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FAO GAP WORKING PAPER SERIES

5

Good Agricultural Practices –
a working concept
Background paper for the FAO Internal Workshop
on Good Agricultural Practices
Rome, Italy 27-29 October 2004

Frontespizio GAP-5
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Cover photo: FAO/7407/F
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Fax: (+39) 06 57053360
Web site: http://www
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Table of contents

iii

Table of contents

ACRONYMS
EXECUVE SUMMARY

v
vii

1
...
1 THE STARTING POINT: RESEARCH AND EXTENSION GUIDELINES
1
...
HISTORY OF GAP FRAMEWORK DEVELOPMENT IN FAO
2
...
2 GUIDANCE ON GAP FROM COAG 2003
2
...
PROPOSED ACTION AREAS
3
...
2 AT NATIONAL/SUB NATIONAL LEVEL

11
11
12

4
...
AREAS OF EXPERTISE WHICH FAO CAN BRING INTO GAP WORK

17

6
...
PRINCIPLES FOR GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES
ANNEX 2
...
It presents an overview on
GAP, from the research and extension services which for many decades have been providing
production guidelines to farmers, how the concept of Good Agricultural Practices has evolved
out of such recommendations and the recent evolution of GAP in food markets
...
Guidance on Good
Agricultural Practices was received from the 17th Session of the Committee on Agriculture
(COAG) in April 2003, which led to an expert consultation on GAP in 2003 and the definition
of a GAP concept for FAO
...
This paper presents a number of proposed action areas at global, national and subnational level
...

The ultimate goal of FAO GAP activities is to assist developing countries in developing
appropriate protocols and processes which fit the local context, with a special focus to ensure
that small and medium-holders can participate in GAP-orientated markets, which will continue
to be of major importance in the global food system
...
Background

1
...
Objectives include
increased productivity, improvement of natural resources use and the generation of higher
farmer income
...
;
•
weed control;
•
pest and disease control, with IPM principles in some cases;
•
water management and irrigation
•
harvest methods;
•
livestock rations and feeding systems
•
on-farm storage methods, etc
...
Recommendations get updated as new knowledge is generated
...

Over the years, much of the work of FAO units, especially in AGA, AGP, AGL, AGE,
FO, FI and some divisions of SD, has been to respond to requests from developing country
governments for technical assistance aimed at optimizing and transferring crop, livestock,
forestry or aquaculture recommendations in their local context
...

Various units of FAO have specialized in optimization of components of production
recommendations, such as IPM for pests; Integrated Plant Nutrient Management (IPNM) for
fertilizer inputs, or no-tillage based conservation agriculture for land preparation
...

In this paper, it is recommended that component management practices (e
...
- Integrated
Pest Management (IPM), Conservation Agriculture (CA), IPPM etc) which may be used in GAP,
not be referred to as ‘GAPs’; and that the term GAP be retained for the process (protocol) for
full sequence of decision for action to produce a crop from land preparation to on-farm storage,
and similarly for animals: from purchase to sale and including milk and egg production
...

1
...
Consumers and hence the food industry and the development community are
every day more concerned that food – more and more of which comes through processing and
supermarket chains - is safe to eat
...
g
...

These shifts in the values associated with agriculture in many developed countries have
given rise in the past twenty years to a wide array of social, environmental and quality
standards, codes of practices and certification programmes in agriculture and the food sector
...

A multiplicity of ‘GAP’ codes, standards and regulations have also appeared from
governments, NGOs and CSOs as well as producers organizations and the food industry,
claiming to codify sustainable agriculture at farm level
...
Still in all these standards, the underlying assumption is that the standard
codifies some form of good practice
...
The term “good agricultural practices’ is used to refer
to widely varying elements, from monitoring of pesticides use, to more encompassing aspects
of primary production and post production systems, such as environmental impact assessment
or labour conditions
...
These process standards might or might not influence the
characteristics of the end products
...
(International Organization for
Standardization, ISO, 1996)
...
e
...
On this basis, the words “codes” and “standards” are used interchangeably in this
paper
...

Further down the food chain, Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for processed goods
including processed food, pharmaceuticals, clothing and nearly anything else we buy, have also
been developed and are a routine part of business protocols and national and international
government policy regulations, with assistance from WHO, WTO, International Labour
Organization (ILO), UNIDO, and to a limited degree, FAO (Codex, International Plant
Protection Convention (IPPC))
...
This has given rise to the development of
approaches ‘from farm to table’ that take the application of GAP as the starting point to
ensuring food safety and quality in the food chain
...
The GAP process embraces actions,
technologies and systems that are accepted as most effective for optimal management of soil
and water, and for crop and livestock production, from the point of view of microbiological
and chemical safety, with the added dimensions of environmental, economic and social
sustainability
...

The Sanitary and Phytosanitary regulatory instruments of FAO/WHO deal with limits of
food contamination from agricultural practices, but do not provide location specific guidelines
on how to ensure this on the farm
...
Herein lies one of the
compelling reasons for developing GAP processes that deal with these and other public
concerns about agricultural production
...
Sustainability indicators and organic or
fair trade standards developed by governments, public agencies or NGOs are likely to be more
encompassing towards achieving SARD goals than standards developed by market actors
...
Or, they may also rely on price premiums based on consumers
willingness to pay for environmental and social sustainability - which may limit their market
share and therefore their potential as a tool to achieve SARD
...


4 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) - A working concept paper

Attempts by the food industry (large professional organizations, agro-processors,
exporters, retailers) to codify, implement and sometimes impose ‘GAP’ codes of practices on
their suppliers (farmers) has raised the question of the extent to which the markets can support
sustainable agriculture, how the value-added is distributed in these schemes through the food
chain, whether farmers benefit and with what transaction costs, and whether a large proportion
of consumers at the end of the chain are willing to pay for sustainable agriculture through such
schemes
...
3 Within markets for products with quality labels, products labelled
“organic” have captured the biggest shares
...
However for tropical products, market shares of labelled products (i
...
organic and
fair-trade together) are typically only 1 to 2 percent of the total North American and European
markets
...
5
The option of supporting sustainable agriculture through segregated markets for
sustainable products is interesting, though it shows some limitation as markets may remain
limited
...
Promising efforts are developed from various quarters for joint
fair trade and organic product labelling, and to support harmonization of standards and
standard-definition processes
...
It would
therefore be counter productive and undesirable for FAO to support new, separate processes
for product segregation based on sustainable agriculture concerns
...

Interesting examples exist where major companies have supported the implementation of
good practices and processes as successful business strategies to improve productivity, quality
and farm-level income
...
which in recent years has
mainstreamed Integrated Pest and Production Management (IPPM) methods for tomato

3 It should be noted that certification through a given ‘good practices’ scheme does not necessarily translates into a specific label on the
product
...
Therefore the product are not differentiated from others at final purchase stage, and so
there may not always be a price premium for farmers for meeting the standard, although they may bear the cost of related investments or
certification
...
with Liu, P
...

5 Ibid
...


Background

5

production in several countries with the objective to maximize yield and reduce losses, not to
seek product differentiation
...
A useful summary of possible incentives for the adoption of
GAPs for different types of GAP codes has been provided by Jill E
...
7 Depending on their scope and objectives
and who establishes and verifies them, the GAP codes will have different implications on the
nature of the practices which are promoted, and on incentives to adopt them
...

Most agronomists in FAO, and elsewhere, believe that many smallholders can benefit
from engaging in the analytical process of GAP whether or not it gives them access to
segregated markets that require GAP adherence (e
...
EUREPGAP or supermarket codes)
...
The Food and Nutrition
Division (ESN) is pilot testing some GAP-process testing in Thailand with a Technical
Cooperation Programme (TCP) using food safety as the key entry point, but much more work
with local producers and other stakeholders is required to gain experiences and generate
examples that can stimulate wide adoption of the GAP approach
...
Originally, the SARD
concept in Agenda 21 focused on improving the sustainability of agricultural practices
...

Present efforts to explore the development of a GAP approach should be seen in the context
of Agenda 21, the global plan of action for sustainable development adopted in 1992 at the
United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, or the Earth
Summit) in Rio de Janeiro
...
20
...

Governments and international organizations, together with the private sector, should develop
criteria and methodologies for the assessment of environmental impacts and resource requirements

7 See in Annex 2 for a summary of the study “Incentives for the adoption of Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs)” by Jill E
...
The full study is available on the GAP website at
http://www
...
org/prods/GAP/gapactivities_en
...


6 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) - A working concept paper

throughout the full life cycle of products and processes
...

4
...
Governments, in cooperation with industry and other relevant groups, should encourage
expansion of environmental labelling and other environmentally related product information
programmes designed to assist consumers to make informed choices
...
While claims for sustainability
made in these schemes should not necessarily be taken at face value, it is a valid preoccupation
to assess the extent to which these standards can help support achievement of objectives of
food security and Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) in developing
countries
...

The promotion of GAP by industry could be a win-win situation for farmers, ecologists,
labourers, processors and consumers; but this is not a foregone conclusion if stakeholders are
not included in the definition and implementation
...
For FAO, GAP is an effective way to focus its technical expertise into clear advice and
practical application in the current environment of concern for food safety, environmental
protection and social equity
...
History of GAP Framework
Development in FAO

2
...
8 These principles describe farming that
uses available technology optimally to promote agricultural productivity of safe and healthy
food, to achieve economic viability and agricultural, environmental sustainability and social
responsibility, although this last dimension remains somewhat insufficiently addressed in the
framework
...
This requires a sound and comprehensive
farming strategy and the capability for responsive tactical adjustments as circumstances change
...

The principles of good farming, presented in Annex 1 are portrayed within 10 groups of
practices presented in Annex 1 (soil; water; crop and fodder production; crop protection;
animal feed and livestock production; animal health and welfare; harvest and on-farm
processing and storage; energy and waste management; human welfare, health and safety; and
wildlife and landscape)
...

Electronic discussions in 2001-2002 and meetings with major stakeholder groups
consolidated the principles with emphasis on such aspects as soil fertility, pesticide use and
animal welfare, but still within the framework described above
...

2
...

9 Information on COAG 2003 can be found at http://www
...
org/unfao/bodies/coag/coag17/coag17-e
...
The paper “Development
of a Framework for Good Agricultural Practices” presented to COAG in 2003 is available at
http://www
...
org/DOCREP/MEETING/006/Y8704e
...
The full text of COAG’s recommendations on this paper can be found at
http://www
...
org/DOCREP/MEETING/006/Y9185e
...


8 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) - A working concept paper

•
•
•

to review existing codes of practice;
to formulate a set of generic practices and indicators from which guidelines for good
agricultural practices for on-farm production and post-production systems could be
developed, collaboratively by the public and private sectors and civil society; and
to engage in discussion with governments on their strategies, priorities and instruments to
move towards sustainable agriculture and rural development practices
...
But it emphasized that a GAP approach should not create new barriers
to trade and thus undermine poverty alleviation efforts and be consistent with the existing
regulatory instruments, such as Codex, IPPC and OIE
...
It was
agreed that the components identified in the Annex, “Good Agricultural Practices for Selected
Agricultural Components”, drawn from David Connor’s work, needed further refinement
...

2
...
However, the original entry point, based on technical aspects of crop and livestock
production to ensure food safety, environmental protection, economic and social equity
remains clear, and was confirmed at the Expert Consultation on GAP which was held in Rome
in November 2003
...

The Expert Consultation definition clearly establishes GAP within the framework of
Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) as developed in the Rio Summit’s
Agenda 21
...
While both GAP and SARD use the same three pillars (economic,
environmental and social), SARD is a far wider concept that embraces not only agriculture
production issues on farm (GAP) but issues of rural infrastructure, rural education and much
more; operationalizing GAP, however, will contribute to SARD
...
GAP
covers the farm-level part of the chain or continuum which further down includes Good

History of GAP Framework development in FAO

9

Handling Practices (GHP), Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP), HACCP and quality control
standards and others
...
But the focus and contribution of
GAP for this clearly remains at the production stage
...
The Expert
Consultation also provided FAO with important insights and recommendations for achieving
outcomes including implementation strategies and pilot activities
...
It also builds on lessons from a number
of field activities undertaken by FAO units since 2003, in particular projects, workshops or
studies in Namibia, Kenya, Burkina Faso, Thailand, the Latin American cone, a regional GAP
workshop for Asia organized by FAO and IAEA in Bangkok late 2003, and an Electronic
conference organized by the regional office for Latin America in July-August 2004
...
The objective of the GAP workshop
of 27-29 October 2004 is to better explore how synergies between these approaches can be
created to improve FAO’s capacity to provide coordinated services and expertise to our
Member countries
...
Proposed Action Areas

3
...
1
...
At global level, this can
be done through information tools, as well as analytical inventories and comparative studies on
GAP schemes, their scope, drivers and the respective incentives to adopt them
...
fao
...
html) of GAP guidelines, projects and field activities relating to work in FAO
and elsewhere on agricultural technologies (TECA), FAO technical publications (EIMS) and
projects, guidelines, national regulations and legislation related to GAP
...
fao
...
htm) is also a support for information
dissemination on GAP activities
...
It is
assumed that a different set of communication and information tools is needed to reach
farmers and consumers
...

3
...
2 Define global principles underlying Good Agricultural Practices,
reflecting the three pillars of sustainability and food safety and quality
considerations

It has been recommended by COAG last year that the principles presented in the annex to the
GAP paper (see Annex 1) would need further refinement, drawing from FAO’s large range of
technical and institutional expertise
...
However it is also clear that FAO has developed a substantial body of knowledge,
principles and value judgments of what constitutes good practices for different components of
agricultural production such as water management, soil and plant nutrition cycles, animal
husbandry or integrated crop protection
...
Recent FAO work on the application of holistic agroecological principles of farming are a step in the same direction, and the refinement of GAP
principles should built on these efforts
...
However, the social dimension of sustainability in particular are difficult to

12 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) - A working concept paper

quantify and should be the outcome of national, local and individual priorities
...

3
...
2
...
The approach would support the local development of optimal good agricultural
practice which are appropriate and reflect priorities of local stakeholders in that specific
context, for a given commodity
...
2
...
Provide local/national stakeholders with analysis of:

impacts of production of a specific commodity or production systems and local sustainability
dynamics, food safety and quality and other issues
...

the scientific validity and policy and economic implications and costs of specific GAP
standards and schemes
...

3
...
3 NEGOTIATION
...
Conflicting priorities may also arise between different stakeholders

10 As noted earlier, it should also be possible to develop GAPs protocols/processes for horizontally integrated systems such as
crop/pasture/livestock systems
...
But this would be one interesting technical
area for future GAP work
...


Proposed action areas

13

(local or national food industry or buyer, farmers and their organizations, local government
services for forestry, agriculture, livestock and the environment, extension services) with
diverging objectives and views of the most appropriate land use and farming methods
...
But their implementation often fails because each
stakeholders’ definition fails to reflect the views and incentives of the others
...
Such collaborative
negotiations can be facilitated by FAO upon request from a national government, commodity
board or private operator engaged in developing GAP protocols either as extension tools or as
guidelines in national programmes for product quality
...
The focus for FAO should be on developing participatory
approaches for supporting such processes
...
This
has started with meetings on GAP for meat production in S and E Africa (2004), for dairy
production (S Africa, 2004) and the poultry sector (North Africa 2004) and cotton-cereallivestock production systems in Burkina Faso (2004)
...

One role for FAO’s technical assistance in the GAP work will continue to consist in
proposing economically and environmentally sustainable practices and processes which help
minimize trade offs, providing advice on how to make the best use of a broad basket of new
but also indigenous and traditional technology practices
...
FAO can also build on its
experience on participatory technology development, farmers field schools, Knowledge,
Attitudes and Practices approaches and other participatory extension methods
...
Initial pilot projects on GAP will provide guidelines on methodologies for defining
pertinent practices and economic, environmental and social indicators
...

3
...
4 Capacity building and policy advice

to support small and larger scale farmers in meeting existing GAP standards and codes and
changing procurement practices set by retailers and the food industry, in strengthening
institutions such as farmers organizations, extension services and other government
institutions, and NGOs and CSOs which support the development and application of locally
adapted GAP
...


In which contexts can a GAP approach be useful?

15

4
...

Within FAO, there is both a lot of interest and legitimate concern about how to engage
in cooperation with large private sector companies, because of concerns on what FAO may
lose in terms of scientific credibility, neutrality and the risk to support further exclusion of
smaller farmers in developing country from increasingly competitive and globalized food
markets
...

Intergovernmental institutions are concerned that private companies in the agri-food
sector are seeking to make use of FAO’s credibility for company branding purposes
...
Meanwhile, it may be possible to identify win-win
situations for cooperation with private sector companies
...
In particular
where FAO can propose GAP practices and processes that allow to maximize productivity
improvements in the form of yield increases, reduction of input use or losses while
minimizing negative environmental externalities
...

with the IPM program exposed during the GAP Expert Consultation of November 2003
is a particularly interesting case
...
FAO’s role would be to reduce
transaction costs of stakeholders to take into account agro-ecological principles
...
g
...
This would require pooling together FAO expertise to provide both technical
advice on production processes and managerial advice on farm management, marketing and
commercialization
...

A number of issues remain as to the potential impact of engaging in GAP work at country or
sub-national level, such as the potential marginalization of small farmers and the risk to
generate further confusion for farmers and consumers by creating additional standards
...

Before initiating GAP activities at national or sub-national level, FAO should work closely
with national partners to investigate the following on a case by case basis:
•
existing GAP systems in use, avoiding confusion by creating additional systems, building
on local demands to improve existing systems or cope with them where relevant
•
needs in terms of infrastructure and financing to support the transition period
•
security for farmers as to return on investment, clarifying incentives for farmers
•
cost of standard or technology compliance, understand other possible disincentives
•
needs related to knowledge of appropriate technology components (pesticide
management and IPM and irrigation management being two cases in point)
Ultimately, appropriate interventions will be a matter of policy choices based on the specific
national and local context, the strength, weaknesses and competitiveness of the national
agricultural sector and specific commodities, and national policy objectives
...
Areas of expertise which FAO
can bring into GAP work

There is a wide range of expertise on which FAO can build to respond to requests from
developing countries with respect to GAPs
...
One challenge for FAO is to identify concrete
opportunities and ways to better integrate this expertise to provide countries with more
coordinated responses
...

•
Methodologies for impact monitoring are also being developed with particular respect to
environmental impacts of agriculture by AGAL, AGLL, AGPP and maybe others
...

•
Body of experience from FAO work on farming systems information and typologies
(AGSF, AGP, AGL, AGA, SDRN and others)
...

•
Training of trainers and institutional capacity building to ensure safety and quality of
agricultural produce in particular for fresh foods and vegetables, coffee and other
commodities; development of adequate laboratory facilities for product quality, lab quality
assurance and control procedures; efficiency of sampling processing, etc
...

•
Methodologies and approaches to support farmers experiential learning to improve their
technical and managerial capacities, in particular by supporting Farmers Field Schools,
participatory technology development and Knowledge Attitudes and Practices
approaches; (SDRE, SDAR, FORC, FORM, FONP and FOPP, AGPP and others)
...

•
Capacity to provide comparative experiences through knowledge management systems
and support (for instance, TECA, GAP database, LEAD database, SDRN remote sensing
tools and others)
...
Conclusion

The further development of GAPs, as a technical and policy basis for food safety,
environmental protection, economic and social equity, is an important way forward, which will
contribute to but should not be confused with the wider subjects of SARD and Sustainable
Livelihoods
...
This process goes on
through the phenology of the crop production and on-farm storage until the product moves
to market or processing
...
GAP, together with GMP and biosecurity,
are regarded as the prerequisites to HACCP applied to primary production and throughout the
food chain
...
AG technical divisions can work with others on technical advice regarding production
protocols but the process of engaging farmers and policy makers and food industries, for
example on aspects related to food safety and social equity, requires a broad involvement of
much of FAO’s technical competence and normative tools
...
The objective is rather to
examine possible options to support sustainable agriculture and rural development taking into
account those existing standards that are developed by Governments, NGOs and the private
sector
...

GAP does not attempt to cover the full dimensions of SARD or of Livelihoods
approaches, nor to substitute or duplicate already on-going work in FAO in related areas
...
The GAP workshop
of 27-29 November 2004 will provide a forum for exchanges on methodologies, approaches
and lessons which may help concretely tackle some pending issues on how to approach GAP,
building on FAO’s full range of expertise
...


Principles for good agricultural practices (2003)

21

Annex 1
Principles for Good Agricultural Practices
(2003)11

The concept of Good Agricultural Practices is the application of available knowledge to the
use of the natural resource base in a sustainable way for the production of safe, healthy food
and non-food agricultural products, in a humane manner, while achieving economic viability
and social stability
...
This requires a sound and comprehensive management strategy and the capability for
responsive tactical adjustments as circumstances change
...

The Guidelines portray the norms of good agriculture within 10 groups of resource
concerns and practices
...

1
...
Soil
management shall maintain and improve soil fertility by minimizing losses of soil, nutrients,
and agrochemicals through erosion, runoff and leaching into surface or ground water
...
Soil management also seeks to enhance the biological activity
of the soil and protect surrounding natural vegetation and wildlife
...

•
Avoid mechanical soil tillage to the extent possible
...


11 These principles were presented to FAO’s Committee on Agriculture (COAG) in Annex to the paper “Development of a Framework for
Good Agricultural Practices” available at http://www
...
org/DOCREP/MEETING/006/Y8704e
...
For a discussion of these
principles see section 2 p
...
9 of the present paper
...

Avoid contamination with agrochemicals, organic and inorganic fertilizers and other
contaminants by adapting quantities, application methods and timing to the agronomic
and environmental requirements
...


2
...
Careful management of water resources and efficient use of
water within agriculture - for rainfed crop and pasture production, for irrigation where
applicable, and for livestock - are criteria for good agricultural practice
...
The
maintenance of an adequate soil structure including the adequate spacial arrangement of
continous macropores and the management of soil organic matter are important factors to
achieve this
...
Water tables should thus be managed to
prevent excessive rise or fall
...

•
Manage ground and soil water by proper use or avoidance of drainage where required and
by build-up of soil structure and soil organic matter
...

•
Adopt techniques to monitor crop and soil water status and prevent soil salinization
...

•
Enhance the functioning of the water cycle to increase soil moisture storage and minimize
runoff of water and associated contaminants
...

•
Manage water tables to prevent excessive extraction or accumulation
...

•
Increase soil organic matter levels to maximize moisture retention and root penetration
...
CROP

AND FODDER PRODUCTION

Individual annual and perennial crops, cultivars and varieties are chosen for their suitability to
the site and their role within the crop rotation for the management of soil fertility, pests and
diseases, available inputs, and local consumer and market needs
...
Annual crops are

Principles for good agricultural practices (2003)

23

grown in sequence, including those with pasture, to maximize the biological benefits of
interactions between species and to maintain productivity
...
Harvesting of all crop and animal products
removes their nutrient content from the site and must ultimately be replaced to maintain longterm productivity
...

•
Devise crop sequences to optimize use of labour and equipment and maximize the
biological benefits of weed control by competition, mechanical, biological and herbicide
options, provision of non-host crops to minimize disease and, where appropriate,
inclusion of legumes to provide a biological source of nitrogen
...

•
Maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-cycling crop and other organic
residues
...

•
Rotate livestock on pastures to allow for healthy re-growth of pasture plants
...

4
...
This requires long-term strategies to manage risks by the use of disease- and pestresistant crops,12 crop and pasture rotations, disease breaks for susceptible crops, and the
minimal use of agrochemicals to control weeds, pests, and diseases following the principles of
Integrated Pest Management
...
Good agricultural practice will:
•
Decide on interventions following consideration of all possible methods and their shortand long-term effects on farm productivity and environmental implications in order to
minimize the use of agrochemicals, in particular promote integrated pest management
(IPM)
...

•
Maintain regular and quantitative assessment of the balance status between pests and
diseases and beneficial organisms of all crops
...

Store and use agrochemicals according to legal requirements, e
...
registration for
individual crops, rates, timings, and pre-harvest intervals
...

Maintain accurate records of agrochemical use
...


5
...

Record keeping of livestock and of breeding programmes will ensure traceability of type and
origin
...
Chemical and biological contaminants in livestock feeds are avoided to
prevent their entry into the food chain
...
Land requirements of livestock
production are evaluated to ensure sufficient land for feed production and waste disposal
...

•
Frequently monitor the condition of stock and adjust stocking rates and feeding
accordingly
...

•
Ensure staff are properly trained in the handling and treatment of animals
...

•
Make optimal use of by-products and wastes and ensure they do not contaminate crops,
products, land, or water resources
...

•
Avoid the non-therapeutic use of antibiotics wherever possible
...

•
Carefully record feeding plans, feed acquisitions and sales
...
g
...

•
Integrate livestock and agriculture to avoid problems of waste removal and ensure
recycling of nutrients in an efficient way
...

•
Adhere to safety regulations and observe established safety standards for the operation of
installations, equipment and machinery for animal production

Principles for good agricultural practices (2003)

6
...
The health of livestock is maintained
by proper management and housing, by preventive treatments such as vaccination and by
regular inspection, identification, and treatment of ailments, using veterinary advice as
required
...

•
Keep livestock, buildings and feed facilities clean and provide adequate, clean bedding
under housed conditions
...

•
Ensure good hygiene standards in housing by proper cleansing and disinfection
...

•
Purchase, store and use only approved veterinary products in accordance with directions
and regulations
...

•
Keep detailed records of all sickness, medical treatments and mortality
...
ANIMAL

WELFARE

Farm animals are sentient beings and as such their welfare must be considered
...
Good agricultural practice will:
•
Provide adequate and appropriate feed and clean water at all times
...

•
Minimise transport of live animals (by foot, rail or road) and the use of livestock markets
...

•
Avoid overcrowding and conform to minimum space allowances and maximum stocking
densities
...

8
...
Harvesting must conform to regulations
relating to pre-harvest intervals for agrochemicals and with-holding periods for veterinary
medicines
...
Operations involving animals, such

26 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) - A working concept paper

as shearing and slaughter, must adhere to animal health and welfare standards
...

•
Process produce hygienically, e
...
for washing, use recommended detergents and clean
water
...

•
Pack food produce for transport from the farm in clean and appropriate containers
...

9
...

The objective is to perform operations in a timely fashion, reduce the drudgery of human
labour, improve efficiency, diversify energy sources, and reduce energy use
...
The production of
these by-products should be minimized while others are resources that can be reused or recycled
...

•
Adopt energy saving practices in building design, machinery size, maintenance, and use
(e
...
zero or minimum tillage)
...

•
Identify and recycle most organic wastes and inorganic materials, where possible
...

•
Store fertilizers and agrochemicals securely and in accordance with legislation
...

•
Establish emergency action procedures to minimize the risk of pollution from accidents
...
HUMAN

WELFARE, HEALTH, AND SAFETY

Farming must be economically viable to be sustainable
...
Health and safety are also
important concerns for those involved in farming operations
...
Good agricultural practice will:
•
Direct all farming practices to achieve an optimum balance between economic,
environmental, and social goals
...

•
Instruct workers in the safe and efficient use of tools and machinery
...

•
Buy inputs and other services from local merchants if possible
...
WILDLIFE

27

AND LANDSCAPE

Agricultural land accommodates a diverse range of animals, birds, insects, and plants
...
The challenge is to manage and
enhance these wildlife habitats while keeping the farm business economically viable
...

•
Create, as far as possible, a diverse cropping pattern on the farm
...

•
Manage field margins to reduce noxious weeds and to encourage a diverse flora and fauna
with beneficial species
...

•
Monitor those species of plants and animals whose presence on the farm is evidence of
good environmental practice
...
Hobbs, University of Saskatchewan, Canada

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This paper examines the incentives and disincentives for the adoption of Good Agricultural
Practices (GAPs) by farmers and by downstream handlers of farm outputs in developing
countries
...

GAPs can be seen as attempts to improve the sustainability of agriculture on a number of
fronts, including protecting environmental and natural resources, improving food quality and
food safety and enhancing food security through improved production techniques
...
There are fears that stringent new GAPs could marginalise small producers, cutting
off access to export markets and imposing disproportionately higher production costs on
smaller producers given the investments that may be needed to adopt good practices
...
g
...

Table 1 summarises the incentives and disincentives to adopt GAPs discussed in this
paper
...
For
example, some incentives for adoption (e
...
stabilisation of yield and/or revenue) are expected
to be stronger than other incentives (e
...
reduction in wastage)
...

The GAPs programmes are classified broadly as (i) private industry supply chain GAPs, where
the farmers are working with a specific processor, exporter and/or retailer within a closed
supply chain (PSC); (ii) industry group GAPs, where the GAP has been established by a
producer or retailer association, such as EUREPGAP (IG); (iii) national government-initiated
GAPs (G), such as the Malaysian Farm Accreditation Scheme, and; (iv) GAP programmes that
are championed by international agencies and may extend across multiple national boundaries
in developing countries (IA)
...
fao
...
asp

30 Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) - A working concept paper

In some cases, the (dis)incentive for adoption is relevant regardless of the type of GAP
programme, such as stabilised yield (revenue) or increased production costs
...
For example, if a farmer must made investments
that are specific to one buyer, he/she is vulnerable to the buyer changing the terms of their
agreement or refusing to accept supplies
...
It is less relevant for GAPs implemented by international agencies that may be broader in
scope and where farmer investments are not likely to be specific to one buyer
...

The incentives for farmers to adopt GAPs include economic incentives such as increasing and/or
stabilising revenue, reducing average costs, improved market access, increased capital valuation of
farm assets, reduced vulnerability to poor agricultural practices of other farmers; regulatory or legal
incentives including changes in ownership rights or tax burdens, liability rules, subsidies; and human
capital incentives including access to new skills
...

Market forces have driven the development of many GAPs through the demand by
consumers in developed economies for stronger food safety and food quality assurances
...

Often this is combined with traceability or identity preservation systems
...
However, technological change erodes this
competitive advantage, eventually allowing larger firms to adapt their commodity-oriented
systems to capture more value-added
...

Monitoring (and certification) by an independent third party plays a critical role in assuring
the credibility of GAPs
...
If third
party monitoring is ineffective, the threat of regulatory intervention to mandate specific
production practices can provide the incentive for an industry to ‘voluntarily’ introduce GAPs
...
In many developing countries, this may not be the case
given limited resources and infrastructure for monitoring
...

The exclusion of smallholders in developing countries from GAP systems is a concern
...
g
...


Paper abstract

31

Table 1 (Executive Summary) Characterising Incentives/Disincentives to
Adopt GAPs

Incentive

ECONOMIC
Price Premium
Access to market/supply chain
Access to reliable inputs
Product differentiation
Stabilise yield/revenue
Reduce storage losses
Reduce wastage
Increase farm asset value
Protection against market externalities
Increase variable production costs (e
...
labour)
Reduce output/increase average costs
Increase fixed production costs (e
...
equipment)
Asset specific investment*
Reduce search costs
Reduce monitoring costs
Altruism/social capital
REGULATORY/LEGAL/ INSTITUTIONAL
Asserting property rights on scarce resources
Subsidies
Reduce liability/show due diligence
Reliance on institutional infrastructure
Third party monitoring
HUMAN CAPITAL
Expand skill set
Record-keeping (literacy)

Farmer
Incentive

Processor/
Retailer
incentive

xx
xx
x
xx
x
x
x
x
---x

xx
xx
x
xx

GAPs Systems
Where Most
Prevalent

PSC
PSC
PSC,
PSC
PSC,
PSC,
PSC
PSC,
PSC,
PSC,
PSC,
PSC,
PSC
PSC,
PSC,

IG
IG, G, IA
IG, G, IA
IG,
IG
IG,
IG,
IG,

G

x

---x
xor-a
x

G, IA
G, IA
G, IA

x
x
x
x

x
xx
x

G
G
PSC, IG
PSC, IG, G, IA
PSC, IG, G, IA

x
--

x?
-

PSC, IG, G, IA
PSC, IG, G, IA

IG (G, IA)
IG, (G, IA)

Key:
Where xx = strong incentive to adopt; x = marginal incentive to adopt;
- - = strong disincentive to adopt; - = marginal disincentive to adopt
PSC = Private supply chain GAPs;
IG = Industry Group GAPs(e
...
producer association),
G = national government GAPs;
IA = international agency or NGO GAPs
a Depends on the presence of third party verification which lowers monitoring costs
...

* An asset specific investment has little or no value in an alternative use, e
...
inputs or equipment that are specific
to one buyer
...


Good Agricultural Practices –
a working concept
Background Paper for the FAO Internal Workshop
on Good Agricultural Practices
Rome, Italy 27-29 October 2004
The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
(FAO) has being working on Good Agricultural Practices (GAP)
for many years
...

This paper was prepared for the FAO Internal Workshop on
a Good Agricultural Practice approach, which took place in
Rome, Italy 27-29 October 2004
...
Guidance
on Good Agricultural Practices from the 17th Session of the
Committee on Agriculture (COAG) in April 2003 led to an
expert consultation on GAP in 2003 and the definition of a
GAP concept for FAO
...
The final aim is to assist developing countries in
developing appropriate protocols and processes which fit the
local context, with a special focus to ensure that small and
medium-holders can participate in GAP-orientated markets
which are and will continue to be of major importance in the
global food system
...


Rome,



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