever with to-infinitive 123(1, 5), 126(5)

INDEX

cliffs 296 (2) Note
clock time 195(1)
close (verb)
close down 232(2)
with/without object 8(3)
close to 225(1), 226(6)
+ gerund 132(6)
clothes 144(4b) Note e, 154(1a)
club: group noun 156(4)
cod: plural 297
collective noun 156
college
group noun 156(4)
without the 168(4)
collide with 233(2)
colon 56(2c,3e), 56(4)
colour adjective: the red one 188(2b) Note
coloured question (question tag) 34
combine with/without object 8(3)
come
come across 233(2)
come and
...
concerned 213 (3)
position 201 (2)
+ preposition 236(2) Note e
concession
although etc 246
whoever etc 254
conclude: verb of reporting 265(2)
concord 150
concrete noun: countable/uncountable
144(1b)
conditional clause 255
with any 179(1e)
with participle 139(6)
conditional form: would 99
conduct: uncountable noun 144 (4b)
confess
+ gerund 121(1)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2e, 2g)
confess to 233 (2)
confess to + gerund 132(2)
confident
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
confident of 236(2)

confirm
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
verb of reporting 265(2)
conflict: stress 287(2)
confused 203
confused at/by 236(2)
comparison 218(4b)
get confused 107(3)
confusing 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)

PAGE 412

congratulate
congratulate
...
for 234(2)
criticizing
conditional 256(2)
might 97(1d)
negative question 30(1c)
crockery: uncountable 144(4b)
cross out 232(2)
crossroads 154(2)
crowd: group noun 156(4)
crowded with 236(1)
cruel: comparison 218(4b)
cry
cry out 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
curious
curious about 236(2), 262(5) Note
+ noun clause 262(5) Note

curricula 298(2)
customs 154(1b)
cut
cut down 232(2)
cut down on 235(2)
cut off 232(2)
cut up 232(2)
cutlery 144(4b)

'd (short form) 55 (2b) Note a
daily 207 (6), 211(4)
damage
countable/uncountable 144(4b) Note a,
154(1b)
damage to 237 (2k)
verb and noun 287(1)
danger in/of + gerund 132(7)
dangerous with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
dangling participle 136(2) Note
dare 101, 303(9)
dark with/without the 169(6)
darts 154(2)
dash 56(2c,3e), 274(2)
dates 195(2)
US 304(8)
dawn with/without the 196(6) Note
day
without article 169(5)
without preposition 227(2a) Note b
day with/without the 169(6)
dead
quite dead 212(5c)
the dead 204(1b)
deaf: the deaf 204(1b)
deal: a great deal of 177(4a)
deal in/with 233(2) Note d
deaths 296(3) Note
decide
intention 78(3)
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
with/without object 8(2)
decide on 120(1) Note, 233(2), 262(5) Note
+ passive clause 112(2a) Note
passive patterns 109(1, 3)
patterns 120
verb of reporting 265(2)
and take a decision 87(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
decide what to do 125(2)
decimals 193(2)
decision
decision about/on 262(5) Note
+ to-infinitive 124(2a)
decisions with will 71(4), 74(2), 75(2)
declarative (statement) 16
declare
clause pattern 11(1)
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
passive patterns 109
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c) Note b

INDEX

decrease
decrease in/of 237(2e)
stress 287(2)
deduction (logical certainty) 95
deep, deeply 207(5)
deer: plural 297
defective verb: see modal verb
defining relative clause: see identifying
definite article: see the
definitely 214(1)
with emphatic form 51(2a) Note
degree adverb 212
delay
+ gerund 121(1)
delay in/of 237(2e)
verb and noun 287(1)
delexical verbs (empty verbs) 87
delicious with quite 212(5c)
delight: countable/uncountable 144(5e)
delighted
+ noun clause 262(6a)
+ preposition 236(2) Note a
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
demand
demand for 237(1) Note a, 237(2g)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ object 233(4)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ subjunctive 242(2)
with to-infinitive 121(1), 124(1a), 126(4)
democracy: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
demonstrate + noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
demonstratives 175
dentist
possessive: the dentist's 146(6)
with the 160(5)
deny
+ gerund 121(1)
negative meaning 17(4) Note a
with object 8(2) Note
passive pattern 108(3)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
denying 29(1) Note a
depend
without be 84(5) Note b
depend on 233(2), 262(5) Note
depend on + gerund 132(2)
state verb 62(1, 5)
dependent clause: see sub clause
dependent on 236(4)
+ gerund 132(4)
depressing 203
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
derivation 282
describing
a/an 161(1)
adjectives 197
deserve
+ gerund 113(1)
state verb 62(1,5)
+ to-infinitive 121(3h)
desirable+ subjunctive 242(1)

desire
desire for 237 (2g)

+ object 233(4)
state verb 62(l,5)
+ to-infinitive 124(1a)
despise: state verb 62(1, 5)
despite 246(4)
+ gerund 132(8a)
deter
...
from 132(2), 234(2)
discover
discover how to 125(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive patterns 109
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)

INDEX
discuss
with object 8(2) Note
discuss what to do 125(2)
discussion + preposition 237(1) Note b,
262(5) Note
disgusted/ing with quite 2l2(5c)
disjunct 214-216
dislike
countable noun 144(5e)
+ gerund 121(1)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
state verb 62(1)
dispose of 233(2)
distributives 178
dive: irregular in US 303(11)
divide
divide
...
about 234(2)
auxiliary verb 51(2), 64(1), 83
do away with 235(2)
emphasis 51(2)
emphatic imperative 19(1), 303(1)
with gerund 138(2)
do let's 19(6a), 303(3)
and make 89
ordinary verb 88
replacing verb 38(2c), 303(2)
do the same 43(5b)
do so/it/that 43(2)
do the shopping 138(2)
weak form 55(1b)
do without 233(2)
doctor with the 160(5)
does 88(2), 300 Note c
see also do
doesn't/does not 55(2b), 64(1)
dominoes 154(2)
don't/do not55(2b), 64(1)
don't have to 92(3a)
don't let's 19(6a), 303(3)
don't think 262(1b)
don't you think (tag) 34(1) Note e
double 194(2)
double negative 17(5)
doubling of consonants 293
US 308(4, 5)
doubt
countable/uncountable noun 144(5e)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
state verb 62(1)
verb and noun 287(1)
dove (past of dive) 303(1)
down
in phrasal verb 232(lc, 2)
preposition 225(1)
dozen 191(1) Note i
draughts 154(2)
draw
with/without object 8(2)
draw up 232(3)
drawing: countable/uncountable 144(5d)

dread
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(3c)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
dreadful
quite dreadful 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
dream
irregular verb 300, 303(11)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
dress
countable/uncountable noun 144(5c)
get dressed 107(2)
non-reflexive verb 186(2e)
drily 294(l) Note b
drink
drink up 232(2)
verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
drive
clause patterns 8(2, 3), 11(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
verb and noun 287(1)
drop of 144(3b)
drop in on 235(2)
drunk: get drunk 107(3)
drunken 301
dry
adjective and verb 287(4)
with/without object 8(3)
not reflexive 186(2e) Note b
dryly 294(1) Note b
due to
future 78(1c)
+ passive 113(2b) Note
reason 251(3)
duly 292(4) Note
dummy subject: see empty subject
during 227(4)
dusk with/without the 169(6) Note
duty: see obligation
dying
dying for/of 233(2) Note e
be dying for/to 121(1) Note c
spelling 294(2) Note
dynamic verb: see action verb
each 178(5), 181(2)
agreement 153(3), 157
each
...
or 245(1)
quantifier 178(4)
elder, eldest 218(5b)
position 200(1)
elderly: the elderly 204(1b)
elect: clause pattern 11(1)
ellipsis: see leaving out words
else
or else 245(1) Note b
after question word 26(6b)
after someone etc 189(4)
embarrassing + to-infinitive 123(1)
emerge: there emerged 50(4)
emphasis 51
overview 51 (5)
ever 211(1) Note c
imperative 19(1)
negative 17(6)
repeating words 37(2)
emphatic pronouns 186(1, 3)
emphatic stress 51(1)
on the 159(2) Note b, 170(2) Note a
emphatic verb 51 (2)
empty
adjective and verb 287(4)
comparison 218(4b)
quite empty 212(5c)
empty object 50(5b), 122(2d) Note c
empty subject
it 50(5), 109, 118(1), 131(1, 2), 262(4)
and passive 104(4)
there 50(1-4), 131(2)
empty verb 87
enable + object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
encourage + object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
end: with/without object 8(3)
end of 147(5f) Note b
end position 208(5)

PAGE 416

endings 6(1)
summary 289
enemy: group noun 156(4)
engaged
get engaged 107 (2)
engaged to 236(4)
enjoy
action verb 62(4) Note b
with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
enough
adverb 212(1b)
far/long enough 210 (4b)
quantifier 180(1)
with to-infinitive 123(4), 126(3)
enquire 265(2), 269(1)
enter
with/without object 8(2), 233(4)
there entered 50(4)
enthusiastic about 236(2)
entirely 212 (1a)
envious of 236(2)
envy: state verb 62(1)
equipment: uncountable 144 (4b)
er ending for people 285 (3a)
escape + gerund 121(1)
especially 213(1)
ess female ending 285 (3e)
essential
+ subjunctive 242(1)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
establish: passive pattern 109(1)
establishment with the 160(5)
estimate
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
even 213(l,2)
even if 259(8)
even so 246(2)
even though 246(3)
ever 211(i) Note c
with present perfect/past 65(5b), 303(6)
after superlative 221(7)
whoever etc 26(6c), 254,281
every 178(5)
agreement 153(3), 157
and all, whole 178(3) Note a
almost every 212 (8d)
and each 178(5)
every bit as 221(8)
every day 211(3), 227(2)
+ noun 181(2)
every one and everyone 189(1a) Note a
every time (conjunction) 250(4b)
everybody 189(1a)
agreement 189(5)
everyone 189(1a)
agreement 189(5)
everyplace 305(3)
everything 189(1b)
everywhere 189(1c)
conjunction 253(1)
evidence: uncountable 144(4b)
exact: comparison 218(4b)
example of 237(1)

INDEX

PAGE 417

exceed: comparative meaning 221(1) Note
except
+ bare infinitive 127(4a)
preposition 228(7), 306(2)
except (that) 253(5)
exchange
...
for/from 132(3), 234(2) Note
with gerund 121(1), 131(5), 132(3)
exhausted/ing w i t h quite212(5c)
exist
not passive 104(6b)
state verb 62(1)
there exists 50(4)
expect
action/state 62(3)
+ noun clause 262(lb, lc)
+ object 233(4)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
expect so 43(3)
with to-infinitive 121(1), 122(2c)
+ will 74(1), 77(3)
expensive with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
expense in/of + gerund 132(7)
experience
countable/uncountable 144(5c)
+ gerund 131(2a)
experience in/of 237(2j)
verb and noun 287(1)
expert + preposition 237(2j), 262(5) Note
explain
and give an explanation 87(2)
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
passive pattern 109(1)
explain what to do 125(2)
export: stress 287(2)
extra adverbials 12
extraordinary with quite 212(5c)
extremely 212 (1a)

face
+ gerund 121(1)
face up to 132(6), 235(2)
fact+ clause 262(7)
fail
negative meaning 17(4) Note a
with/without object 8(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
failure + to-infinitive 124(1a)
fairly 212(1a), 212(5c) Note a
and fair 207 (4)
fall
with adverb 232(1c)
+ complement 9(1)
fall back on 235(2)

fall down on 235(1)
fall for 233 (2)
verb and noun 287(1)
false
quite false 212(5c)
not with very212(1a) Note a
family: group noun 156(4)
famous
comparison 218(4b)
famous for 132(4), 236(4)
fancy + gerund 121(1)
far 210(4)
as far as 227(6a) Note d
comparison 218(2b), 219(2)
far from 17(6b)
far too 212(1a) Note i, 212(8) Note
farther, farthest 218(2b), 219(2)
and further, furthest 218(5a)
fascinated/ing 203
with quite 212(5c)
not with very212(la
...
for 234(2)
finish
+ gerund 121(1)
with/without object 8(3)
finite clause 239(3a)
finite verb 59
firm: group noun 156(4)
first
and firstly 207 (4) Note c, 216(4)
ordinal number 192
fit (adjective): fit for 236(4)
fit (verb)
action/state 62(3)
fit in with 235(2)
irregular in US 303(11)
passive 104 (6b)
fix up 232(1b)
fly with/ without object 8(3)
focus adverbials 213(1, 2)
follow: there follows 50(4)
following
in indirect speech 267(2)
in phrase of time 169(8), 227(2b)
fond of 236(1)
+ gerund 132(4)
foolish
comparison 218(4b)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
foot, feet 296(1), 297 Note
for
after adjective 236
= because 251(1) Note e
for example 216(2)
+ gerund 132(8a), 252(3)
= in favour of 228(1)
for doing and to do 132(5)
leave/make for 233(4) Note b
need for 237 (2g)
with present perfect/past 65(5d)
purpose 126(6), 252(3)
for the sake of 228(1)
and since 227 (5)
and to 10(5)
with to-infinitive 126
weak form 55(1b)
forbid
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122 (2b)
force
and make 127(3a)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
forecast
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
foreign plurals 298(2-5)
forget
clause pattern 11(2) Note a
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
+ to-infinitive/gerund 121 (3a)
forget what to do 125(2)
forgive: performative 16(3)
formal: comparison 218(4b)
formation of words 282
former: position 200(1)

formulae/formulas 298 (4)
fortunate + to-infinitive 123(5)
fraction 193(1)
adverb of degree 212(1a)
agreement 153(2) Note c
free
comparison 218(4a)
and freely 207 (5)
freeze with/without object 8(3)
frequency adverb: see adverb of frequency
frequent: comparison 218(4b)
friendly 207(2)
frightened of 236(2)

from
place 225(1, 3b)
from
...
119(1) Note
go away 232(1b)
go back on 235(2)
with be going to 72(2) Note b
go down with 235(2)
go for a walk 87
go in for 235(2)
and journey 87 (2)
linking verb 9
go on 232(2)
go on + gerund/to-infinitive 121(3g)
go on with 235(2)
go over 232(2)
go shopping 138(2)
go with 233(2)
go without 233(2)
going to: see be going to
gone and been 84(6), 303(7)
good
good at 132(4), 236(3)
comparison 218(4b)
no good + gerund 131 (2a)
good of you 126(5)
+ preposition 236(3)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
and well 207(7)
good wishes: imperative 19(3), 19(4b)
goods 154 (1a)

goose, geese 296(1)
gossip: uncountable noun 144(4b)
got
have got 85
have got to 92(2)
gotten 303(5d)
government: group noun 156(4)
gradable adjectives with quite 212(5c)
grain o/144(3b)
grant
passive pattern 108(3)
with to 10(5)
grateful
grateful for + gerund 132(4, 5a)
grateful for/to 236(2) Note f
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5a)
gratitude for + gerund 132(7)
great
a great deal of 177 (4a)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
groan: verb of reporting 265(2)
group noun 156
US 304(1)
grow
linking verb 9(1)
+ to-infinitive 120(2)
growl: verb of reporting 265(2)
grumble: verb of reporting 265(2)
guarantee
+ noun clause 262(1c)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
guess
have/make a guess 87(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
guess so/not 43 (3)
guilty of 236(4)
+ gerund 132(4)
gun (verb) 287(3)
gymnastics 154(2)
h after a/an 159(2) Note a
habits
simple tenses 64(2c), 65(3b)
will, would, used to 100
had 85 (2)
inversion 258(3)
short form 55 (2b)
weak form 55(1b)
had better 93(2)
in indirect speech 268 (3c)
had have done 257(6a) Note
had to 92(1c, 2b)
certainty 95(5)
indirect speech 268(3d), 270(1c)
and must have done 95(3)
hair: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
half 193(1a)
adverb 212(1a)
half (of) 178(2b)
one and a half 193(1c)
half past 195(1)
halves 296(2)
hammer (verb) 287(3)

INDEX
hand
passive pattern 108(3}
hand out 232(2)
with to 10(5}
handful 177 (4b)
handicapped: the handicapped 204(1b)
handsome: comparison 218(4b)
hang
hang on 232(2)
with/without object 8(3)
hanging participle 136(2) Note
happen
in if-clause 258(1) Note
it happened + clause 50(5c)
there happened to 50(4) Note
happen to 233 (2)
+ to-infinitive 50(4) Note, 120(2),
258(1) Note
happy
comparison 218(4b)
+ noun clause 262 (6a)
+ preposition 236(2) Note a
+ preposition + gerund 132(4),
135(5b) Note d
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 135(5b) Note d
hard
and hardly 207(5)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
harden with/without object 8(3)
hardly 207(5), 212(7a)
hardly any 212(8e)
negative word 17(4)
hardly
...
like 26(4) Note
how long and since when 25(3) Note b
how many/much 28(3), 177(1)
in question phrase 28(3)
question word 26(4), 27
how's 55(2b)
however
= but 246(2)
= no matter how 254(1)
in emphatic question 26(6c)
hundred 191(1), 304(7)
hundreds of 191(3)
hungry
comparison 218(4b)
the hungry 204(1b)
hurry: not reflexive 186(2d)
hurt
with/without object 8(3)
simple/continuous 62(6)
hyphen 56(5)
hypotheses 298(5)
I 184(1)
leaving out 42(1), 45(4)
with short form 55 (2b)
i and y: spelling 294
ice: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
idea
+ noun clause 262(7)
idea of+ gerund 132(7)
with to-infinitive 126(4)
idea what to do 125(2)

ideal: not with very 212(1a) Note a
identifying relative clause 272(3a, 5)
pronouns 273
idioms
adjective after noun 201 (2) Note c
the+ adjective 204(2b)
without article 167(3, 7)
with as
...
fashion/manner/way 207(2)
+ gerund 132(8a) Note b
place 225(1, 2c)
time 227(1, 3), 227(5b) Note c
with transport 228(5b)
in addition (to) 132(6, 8a), 244(2,3)
in/at the end 229(2b)
incase 259(2)
in case of 259(4) Note c
US 307(2)
in charge of 228(1)
in conclusion 216(2)
in consequence 247(2)
in favour of 228(1)
+ gerund 132(8a)
in front of 225(1), 226(7)
in/on the way 229(2c)
in order
in order that 252(2)
in order to 252(1)
in other words 216(2)
in pen 228 (5a) Note b
in so far as 253(4)
in spite of 132(8a), 246(2)
in that 253(4)
in that case 259(4) Note b
in time 229 (2a)
in view of 228(4), 251(3)
inclusive 306(3)
incomplete sentences: see leaving out
words
increase
increase in/of 237(2e)
with/without object 8(3)
stress 287(2)
incredible
quite incredible 212(5c)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
indeed 51 (2a) Note
with very 212(1a) Note b
indefinite article: see a/an
indefinite pronoun 189
indicate + noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
indirect object 10
in the passive 108
before tell, inform etc 262(1d), 266
before to-infinitive 122(2a)
indirect question 33, 269
indirect speech 263
indoor: position 200(1)
inferior to 236(4)
infinitive
summary 115
and gerund after verb 121
see also to-infinitive, bare infinitive

infinitive clause 117
infinitive relative clause 277
inflections: see endings
influence
+ object 233(4)
influence on/over 237(2d), 262(5) Note
inform
with about/of 234(5a)
with about + gerund 132(3)
+ indirect object 265(3)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2)
information 46
and intonation 54(2a)
passive 104(2)
information: uncountable 144(4a)
ing-form 58
adjective 203
spelling 64(1) Note a
with subject there 50(2h)
see also gerund, participle
injured: the injured 204(1b) Note a
inner: position 200(1)
inquire
+ noun clause 262(5) Note
verb of reporting 265(2), 269(1)
inquiry + noun clause 262(5) Note
inside
place 225(1)
time 227(3) Note b
insist
+ noun clause 262(1c)
insist on 233(2)
insist on + gerund 132(2), 270(2e)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2a, 2g),
270(2e)
+ subjunctive 242(1)
insistence on + gerund 132(7)
instead of 228(1)
+ gerund 132(8a)
negative meaning 17(3) Note a
institution without the 168, 304(4)
names 171(8-10)
instruct
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
verb of reporting 265(2)
instructions
conjunction + participle 139(3)
imperative 19(3)
reported 125(2) Note
word left out 45(3)
insult: stress 287(2)
insure
...
in 234(2)

invitations
answering 29(3)
imperative 19(3), 19 (4b)
won't 71(6)
invite
invite back 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2c)
invite
...
like
198(1) Note a
kingdom in names 171(1)
knife, knives 296(2)

INDEX

knock
knock at/on 233(2)
knockdown 232(2)
knock off 232(2)
knock out 232(2)
know
get to know 62(5) Note
I know 43(3b)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
without object 8(2)
passive 104(6b), 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
state verb 62(l,5)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
know what to do 125(2)
you know 53(1c)
see also want to know
knowledge
with a l44(4b) Note b
knowledge of 237(2j)
lack
+ object 233 (4)
lack of 237 (2k)
not passive 104(6b)
state verb 62(1)
land: uncountable 144 (4b)
last
indirect speech 267(2)
and Iatest 2l8(5c)
with the 160(4)
in phrase of time 65(3a), 169(8), 227(2)
+ to-infinitive 277
lastly 207(4) Note c
late
late for 236(1)
position 200(3)
lately 207(5)
with present perfect 65(2)
later without preposition 227(2)
latest
and last 218(5c)
the latest 204 (2b)
laugh: verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
laughter: uncountable 144(4b)
lay and lie 11 (2) Note b, 300
lead
clause pattern 11(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122 (2b)
leaf, leaves 296(2)
learn
forms 300, 301,303(11)
learn from 234(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
learn how to do it 125(2)
learned (adjective) 301
least 220, 221 (2a)
not in the least 17(6b)
leave
clause patterns 8(2), 10(5)
leave for 233(4) Note b
leave you waiting 140(2)
leave off + gerund 121(1)

leave out 232(1b)
passive patterns 108(3), 110(2)
leaving out words
summary 36
before adjective 199(5)
answering question 29
articles 42(3), 45, 167-9
subject of co-ordinate clause 239(1a)
after if 259(2)
noun 44(1), 181
object 8
one(s) 188(2)
preposition before wh-clause 262(5) Note
relative pronoun 273(5)
that 261(3), 264(2a)
to before infinitive 116(6)
leisure: uncountable 144(4b)
lend
passive 108(3)
with to 10(5)
length 196(2)
less 220, 221(1,2)
a lot less 2l2(8i)
suffix 285 (5e)
lest 307 (2)
let
let down 232(2)
imperative form 19(6)
let in on 235(3)
let me 19(6b)
+ object + infinitive 127(3a)
not in passive 110(1b) Note
let's 19(6a)
question tag 34(6)
lie and be 84(4)
lie down 87(2), 186(2d)
and lay 11 (2) Note b, 300
linking verb 9(2)
lying 294(2) Note
+ participle 138(1)
there lies 50(4)

life
countable/uncountable 144(5d)
plural 296(2)
light: countable/uncountable 144(5c)
lightning: uncountable 144(4b)
like (conjunction) and as 253 (2)
like (preposition) 221(1) Note
and as 228(6)
like (verb)
clause pattern 11(1)
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
passive 104 (6b)
state verb 62(l,4)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
and would like39(2) Note, 99(3a)
likeable 292 (3) Note
likely 96 Note, 207(2)
+ to-infinitive 123(6)
link between/with 237(2c)
linking adverbial 216
in front position 49(1b)
linking verb 9
and action verb 209 (1b)
US 303(1)

PAGE 425

linking word: see conjunction, linking
adverbial
liquid measure 196(4)
listen
action 62(7) Note b
listen to 233(2)
listen to + object + participle 140(1)
litter: uncountable 144(4b)
little
negative word 17(4)
quantifier 177(2)
= small 200(1) Note a
very little 212(8a)
live
linking verb 9(2)
live on 233(2)
there lives 50(4)
live up to 235(2)
lively 207 (2)
lives (plural noun) 296(2)
livestock 156(6)
living: the living 204(1b)
'll (short form) 71(1)
loads of 177 (4A)
loaf 144(3b)
loaves 296(2)
location
adverbial of place 210
preposition of place 255
lock up 232 (2)
logic: certainty 95
lonely 207(2)
long (adverb) 207(3), 210(4)
long (verb) with to-infinitive 121(1), 126(1)
long and short forms 55
look
action/state 62(3), 62(7) Note b
looks as if 50(5c), 253(2) Note
look forward to 235(1)
look forward to + gerund 132(6)
have a look 87(2)
linking verb 9(1), 303(1)
lookout 232(3)
look out for 235(2)
look out over 235(1)
+ preposition 233(1)
look up 232(3)
look up to 235(2)
verb and noun 287(1)
lose
get lost 107(2)
with/without object 8(2)
passive pattern 110(2)
lose time + participle 140(3)
lot of: see a lot of
lots of 177(1)
loud and loudly 207 (4)
love
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121(2)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
passive 104 (6b)
state verb 62(1), 62(4)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
verb and noun 287(1)

INDEX

machinery: uncountable 144(4b)
made of 236(4)
magnificent
quite magnificent 212(5c)
not with very212(1a) Note a
mail (verb) 287(3)
main: position 200(1)
majority 178(2a) Note b
agreement 153(2), 156(4)
make (noun) 144(3e)
make (verb)
clause patterns 9(1), 10(5), 11(1)
and do 89
empty verb 87
+ object + infinitive 127(3a)
make out 232(2)
passive pattern 110(1b)
make up for 235(2)
make up your mind 125(2)
male noun 285 (3e) Note
man suffix 285 (3e) Note b
nationality word 288(2d)
man, men 296(1)
man/woman + noun 145(1c)
manage + to-infinitive 121(1)
management: group noun 156(4)
manner 207(2), 209(2)
singular/plural 154(1b)
manner adverb: see adverb of manner
many 177(1), 178(7a)
very many 212(8a)
market without the 168(4)
married
get married 107 (2)
married to 236(4)
marry + object 233(4)
marvellous
quite marvellous 212(5c)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
masculine noun 285 (3e) Note
mass noun: see uncountable noun
masses of 177(4a)
mathematics 154(2)
matter
matter of + gerund 132(7)
state verb 62(1,5)
matter with 237(2k)
mature: comparison 218(4b)

INDEX

may
with but 246(1) Note b
indirect speech 268(3c)
permission 94
possibility 91
expressing wish 19(6c) Note
may have done 97(3)
maybe 97(1a) Note b, 214(1)
mayn't 97(1a) Note a
me 184(1)
weak form 55(1b)
meal and eat 87 (2)
meal without article 169(7)
mean (adjective) with to-infinitive 123(1, 5),
126(5)
mean (verb)
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121 (3f)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive 104(6b), 109(2)
state verb 62(4) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
means: by/with 228(5)
means (noun) 154(3)
measles 154(2)
measure: action/state 62(3), 104(6b)
measurements 196
+ adjective 199(1) Note b
+ singular verb 152(3)
media 298(2)
with the 160(5)
melt: with/without object 8(3)
men 296(1)
mention
+ gerund 121(1)
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262(lc, 1d)
verb of reporting 265(2)
mere: position 200(1)
method of 237 (2f)
mice 296(1)
mid position 208(4)
midday without article 169(6)
middle-aged: the middle-aged 204(1b)
midnight without article 169(6)
might
in conditionals 257 (3b, 4d, 6b)
indirect speech 268 (3c)
permission 94(2) Note
possibility 97
might as well 97(1e)
might have done 97(3), 257 (6b)
mileage: spelling 293(2) Note
military: group noun 156(4)
million 191(1)
millions of 191(3)
mind
+ gerund 121(l) Note d
+ object + gerund 131(5)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
mine 174(3)
minority 156(4), 178(2a) Note b
minute: time of day 195(1)
the minute (conjunction) 250(5)
misrelated participle 136(2) Note

PAGE 426

miss with gerund 121(1), 131 (5)
mistake (noun) with to-infinitive 126(4)
mistake (verb) with for 234(2)
mix with/without object 8(3)
mob: group noun 156(4)
modal verb
summary 90
overview 102
+ bare infinitive 127(1)
in indirect speech 268(3c, 3d)
passive 106, 114(2)
with performative verb 16(3)
modern: comparison 218(4b)
modifier 143(2c)
adjective 198(1)
adverb of degree 212
adverbial 206(3)
noun 147
clause after a noun 272(2)
phrase after a noun 148, 272(2)
of number 191(4)
of preposition 224(3)
molten 301
moment: the moment (conjunction) 250(5)
money 196(1)
money: uncountable 144(4b)
month with/without article 169(3)
monthly 207(6), 211 (4)
months 296(3) Note
mood: see subjunctive
more
+ adjective 218, 221(1)
+ adverb 219(3)
a lot more 180(2c), 212(8f)
quantifier 220
more so 43 (5a)
some more 180(2)
moreover 244(2)
most
+ adjective 218
+ adverb 219(3)
in phrase of frequency 211 (3)
and mostly 207 (5)
quantifier 178(2), 220
mouse, mice 296(1)
mouths 296(3)
move: with/without object 8(3)
movement: prepositions 225(2)
Mr, Mrs, Miss, Ms 170(1)
much
+ comparative 212(2), 221(8)
+ gerund 133(1), 138(2c)
much more 212(8f)
not so much
...
nor 245(2)
quantifier 178(4)
nervous of 132(4), 236(2)
never 211(l,2)
and ever 211(l) Note c
negative word 17(4)
with past 303 (6)
nevertheless 246(2)
new: the new 204(2a)
news
+ noun clause 262(7)
with singular verb 154(2)
uncountable 144(4a)
newspaper headlines: see headlines
newspaper with the 160(5)
next
indirect speech 267(2)
and nearest 218(5d)
with past 65(3a)
with the 160(4)
in phrase of time 169(2), 227(2)
next to 225(1), 226(6d)
+ to-infinitive 277
nice
nice and + adjective 202(3a) Note
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2, 5)
night
with/without article 169(6)
with at/in 227(1c) Note
no
answering negative question 30(3)
+ comparative 212(2, 8f)
+ gerund 133(1)
negative word 17(4), 179(2)
and none 181(2)
and not 17(2c)
quantifier 179(2)
as question tag 34(1) Note f
refusing permission 94(1b) Note, 133(1)
+ singular noun 145(2c) Note
no good + gerund 131 (2a)
no longer 210(3a)
no matter 245(2)
no one 189(1a)
negative word 17(4)
no sooner
...
nor 245(2)
normal
comparison 218(4b)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
normally 211(1, 2)
not 17
not only
...
on 85(1) Note c
and onto 225(2c)
in phrasal verb 232(2), 232(4)
place 225(1), 228(5b) Note
time 227 (1b, 1c)
with transport 228(5b)
on account of 132(8a), 251(3)
on behalf of 228(1)
on board 228 (5b) Note
on condition that 259(4) Note a
on the contrary 246(5) Note
on the other hand 246(2)
on the phone 228 (5c) Note
on the point of 78(1b), 80(3)
on/in the way 229 (2c)
on top of 225(1), 226(3)
once 194(1)
conjunction 139(3), 250(1), 250(3)
frequency 211(3)
with present perfect 65(5b)
one
and a/an 163
and body in compounds 189(1a)
one day 163(3)
one/a hundred 191(1) Note b
after (an)other 181(1) Note c

INDEX

one
...
at 234(2)
point at/to 233 (2)
+ preposition + gerund 132(7}
point out 232(2), 262(1c, 1d), 265(2)
police
with plural verb 156(6)
the police 160(5)
polite
comparison 218(4b)
polite to 236(3)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)
politics 154(2)
pollution: uncountable 144(4b)
poor
position 200(3)
the poor 204(1b)
population: group noun 156(4)
popular with 236(4)
position of adjectives 200-2
position of adverbials 208
possess: state verb 62(1, 5)
possessive form of noun 146
as determiner 143(3d), 165(2) Note
before gerund 130(2)
pronunciation 290(4)
expressing time and place 146(5)
Possessives 174
each/one another's 186(4)
else's 189(4) Note a
one's 185(2b)
someone's etc 189(3)
possibility 97
if-clause 257(4c)
possibility 97(1a) Note b
possibility of 132(7), 237(2b)
possible 97(1a) Note b
as possible 199(5b)
position 201(2) Note b
+ to-infinitive 123(1), 123(2) Note
post (noun): the post 160(5)
post (verb) with to 10(5)
postpone + gerund 121(1)
potatoes 290(2)
poultry 156(6)
pound 196(1), 297 Note a
pour with/without object 8(3)
practise
+ gerund 121(1)
with/without object 8(2)
and practice 308 (5)
praise
...
to 132(6), 234(2)
with to-infinitive 121(2), 122(2d)
preferable
+ subjunctive 242(1)
preferable to 221 (1) Note
preference: see prefer, would prefer,
would rather
preference for 237 (2g)
prefix 284
hyphen 56(5d)
premises 154 (1a)
preparations + to -infinitive 124 (1a)
prepare
prepare for 126(1), 233(2)
with to-infinitive 121(1), 126(1)
prepared
prepared for 236(4)
+ to-infinitive 123(5)
preposition
summary 223
after adjective/noun/verb 230
+ gerund 132
after infinitive 117(2)
modified 224(3)
in passive 105(3), 234(1)
+ personal or reflexive pronoun 186(2b)
in question 25(3), 26(3)
+ question word + to-infinitive 125(2)
in relative clause 273(4), 274(3)
+ wh-clause 262(5)
+ whose 275(3)
prepositional adverb (particle): see phrasal
verb
prepositional phrase 224(2)
after adjective 201 (2)
idiomatic 229
manner 209(2)
after noun 148(2)
as subject 208(3) Note
truth adverbial 214(2)
prepositional verb 231(2), 233
+ gerund 132(2)
passive 105(3), 231(5)
and phrasal verb 231(4)
present (adjective)
present at 236 (4)
position 200(3), 201(2)
present (verb) with preposition 234(3)
present continuous 64
in conditionals 257(2b) Note, 257(3b, 3c)
future meaning 73(1), 74
passive 105(1c)
performative verbs 16(3) Note c
present perfect 65
in conditionals 257(3b)
passive 105(1b)
and past simple 65(4)
and present perfect continuous 67(2)
US 303(6)

PAGE 433

present perfect continuous 67
present progressive: see present continuous
present simple 64
agreement 151(2)
in conditions 257(2, 3)
future meaning 73(1), 77
passive 105(1a)
performative verbs 16(3)
in sub clause 77
present tense narrative 64(2e)
press
group noun 156(4)
the press 160(5)
presume
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
passive patterns 109
presume so/not 43 (3)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
pretend
+ noun clause 262(1c)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
pretty
adverb 212(1a)
comparison 218 (4b)
prevent
prevent
...
for/with 234(3)
provided/providing 259(4)
public: group noun 156(4)
publicly 292(5) Note
pull
clause pattern 11(1)
pull down 232(2)
pull off 232(2)
pull up 232(3)
pump up 232(2)
punctuation 56
punish
...
as 122(2c) Note c, 234(1)
regard for 237(2h)
regret: if only 241 (2d)
regret
+ gerund/to-infinitive 121 (3b)
+ noun clause 262(1)
passive pattern 109(1)
regular and irregular verbs 299
related to 236(4)

PAGE 435

relationship between/with 237(2c)
relative adverb 51(4b) Note e, 279
relative clause
summary 271
after superlative 221 (7)
pattern with there 50(3)
relax: not reflexive 186(2d)
relaxed/ing 203
relief: countable 144(5e)
reluctance + to-infinitive 124(1a)
reluctant with to-infinitive 123(5), 126(2)
rely on 233(2)
+ gerund 132(2), 233(2)
remain
linking verb 9(1)
there remains 50(4)
remains (noun) 154(1a)
remark
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
remember
remember
...
about/of 234(5a) Note b
remind
...
with 234(2)
replacing words 36
reply
+ noun clause 262(1c)
verb of reporting 265(2)
reply question (echo tag) 35(2)
report
report about/on 233(3a) Note b, 237(2i),
262(5) Note
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive patterns 109
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ object + to-infinitive 122 (2c)
reported speech 263
reporting orders 270
reporting questions 269
republican names 171(1)
request (noun)
request for 237 (2g)
+ to-infinitive 124(1a)
request (verb)
+ noun clause 262(1c)
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)
+ object 233(4)
verb of reporting 265(2)

INDEX
+ subjunctive 242(1)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2a)
requests
can 22(2), 97(2b)
conditional 256(2)
could 97 (2b)
I request 16(3)
intonation 54 (2b)
might 97(1d)
reported 270(1)
with some 179(1d)
will 71(6), 99(2), 257(3d)
would 99 (2), 257 (4e)
require
+ gerund 113(1)
+ that-clause 122 (2b) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
required to 92(1a) Note c
research (noun)
research into 237(2j), 262(5) Note
uncountable 144(4b)
research (verb): research into 233(2)
resemble
+ object 233(4)
not passive 104(6b)
state verb 62(1)
resent with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
reserve with for 10(5)
resigned to + gerund 132(6)
resist with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
resort to 233(2)
+ gerund 132(2, 6)
respect for 237 (2h)
response question (echo tag) 35(2)
responsible
responsible for 132(4), 236(4)
position 201(2)
rest
and have a rest 87(2)
not reflexive 186(2d)
verb and noun 287(1)
restrictive relative clause: see identifying
result 247
participle 139(5)
to-infinitive 119(2)
result
result from/in 233(2) Note f
there resulted 50(4)
resume + gerund 121(1)
reveal
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive patterns 109
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
revise for 233 (2)
rhetorical question 22(3)
rice: uncountable 144(4b)
rich: the rich 204(1b)
riches 154(1a)
ride: verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
ridiculous: quite ridiculous 212(5c)
right
+ comparison 218(4a)
+ preposition 212(6)
quite right 212(5c)
and rightly 207 (4) Note b
+ to-infinitive 123(5)

INDEX
ring
ring back 232(2)
with/without object 8(3), 233(3c) Note
ring off 232(2)
ring true 9(1)
ring up 232(1a) Note
rise
rise in/of 237(2e)
and raise 8(3) Note
risk with gerund 121(1), 131(5)
rob and steal 234(3)
roofs 296(2) Note
roll with/without object 8(3)
room for 237(l)

round 225(1)
US 306(1)
rub out 232(2)
rubbish: uncountable 144(4b)
rude with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(5)

run
+ complement 9(1)
and have a run 87(2)
run into 233(2)
with/without object 8(1)
run out 232 (2)
run out of 235(2)
run over 232(3)
+ participle 138(1)
verb and noun 287(1)
's (possessive) 146
see also possessive form of noun
's (short form) 55 (2b) Note a
s-form 58
agreement 151(2)
pronunciation 290(3)
spelling 64(1) Note b
s-plural: see plural noun
sad+ to-infinitive 123(5)
safe
comparison 218(4a)
safe from 236(2)
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
safes 296(2) Note
sail with/without object 8(3)
saleable 292 (3) Note
salmon: plural 297
same
the same as 221(1), 236(4)
the same replacing words 43 (5b)
with the 160(4), 200(1) Note, 221(1) Note
in the same way 216(2)
satisfaction with + gerund 132(7)
satisfied
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)
satisfied with 236(2)
satisfied with+ gerund 132(4, 5a)
save
with for 10(5)
save
...
with 234(2)
shave
get shaved 107 (2)
not reflexive 186(2e)
she 184(1, 3)
with short form 55 (2b)
weak form 55(1b)
sheep: plural 297
sheer: position 200(1)
sheet of 144(3b)
shelf, shelves 296(2)
shine with/without object 8(3)
shingles 154(2)
ship (verb) 287(3)
shocked at/by 236(2)
shopping
do the/go shopping 138(2)
uncountable 144(4b)
short additions 43(1)
short answers 29(2, 4)
with so 43(4)
short form 55
short of 236(4)
short question 38(3)
shorts 155(4)
should
in condition 258(1), 258(3)
after in case 259(7)
indirect speech 268 (3c)
obligation 93(1)
probability 96
instead of subjunctive 242(2)
US 303(8)
weak form 55(1b)
I would/should 99(4)
shout
shout at/to 233(3c) Note c
shout out 232(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)

INDEX
show
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive patterns 108(3), 109
with to 10(5)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
show you what to do 125(2)
shower and have a shower 87(2)
shrunken 301
shut with/without object 8(3)
shyly 294(1) Note b
sick
position 305(1) Note
the sick 204(1b)
side of 147(5f) Note b
sightseeing: uncountable 144(4b)
silly
comparison 218(4b)
with to-infinitive 123(1, 5), 126(2, 5)
similar to 221(1) Note, 236(4)
simple: comparison 218(4b)
simple gerund 129
simple infinitive 116(1)
simple passive participle 135(4)
simple past: see past simple
simple present: see present simple
simple sentence 7
since
conjunction of reason 251(1)
conjunction of time 250(1)
and/or227(5)
+ gerund 132 (8a)
with present perfect/past 65(5d)
since when 25(3) Note b
sincere: comparison 218(4b)
sing with/without object 8(2)
single: every single 178(5b) Note b
singular and plural: agreement 150
singular noun
without article 167
in compound 147(4), 155(2) Note, 283(3),
304(2)
in generalization 162(2, 3)
ending in s 154(3)
sit
+ adverbial 9(2)
sit down 186(2d)
and have a seat 87(2)
+ participle 138(1)
there sits 50 (4)
skill at 237(2j)
sleep: verb and noun 87(2, 4), 287(1)
slice of 144(3b)
slide with/without object 8(3)
slightly 212(1a) Note f, 212(7c)
+ comparative 212(2)
slow
and slowly 207(4)
+ to-infinitive 123(5) Note c
slow down 232(2)
slyly 294(1) Note b
smash with/without object 8(3)
smell
action/state 62(3)
and can smell 62(7)
linking verb 9(1)
+ object + participle 140(1)

INDEX
smile
and give a smile 87(2)
verb of reporting 265(2)
verb and noun 287(1)
smooth (verb) 287(4)
snap: verb of reporting 265(2)
so
overview 43(6)
+ adjective 212(4), 221(3)
so as to 252(1)
so far/long 210(4b)
so far with present perfect 65(2)
so long as 259(4)
so many/much 177(1b), 212(8a)
and such 212(4)
so that 252(2)
so
...
on 234(1)
spend time doing 140(3)
split infinitive 117(1) Note
split
...
from 132(3), 234(2)
with gerund 121(3e), 131(5), 132(3)
negative meaning 17(4) Note a
with/without object 8(3)
with to-infinitive 121 (3e)
straight: adverb 207(3)
strange + to -infinitive 123(1)
street names 171 (2f)
strengthen with/without object 8(3)
stress 54(1)
compound noun 147(3, 5)
emphatic 51(1)
on modal verb 91 (1) Note b

PAGE 439

with phrasal/prepositional verb 231 (4c)
with quite 212(5a)
word both verb and noun 287(2)
strike
...
that 247(3)

suffer from 233(2)
suffix 285
suggest
+ finite clause 122(2a) Note b
+ gerund 121(1)
and make a suggestion 87(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
+ passive clause 112(2c) Note
passive pattern 109(1)
performative 16(3)
verb of reporting 265(2), 270(2d), 270(2g)
+ subjunctive 242(1)

INDEX

suggestions
answering 29 (2a)
asking for 71(7)
can 16(2), 97(2a)
conditional 256(2)
could 97(2a)
imperative 19(3)
intonation 54 (2b)
let's 19(6a)
shall 22(2), 71(7)
what/how about 28(2)
with why 30(1c)
suit
+ object 233(4)
not passive 104(6b)
sum up 232 (2)
sunken 301
sunrise with/without article 169(6)
superior to 221(1) Note, 236(4)
superlative
of adjective 218
of adverb 219
after among 225(3b)
modified 212(3)
patterns 221(7)
adjective with the 160(4)
+ to-infinitive 277
supernatural: the supernatural 204 (2a)
supply with preposition 234(3) Note
suppose
conditional 241(3), 259(5)
+ noun clause 262(1b, 1c)
passive patterns 109
+ present/past 241 (3)
verb of reporting 265 (2)
suppose so 43(3)
+ subjunctive 242(3)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2c)
supposed to 92(3)
supposing241(3), 259(5)
sure
Are you sure? 43 (3b)
be sure to 78(2) Note, 95(1) Note b
comparison 218(4a)
+ noun clause 262(6), 265(5)
sure of 236(4), 262(5) Note
quite sure 212(5c)
sure what to do 125(2)
+ will 74(1)
surprise
echo tag 35(2) Note b
negative question 30(1a)
surprise at+ gerund 132(7)
surprised 203
surprised at+ gerund 132(4, 5a)
comparison 218 (4b)
with double negative 17(5) Note
+ noun clause 262(6)
+ preposition 236(2)
+ to-infinitive 123(5), 132(5a)
surprising 203
surroundings 154(1a)
suspect
+ noun clause 262 (1c)
suspect so/not 43(3)
stress 287(2)

INDEX

swear
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
verb of reporting 265(2)
+ to-infinitive 121(1)
swim: verb and noun 87, 287(1)
swing with/without object 8(3)
switch ojf/on 232 (2)
sympathy for 237 (2h)
tag 34, 35
see also question tag, echo tag
take
take after 233(2)
take care of 234(4)
take down 232(2)
empty verb 87
take
...
up on 235(3)
talk
talk about 132(2), 233(2)
have a talk 87(2)
talk over 232(2)
and say 265 (2) Note
talk to/with 306(4)
verb and noun 287(1)
talking of 216(2)
task of + gerund 132(7)
taste
action/state 62(3,7)
taste for 237(2g)
linking verb 9(1)
tax on 237(1)
teach
teach you how to 125(2)
+ noun clause 262(1c, 1d)
passive 108(3)
with to 10(5)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2b)
team: group noun 156(4)
tear with/without object 8(3)
teeth 296(1)
telephone numbers 191(5)
telephone (verb) 287(3)
television 160(5) Note
tell
with about 132(5b) Note b
+ noun clause 262(1d)
passive 108(3)
verb of reporting 266
reporting orders 270(1)
tell you so 43(3b)
tell you to/how to 125(2) Note
telling the time 195(1)
temperature 196(5)
temporal clause: see clause of time
tend to 97(2e) Note, 120(2)
with there 50(4)

tense 61(1), 63
see also verb tense
tense change in indirect speech 268
terrible
with to-infinitive 123(1), 126(2)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
terribly 212(1a, 7c)
terrific
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
not with very 2l2(1a) Note a
terrified of 236(2)
than 221(4), 221(5, 6)
+ adjective 199(5b), 218(2a) Note d
+ gerund 132(1b)
weak form 55(1b)
thank
thank
...
for with gerund 132(2),
252(3) Note a
+ object + to-infinitive 252(3) Note a
use up 232(2)
used to 100(2), 236(4)
+ gerund 132(6)
indirect speech 268(3c)
passive 106(1)
useful: comparison 218(4b)
useless
comparison 218(4b)
quite useless 212(5c)
not with very 212(1a) Note a
usual
after as/than 199(5b)
+ to-infinitive 123(1)
utter: position of adjective 200(1)
verb 57
agreement with subject 150
formed from other words 285(4)
leaving out 41
verb forms 58
in conditional sentences 257
irregular 299
verb of perception
with can 62(7)
with participle/infinitive 140(1)
passive 110
verb of reporting 265
passive 109
in present simple 64(2f), 268(1a)
tense 268(1)
verb phrase 57
verb tenses 61(1), 63
overview 69
in conditional clause 257
in indirect speech 268
passive 105, 114
in sub clause 241
verb types 7
verb + adverb (phrasal verb) 231(1)
verb + adverb + preposition 235
passive 105(3)
verb + adverbial 9(2)
verb + complement 9(1)
verb + gerund 131 (4)
reporting 270(2d)
and to-infinitive 121
verb + object 8
verb + object + adverb + preposition 235(3)
verb + object + adverbial 11(2)
verb + object + complement 11(1)
verb + object + gerund 131(5)
verb + object + object 10
verb + object + participle 140
verb + object + preposition 234
verb + object + preposition + gerund 132(3)
reporting 270(2f)
verb+ object + to-infinitive 122
reporting 270(2c)
verb + participle 138
verb + preposition 231(2), 233
see also prepositional verb

verb + preposition + gerund 132(2)
reporting 270(2e)
verb + to-infinitive 120
and gerund 121
reporting 270(2b)
verbal noun: see gerund
very212(1a)
very many 177(1b), 212(8a)
very much 177(1b), 212(7d), 212(8a)
+ preposition 212(6)
repeated 51 (1b) Note
viewpoint adverbial 213(3)
violence: uncountable 144(4b)
visit
US 306(4)
verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
vital+ to-infinitive 123(1)
vocative 56(6c) Note, 170(1)
vote
clause pattern 11(1)
vote for + gerund 132(2), 132(5a)
+ to-infinitive 132(5a)
vowel change 286

wait
can't wait + to-infinitive 121(1)
wait for 233(2)
wait for with to-infinitive 126(1)
verb and noun 287(1)
wake up: not reflexive 186(2d)
walk: verb and noun 87(2), 287(1)
wallpaper (verb) 287(3)
want
clause pattern 11(1)
+ gerund 113(1)
passive 104(6b)
+ object + passive participle 140(5)
state verb 62(1)
+ to-infinitive 121 (3h)
+ object + to-infinitive 122(2d)
want to know 125(2), 265(2), 269(1)
and would like 99(3a)
war: countable/uncountable 144(5d)
warm (verb) 287(4)
warn
warn
...
way 207(2)
way of 237(2f)
the way (that) 253(2)
we 184(1), 184(2)
people in general 185(3)
with short form 55(2b)
weak form 55(1b)
weak form 55
weak: the weak 204(1b)
weaken with/without object 8(3)
wear
wear out 232(2)
wear thin 9(1)
weather: uncountable 144(4b)
weekly 207(6), 211(4)
weigh
action/state 62(3)
passive 104(6b)
weight 196(3)
welcome to 236(4)
well 207(7)
comparison 218(2b), 219(2)
position of adjective 200(2), 305(1)
Well,
...
like 26(4) Note, 198(1) Note a
in negative question 30(1d)
in question phrase 28(1)
question word 26(1,2), 27, 35(1) Note a
relative pronoun 280
with short form 55 (2b)
+ to-infinitive 125
and which 26(2)

PAGE 444

what about 28(2)
+ gerund 132(8a)
what if 259(5)
+ present/past 241 (3b)
whatever
in emphatic question 26(6c)
= no matter what 254(1)
relative 281
what's more 244(2)
whatsoever 17(6b) Note b
when
+ adjective 199 (5c)
conjunction 250
and if 259(1)
+ participle 139(3)
+ present 77
question word 27
relative adverb 279
when's 55(2b)
whenever
conjunction 250(4b)
= no matter when 254(1)
+ participle 139(3)
where
conjunction 253(1)
question word 27
relative adverb 279
where's 55 (2b)
whereas 246(5)
wherever 254(1)
whether
in noun clause 33, 261(1), 262(3) Note
whether

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