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HRM summaries;
12- Leadership
Leadership is believed to shape:
Performance
Culture
Organisational change programmes
Employee motivation and commitment
What do leaders do and what important characteristics do they have?
Managers
Plan
Budget
Resource allocation
Staffing
Control systems
An allocated title
Leader
Set direction
Set goals
Align people
Communicate
Influence
Motivate
Inspire
A status granted by followers
The distinction between leadership and management is blurred, the roles overlap
...
Leadership in some books is
defined as the process of influencing the activities of an organised group in its efforts
toward goal setting and goal achievement
...
The great man
theory suggests: the belied that the fate of societies and organisations rest in the hands of
powerful individuals (male) who were born to lead
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Style counselling: what do they behave like, how do they work, what styles do they
display
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EXPLOITATIVE AUTOCRATIC (AUTHORATIVE)
No confidence in staff, imposes decisions, motivates by threat, no teamwork
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PARTICIPATIVE
Trusts & Listens to staff but controls decisions, motivates by reward & some involvement
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Contingency/ situational theory: no style is effective in all situations, contingency theory
suggests that the leaders must adjust their styles to the situation (context)
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Leaders may have difficulty diagnosing the context, adapting their style or changes

in style
Leadership effectiveness depends on:
the extent to which the task is structured
the nature of the relationship between the leader and the followers
the leaders position power

Transformational leaders:
clear compelling sense of vision
capacity to provide and stimulate
creativity and innovation
admiration and or respect from followers
clear linking of strategies to vision
ability to communicate and persuade
engendering of confidence and optimism
Distributed leadership: Associated with flatter organisational hierarchies, this is where
leadership can be shared, covert leadership as opposed to heroic leadership,
empowerment and engagement of everyone and not just one person
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solosits and pioneers: women who are motivated by freedom and self control, work
on their own and set their own businesses
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The following figure explains the theory by Robert Tannebaum and Warren Schmidt
about the actions of employees and their freedom in comparison to the leadership style of
the managers
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Daniel Goleman: Goleman identified 6 different types of leadership styles:

David Snowden and Mary Boone: they also argue that leaders have to adjust their styles
to suit the context
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Four types
of context are identified, these are; simple, complicated, complex and chaotic
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New leader: an inspirational visionary, concerned with building a shared sense of purpose
and mission, creating a culture in which everyone is aligned with the organisation’s goals
and is skilled and empowered to achieve them
...

Distributed leadership: the collective exercise of leadership behaviours often informal and
spontaneous by staff at all levels of the organisation
...
This decision technique is built on
rational thinking, scientific reasoning, evidence and logical argument with logical
sequences of steps
...
Some studied factors include: Individual personality, Group
relationships, Organisational power relationships, Political behaviour in
organisation, External environmental pressures, Information availability
Prescriptive models of decision making: an approach that recommends how
individuals should make decisions in order to achieve a desired outcome
...
Decision participation styles, Diagnostic
questions with which to analyse decision situation and decision rules to determine
the appropriate decision that is acceptable

Explanatory models of decision making: Model that draw on leadership and
personality theories for explanations as to why decisions were taken
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Environmental and decision making conditions:

Issues of group decision making:
Benefits of group decision-making:
–Greater pool of knowledge
–Different perspectives
–Greater comprehension of subject matter
–Increased acceptance of decision receivers
–Training ground for less experienced participants
–
Detriments:
–Personality factors
–Social conformity
–Diffusion of responsibility
–Minority domination
–Logrolling and politicking
–Goal displacement (“winning the argument”)
Group polarisation:
–Groups tendency to arrive at more extreme decisions than initial preferences of group
members (Bettenhausen, 1991)
–If initial tendency is moderately risky preference then eventual group decision is likely to
be more risky
–If initial tendency is cautious preference then eventual group decision is likely to be more
cautious

Bounded Rationality: a theory suggesting that individuals make decisions
b constructing simplified models that extract essential features from problems
without capturing their full complexity
...


Maximising: a decision making approach where all alternatives are compared and
evaluated in order to find the best solution to the problem

Satisficing: a decision making approach where the first solution that is judged to be
good enough is selected and then the search is ended
...

Adaptive decisions: decisions that require human judgement based on clarified
criteria and are made using basic quantitative decision tools
Innovative decisions: decisions which address

Participation in decision making process

Chapter 14: Conflict:
Conflict: a process that begins when one party receives that another party has negative
affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about
...
Conflict is
a state of mind, it has to be perceived by the parties involved
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Conflict can be between:
interpersonal: worker with co worker
interpersonal: worker with manager
systematic: worker with company
Causes of conflict:
Unitarist perspective: a perspective that regards management and employees
interests as coinciding and which thus regard organisational conflict as harmful and
to be avoided
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Pluralist perspective: a perspective that views organisations as consisting of
different natural interest groups, each with their own potentially constructive,
legitimate interests, which make conflicts between them inevitable
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Interactionist frame of references on conflict: this views conflict to be a positive
force within organisation that is necessary for efficient performance
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Functional conflict: a form of conflict which supports organisation goals and
improves performance

Dysfunctional conflict: a form of conflict which does not support organisation
goals and hinders organisations performance
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How is conflict created:
Strike
Absenteeism
Lockout
Sabotage
Pilfering
Mass redundancy
Withdrawal of cooperation
High labour turnover
Industrial Injury
What are strikes?: withdrawal of labour, collective action: only real sanction redressing
imbalance of power, can be official and unofficial, constitutional or unconstitutional
What are the laws about strikes?: ILO convention, European Law, UK law: ERA 2004
...

The figure below compares the different conflict resolution approaches:

Distributive bargaining: a negotiation strategy in which a field sum of resources is divided
up, leading to a win lose situation between the parties
Integrative bargaining: a negotiation strategy that seeks to increase the total amount of
resources, creating a win win situation between the parties
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Ways to stimulate conflict include:
Withholding communications
Restructuring a company
Bringing in outsiders
Devils advocate
Dialectic method
Leadership style

Different types of workplace relations:

Type 1 – common in organisations with a strict system of supervision
...
Also included are organisations
where sophisticated paternalism is the dominant management style
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Employees negotiate with
employers over wage rates and assert their right to plan their own work, exercising
significant influence over effort norms
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Type 4 – where employees exercise substantial control over the wage – effort
bargain, sustained through extensive union organisation
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Or The ability to understand others at work, and to use that
knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance one’s personal
and/or organisational objectives (Huczynski and Buchanan, 2013, p
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Politics: tactics needed to get others to do what you want them to do
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Power
and influence is needed in order to make a decision
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Individual source of
power; energy, endurance, stamina, personality
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Accepting things the way they are, power is
everywhere, diffused with no central location place or agent
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Tools of surveillance: the allocation of physical space, the standardisation
of individual behaviour, the creation of job ladders and career systems
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Power as property of the relationship: 5 bases of power are:
Reward power: the ability to exert influence based on the others belief that the influencer
has access to valued rewards which will be dispensed in return for compliance
Coercive power: the ability to exert influence bed on the others belief that the influencer
can administer penalties or sanctions
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All these types of powers need to be used differently because not every employee might
be influenced by one certain type of power exertion
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Compliance: reluctant, superficial, public, and transitory change in behaviour in
response to an influencing request, which is not accompanied with attitudinal
change
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Organisational politics: the ability to understand others at work, and to use that
knowledge to influence others to act in ways that enhance ones personal or
organisational objectives
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Machiavellianism: a personality trait or style of behaviour towards others which is
characterise by 1: the use of guile and deceit in interpersonal relations and 2: a cynical
view of the nature of other people
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Women in organisations:
Sex role stereotyping associates management with masculinity, leading to a
systematic underestimation of women abilities

Women appear to use power, influencing and impression management different to
men
...
Communication is central to understanding organisational behaviour for many
different reasons
2
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Communication is seen as a problem in many organisationsIn an
4
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5
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Everything in the organisation involves communication; hiring and training staff, providing
feedback, purchasing supplies, dealing with customers etc
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Social intelligence: the ability to understand the thought and feelings of others and to
manage our relationships accordingly
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We do not receive communication passively, we have to interpret or decode the message;
to the extent that we interpret communication from others in the manner they have
intended and they in turn interpret our messages correctly, then will communication will
be effective
...

Perceptual filters: Individual characteristic, predispositions that interfere with the effective
transmission and receiving of the messages
Language is used and manipulated at times to soften or to disguise certain news or
unpleasant events
...

Feedback: processes through which the transmitter of a message detects whether and
how the message has been received and decoded
communications are open
relationship are based on mutual understanding and trust
interactions are based on cooperation rather than competition
people work together in team
decisions are reached in a participative way
Verbal communication question types
closed
open
probe
reflective
multiple

leading
hypothetical

Non verbal communication:
facial expression
eye contact
arm and hand movement
posture
physical distance between individuals
Impression management: the process through which we control the image or impression
the others have of us
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Power tells: non verbal signals that indicate to others how important and dominant
someone is, how powerful they would like us to think they are
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Low context culture: a culture whose members focus on the written and spoken
word when communication and interpreting
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18: Learning:

Learning: A purposeful activity aimed at the acquisition and development of skills,
knowledge and their application, its also the process of acquiring knowledge through
experience, which leads to a lasting change in the behaviour
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Absence of rewards or punishments
the individual uses modelling or vicarious learning to acquire behaviour by observing and
imitating others
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are influenced to conform with those seen as desirable
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Learning through social practice:
Lev Vygotsky: Russian psychologist
Learning not individual isolated process
Social ideas become internalized
How children learn through participating in a social world
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Importance of PRACTICE, ACTION
E
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learning through discussing in seminars, rather than sitting in lectures
Communities of practice (Lave & Wenger, 1991)
Informal and open ended groups, e
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project teams
Based on common practice (rather than on e
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shared geographical location)
e
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photocopier repair-men usually work alone, but meet over lunch and learn more
from sharing their experiences with each other than from a training course

The learning organisation:

Based on Argyris and Schon (1974)
An organisation that enables individual learning to create valued outcomes
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g
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Components of a learning organisation (Garvin et al, 2008):
Supportive learning environment
Concrete learning processes and practices
Leadership that reinforces learning

Knowledge Management: Turning individual learning into organisational learning by
making knowledge widely available through individual ad corporate databases
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Negative reinforcement
The attempt to encourage desirable behaviours by withdrawing negative
consequences when the desired behaviour occurs
Punishment
The attempt to discourage undesirable behaviours through the application of
negative consequences, or by withholding a positive consequences, following the
undesirable behaviour
Extinction
The attempt to eliminate undesirable behaviours by attaching no consequences,
positive or negative such as indifference and silence
Pavlovian conditioning
A technique for associating an established response or behaviour with a new
stimulus
Skinners conditioning
A technique for associating a response or a behaviour with its consequences
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Intermittent reinforcement
A procedure in which a reward is provided only occasionally following correct
responses and not for every correct response
Schedule of reinforcement
The pattern and frequency of reward contingent on the display of desirable
behaviour
OBMod has the following characteristics
Rewards are contingent on the performance of the desirable behaviours
Positive reinforcement can take a number of forms, from the praise of a superior to
cash, prizes, food or clothing
Behaviour change and performance improvements can be dramatic
Socialization
The process through which individual behaviours, values, attitudes and motives are
influenced to conform with those seen as desirable in a given social or
organizational setting
Behavioural modelling
Learning how to act by observing and copying the behaviour of others
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It’s highly subjective in nature
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Need for
selectivity
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Cannot attend to all sensory
information available to us at any given time
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Perception: mental processing that allow us to order, interpret and make sense
of the world around us
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Search
for meaning to make behaviourachoices
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Tendency of mainstream
approaches to understand perception in terms of individual information
processing
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Organisational communication is intended to influence and shape the
perception of members
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e
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physcialsetting, appearance, what they say, how they
say it etc
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1
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Primacy effect (perceptual error in which we quickly form an opinion of
people/situations on the first information we receive)
3
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Halo effect (tendency to [positively] overrate a person based on a single trait)
5
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Confirmation bias tendency (tendency to seek and interpret information that verifies
existing beliefs)
7
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False consensus effect (tendency to over-estimate the degree to which other people
will think and behave in the same way as we do)
9
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Projection (attributing to others one’s own thoughts, feelings, attitudes and traits)
11
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Fundamental attribution error (tendency to attribute other’s success to external
factors and other’s failure to internal factors)
13
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Stereotyping (a rigid, biased perception of a person, group, object or situation)
15
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Self-fulfilling prophecy (one’s expectations determine behaviour and performance)

Perception enables us to understand the world around us, including other people’s
behaviour
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Social experience influences our perceptions including our perceptual errors
Perceptual world: The individual’s personal internal image, map or picture of their social,
physical and organizational environment
Selective attention: The ability, often exercised unconsciously, to choose from the
stream of sensory data, to concentrate on particular elements and to ignore others
Perceptual threshold: A boundary point, either side of which senses respectively will or
will not be able to detect stimuli such as sound light, or touch
Habituation: The decrease in our perceptual response to stimuli once they have become
familiar
PDF File
The internal factors affecting perception include
Learning

Personality
Motivation
Perceptual organization
The process through which incoming stimuli are organized or patterned in
systematic and meaningful ways
Perceptual set
An individual’s predisposition to respond to people and events in particular manner
Attribution
The process by which we make sense of our environment through our perceptions
of causality
The main sources of error in person perception:
Not collecting enough information about other people
Basing our judgements on information that is irrelevant or insignificant
Seeking what we expect to see and what we want to see, and not investigating
further
Allowing early information about someone to colour our judgment, despite later and
contradictory information
Allowing our own characteristics to influence our judgements of others
Accepting stereotypes uncritically

20: Motivation
What motivates a person?
Should we look ‘inside’ the person, in their ‘need’ for money, status or power?
Should we look ‘outside’ at the work they do and how they are managed?
Is there a universal truth to be discovered, or is motivation highly contingent on the
specific character of a person and situation?
Can a manager motivate someone else or is motivation always something I do to
myself?

Money as the sole motivating factor
Taylor introduced payment by results:
- He measured standard times for each unit of production

- Bonuses were given for working faster than standard times
Motivation Theories:
Content theories :offer a concrete view of what motivates
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y:
- Hertzberg’s two-factor theory
- Hackman and Oldhams’ job characteristics theory
Process theories: motivation outcome of experience and sense making
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Experience cognitive dissonance
2
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To do this, we try to restore a sense of equity
• Perception of inequity is a motivating state of mind:

People need to feel that there is a fair balance between inputs and outputs
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Equity Theory reminds us that people see themselves and
crucially the way they are treated in terms of their surrounding environment,
team, system, etc - not in isolation - and so they must be managed and
treated accordingly

PDF File

Felt negative inequity: when we feel we have received relatively less than others
have in proportion to work inputs
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Research done by Adams & indicates that:
People who feel overpaid tend to increase quantity or quality of work input
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The research is most conclusive about felt negative inequity
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8Feelings of inequity can still be felt even when the person has left his/her job
Vroom’s Expectancy Theory: Behaviour is influenced by perception of whether
goals can be achieved:
Examples:
Goal: Promotion
Perception: Hard work leads to promotion
Behaviour: Hard work
Goal: Promotion
1
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Have goals that are difficult but are accepted
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Idiographic approach: Cooley and Mead, Projective tests
Personality: the psychological qualities that influence an individuals characteristic
behaviour patterns, an a stable and distinctive manner
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Two approaches to the study of personality:
Nature approach: heredity; physical characteristics, genetics etc
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Two approaches to study personality:
Nomothetic:
Scientific approach
traits can be compared to other people
uses observation, measurement and testing of these traits
personality is consistent, largely inherited and resistant to change
Idiographic approach:
everyone is unique, subject to social, environmental factors etc
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e
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Shyness, moodiness, etc
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The occupational personality questionnaire (OPQ):
Individuals answer 30+Questions about their individual Traits e
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Decisiveness
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Their ratings are compared with, say, all other graduates who have answered
the same questions E
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the assessment is NORMED
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Idiographic approach to personality studying:
A projective test – assessment based on abstract or ambiguous images
which the subject is asked to interpret

Cooley (1902) the looking glass self
Mead (1934) the generalised other

The big five factor locator:
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